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THE
WORLD'S PROGRESS:
girlionari d gales.
BEING A
CHROi\OLOG!CAL AiXD ALPHABETICAL RECORD
OF
J. ESSE]\^TIAL FACTS II THE PEOGllESS OF SOCIETY,
FEOII THE CREATION OF THE WORLD TO THE PRESENT TIME.
WITH A CHART.
GEO. vrvv
TNAM, A.M»
XWENTIETM EniTION.
NEW YORK:
G. P. PUTISTAM'S SONS,
JFouKTH Ayenue and 23d Sikeet,
1873.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by
G. P. PUTNAM & SON,
Q the Clerk'e Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern
District of New York.
Transfer
Engineers School Llby,
June 29,1931
Poole & Maclauchian.
printers and bookbinders,
205-213 East xith Si,,
NEW YORK.
-1 r I-
^1 T
,-''*
Transfer
Engineers School l\iby^
29,1331
rd P^
T
nought
stereo-
; and
Facts
NOTE TO THE KEYISED EDITION— (1867).
Ik- tMs edition the Synclironistical Tables have been brought
down to July, 1867. The Biographical Index has been re-stereo-
typed, with large additions, condensed in a single alphabet; and
the alphabetical arrangement of Historical and Statistical Facts
has been revised and continued to the present day.
New Tokk, August 10, 1867.
m- e.p.prrTXAir.
CONTENTS,
I
I. SUPPLEMENT TO THE WOELD'S PROGRESS (1851 to 18GT), . .
IL DICTIONARY OF DATES ...
III. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY
IV. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c
V. TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, IN CONTEMPORARY COL-
UMNS {new paging) .
I. ANCIENT HISTORY.
Period L— The Antediluvian (1656 years) . . (new paging) .
Period II. — Dispei-sion of Mankind (427 years). — The Deluge to Abraham
Period III. — The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (4o0 years). — Abraham to Moses
Period IV. — The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 ye.ars). — Moses to Saul .
Period V. — The Monarchical (4S8 yeais). — Saul to Cyrus , , ,
Period VI. — The Persian (322 years). — Cyrus to Alexander . . .
Period VII. — The Grecian (164 years). — Alexander to the Fall of Greece
Period VIII. — The Roman (146 years). — Fall of Greece to the Christian Era .
n. MODERN HISTORY.
Period I.— (806 years.)— From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantme .
Period II. — (170 years.) --Constantine to Odoacer . . . .
Period III.— (146 years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet . , . .
Period IV.— (178 years). — Mahomet to Charlemagn.e ....
Period V.— (266 years.)— Charlemagne to William the Conqueror . ,
Period VI.— (233 years.)— William the Conqueror to Othman I, .
Period VII. — (154 years.)— Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire
Period VIIL— (145 years.)— Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes
■ Period IX. — (120 years.) — Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden.
Periob X.— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon
Period XI.— (52 years.)— Napoleon to the year 186T .
VI. BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OR INDEX . {new paging) .
EXPLANATION OF THE CILVRT OF HISTORY,
Representing, in a Chronological Series, the Rise, Hc^olutions, and Pall c-f t,W
principal Empires oj the World.
ON THE PLAN OF DR. J. PRIESTLBY,
It is necessary to notice, that the space allotted .o each country is rather according toite re:iViv«
political importance, than to its geographical extent
The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., each a cen-
tury or 100 years ; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, the names of which are
expressed at the end of the chart.
By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations ai
*the period we fix upon. For instance : about 1500 years before Christ, we see states forming i»
Greece; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy-
rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous — but their
history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a
greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued
by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under
barbarians: the Heptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African
provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek
Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modern states ol
Europe founded ; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c.
On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looking
along the chart norizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity; united with that
of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536 ; falls
in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively. — The
Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan 1451 ; under the Judges about 1300 ; under
Kings, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians
restored by the Persians, 535 ; under the Macedonians, 330 ; restored to independence by the Mac
cabees, 150 -, conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, a. D. 622; afterwards by the cru-
eaders, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — England subdued by the Romans in the first cen-
tury ; relinquished by them, a. d. 410 ; subdued by the Saxons, 500 ; by the Danes, 860 ; by the
Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ireland, 1170 ; with Wales, 1280 ; with
•Scotland, \&00.— Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes; by the Romans from 300— 20C
fi. o. to 480 a. d., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ;— in modern
times, divided into several small republics and principalities; joined to the French empire about
IB), and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c. tha
Tope, and the King of Naples.
" They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to
czcite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are
Dsarked upon it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and id
what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great pso-f i<
<Ji3M epecies ! "—Priestley.
PEEFACE.
WiULE revising a chronological manual, in compiling wliicn I had
at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found
material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A.
Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford
Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the
comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn, has been
incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United
States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations
to the present year.
The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had
cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating
them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only
were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for
the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer-
ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent
reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ;
and showing also what was going on at the same time in different
countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear,
many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they
are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume.
To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo-
rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while
the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and
* Chrr/iwlogy — An Index to Universal History. &c. 12mo. Leavitt, iVcw-
I'ork, 1933. The volume ha.^ Lcen long out of print.
S? PREFACE.
others, are available to tlie historian or the merely literary man, they
are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason
that they contain too much for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate-
ness serves to puzzle and to ni3"stify.
What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges-
tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the
governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely tc
recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these eventSj and
to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory.
The alpliabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more
full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the
whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge — 2^ Diction-
ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the
largest amount of useful information in the smallest po.jsible
compass.
There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names
and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances
the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not
numerous or important.
The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute,
it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously
useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it
the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will
show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per-
sons lived during the life-time of that individual.
It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That
such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to bd
Euppof^ed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all
reasor-able expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the
World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in
Politics and Government G. P. P.
THE WORLD'S PROGRES!='
1851 to 1867.
BKING AN ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF IMPORTANT FACTS AND OCCURRENCES DrKIlTa
THOSE YEARS : INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS,
A.BATTOIRS, slanghter-houses for cattle. In 1810 Napoleon decreed that five
should be erected near Pai^is; they were opened in 1818. An abattoir was
erected at Edinburgh in 1851 ; and abattoirs form part of the new London
metropolitan cattle-market, opened on June 13, 1855. In New York City
abattoirs were established under the direction of the Board of Health, 1866.
ABBASIDES. A Mohammedan dynasty ; held the power of the Caliphs for 400
years until 1258. The Caliph Haroun al Rashid was of this line.
ABECEDARIANS. A sect appearing in the sixteenth century ; held that it was
better not to know how to read, as the Holy Spirit would convey a direct un-
derstanding of the Scriptures.
ABSTINENCE, Total, from stimulating beverages: First temperance organi
zation in the United States is said to have been effected by Dr. B. J. Clark, of
Moreau, N. Y., 1808; "members fined fifty cents for intoxication;" Ameri-
can Temperance Union formed in Boston in 1826; total abstinence from dis-
tilled spirits, except when prescribed as medicine, proposed at a meeting in
Philadelphia in 1833, but voted down. See Temperance. Tetotallers in Eng-
land organized in Lancashire, 1834.
ABYSSINIA. A large country in north-east Africa. Its ancient history is very
uncertain. The kingdom of Auxumitae (from its chief town Auxume) flour-
ished in the first and second centuries after Christ. About 960 Judith, a
Jewish princess, murdered a great part of the royal family, and reigned forty
years. The young king escaped ; and the royal house was restored in 1268
iu the person of his descendant, Icon Amlae. In the middle ages it was said
to be ruled by Prester John, or Prete Janni.. The Portuguese missions com-
menced in the fifteenth century, but they were expelled about 1632 in conse-
quence of the tyranny of Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of
Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke up the empire into petty gov-
ernments. The religion of Abyssinia is a corrupt form of Christianity intro-
duced in the fourth century by Trumentius. Missions were sent from Eng-
land in 1829 and 1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been
given by Bruce, (1'790,) Salt, (1805-9,) Ruppell, (1838,) and Parkyns, (1853).
1
I
2 THE world's PEOGKESS.
ACADIA, Now cnlled ISTova Scotia, settled by the French m 1604, and finally
ceded to the English in I'Jlo. It was three times conquered by the English,^
and as often restored by treaty. Expulsion of French settlers (see Longfel-"
low's Evangeline) I'/ 55.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES were probably written by Luke, A. D. 62 to 68.
ADMINISTRATIONS of the United States.-
ident Taylor, July 9, 1850—*
-(p. 1 52.) On the death of Pres-
Mir.i.i.Ki> FiLLMOEE, of New York (Vice-PresideBt), became President. He appointed
Boon, after, tlie following Cabinet, viz. :
f.apiel "Webster, Mussachusetls, Secretary of Stnte.
TJumas Corvin, Ohio, . Secretary of 'J'reasury.
CiiLrles M. Conrud, Louisiana, Secretary of War.
■^ ;)Jia-T> A. Graham, North Carolina, S.ecretary of Navy.
A. H. H. Stuart, Virginin, . Secretary of Intenor.
Nathan K. H'rll, New York, Postmneier-GeneraL
.John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, Attorney-General.
William H. Kiug, Alabama, was elected President of the Senate,
and became Acting Vice-Prcs't of TT. S.
Howell Cobb, Georgia, {continued in office), \
Liim Boyd, Kentucky, December, 1851. f
Speakers of H. Reps.
Pkankltn Pierce, of New Hampshire, inaugura.ed March 4, 185:i, PresideJit.
Vice-President — vacant, by death of Hon. Wm. R. King, April 18, 1853—
THE CABINET.
William L. Marcy, New York,
James Gutbrie, Kentucky,
Kobert M'Clelland, Michigan,
James C. Dobbin, North Carolina.
Jert'erson Davis, Mississippi,
James Campbell, Pennsylvaida,
Caleb Gushing, Massachusetts,
James L. Orr, South Carolina,
James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, inaugurated March 4,
John C. Breckinxcidge, of Kentucky, Vice-President.
Lewis Cass,
J. S. Black,
Isaac Toiicey,
John B. Floyd,
Joseph Holt,
H.iwell Cobb,
Philip Thomas,
'ohn A. Dix,
Jacob ThomiiBon,
Joseph Holt,
Horatio King,
J . S. Black,
E. M. Stanton,
Nathl. P. Banks,
Michigan,
Pennsylvania,
Connecticut,
Virginia,
Kentucky,
Georgia,
Maryland,
New York,
Mississippi,
Kentucky,
Maine,
Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania,
Massachusetts,
Appointed Dec. 1860. ^
Secretary of State.
Secretary of Treasury.
Secretary of Interior.
Secretary of Navy.
Secretary of "War.
Post Master-General.
Attorney-General.
Speaker ol H. Reps.
1857, President.
Secretary of State.
Appointed Jan. 1861.
Appointed Dec. 1860.
Appointed Jan. 1861.
Jan. 1861.
Dec. 1860.
1856.
1859.
Secretary of Navy.
i Secretary of War.
> Secretary of Treasury.
Secretary of Interior.
i Postmaster-General.
^ Attopney-GeneraL
i Speaker of H. Reps.
vVm. Pennington, New Jersey,
Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1861, President.
Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, Vice-President.
Wm. H. Seward, New York, Secretary of State.
lugh S. Legfire,
John C. Calhoun,
George M. Bibb,
William Wilkins,
Thomas W. Gilmer
John Y. Mason,
*Omisssioks on page 152
S, Carolina,
S. C:iro1ina,
Kentucky,
Pennsylvania,
World's Progress.''''
Virginia,
May 9, died June 20, 1843,
M.M-ch 6,1841, to March, 1, 1845,
June 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845,
Feb. 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845,
Feb, 15, 1844, died Feb. 28, 1844,
March 14. 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845.
-Sees, of Stat>.
Sec. of Treaa.
Sec. of War.
Sees, of Navy.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
Ohio, )
Maine, Appointed July, 1864. V Secretary of Treasury.
Indiai a, Appointed Mtiich, 18. 5. )
flliiS^lvat;; Appointed Jan. 1862, \ S--'->- of War.
Connecticut, Secretary of jS^avy.
indian?; Appointed Jan. 1S"3. ( Secretary of Interior.
OJS^"'' Appointed Sept. 1864. ( roslmaster-General
KSct3-, Appointed Sept. 18.4. I Attorney-General,
Pennsylvania, 18GI-'.'. S]'eak(r H. Reps.
Ohio, Appointed Dec. 1664. Chief- Justice.
Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1865, President.
Akdbew Johnson, of Tennessee, "V ice-President.
[President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by "Wilkes Booth,
April 14, 1865.]
Andrew Johnson became President. April 16, 1SC5.
Lafayette S. i'osTER, of Coniucticut. elected President of the Senate.
[Succeeded by BtN. F. Wade, of Ohio, 1867.]
Salmon P. Chai=e,
Wm. P. Fessenden,
Hugh McCulloch,
Simon Cameron,
Edwin M. Stanton,
Gideon Welles,
Caleb B. Smith,
John P. U^her,
Montgomery Blair,
Wm. Dennison,
Edward Bates,
James Speed,
Galusha A. Grow,
Salmon P. Cliase,
Wm. H. Seward, New York, {continued in office),
Huuh McCulloch, Indiana, do
Edwin M. Stanton, Pennsylvania, do
Gideon Welles, Connecticut, do
John P. Usher, Indiana, do
James Harlan, Iowa, Appointed March, 1865.
Orville H. Browning, Illinois, Appointed June, 1866.
W. DeiiniFon, Oliio, (co)ili7iued in office),
Alex. W. Randall, Wisconsin, Appointed June, 186
James Speed, Kenttickj', (continued in office),
Heiu-y StanVery, Ohio, Appointed June, 1866.
Schuyler Colfax. Indiai. a, 1863-'65-'67.' Speaker H. of Reps.
The salary of each member of the Cabinet was raised in 1853 Irom $6,000 to |8,000,
Secretary of State.
Sc cretary of Treasury,
Secretary of War.
Secretary of Navy.
Secretary of Interior.
Postmaster-Generah
Attorney-General.
ADMINISTRATIONS of England after 1846.
Lord Joun Efsseli/s Administra-
tion, July 6ih, 1846.
[He and his colleagues resign Feb.
1851, but resume office March 1S51.]
Earl of Derby, Disnieli, Spencer H.
Walpole, Duke of Northumberland,
«fcc. Feb. 1852.
Earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Palmer-
ston. Lord Russell, &c Dec. 1852.
[Russell retires, anfl Lord Aber<ieen
and Ministry resign Jan. 1855. Pal-
m erst on reconstructs cabinet with
Lord Cranworth, &c., Feb, 1855, but
Gladstone, Herbert and Graham, se-
cede from it and Palmerston forms a
new ministry with Russell and Earl
of Clarendon, &c. Feb. 24th, 1855.]
On vote of censure they resign.
Feb: 7th, 1858.
Earl of Derby's Administration —
Disraeli, Walpole, Stanley, &c.
Feb. 26th, 1858.
[They resign on vote of Parliament
expressing want of confidence in
them. June 1859]
Lords Palmerston and Russell, &c.
June 18th, 1859.
[Palmerston dies, Oct. 1865.]
Eakl Russell's Ministry — With
Gladstone Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer ; Lord Cranworth, Lord
Chancellor ; Earl Granville, &c.
Dec. 1865.
Derby Administration — Earl of
Derby, First Lord, &c.; D' Israeli,
Chancellor of Exchequer ; Lord
Stanley. Sec. for Foreign Affairs,
&c. ' June 19, 1866.
ADULTERY in England, (p. 155.) By 20 Yictoria, c. 85, (185Y,) the " action
for criminal conversation" was abolished, aitd the "Court lor Divorce and
Jtfatrimonial Causes " was established, which has power to grant divorces for
adultery and ill usage. Sec Divorce.
ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, Eng. (p. 145.) The duty on them was all
together abolished in the United Kingdom, August 4, 1853. For a copious
article on this subject see Appleton's Cyclopcedia.
ADVERTISEMENTS in U. S. The rate of charge of American Dailies is from 5
to 20 cents a line ; of weekly papers, up to $2.00. A few monthly and quar-
terly periodicals charge $2.50 per line. The price of one page for advertise-
ments in Harper's Magazine is $250. In 1865, the advertising receipts of the
N. Y. Tribune were about $359,000. By act of July, 1861, advertisements in
Aniericnn papei-s are taxed 3 per cent, on gross receipts. Papers of less than
2,000 copies circulation are exempt. The duty on advertising in England was
abolished in 1853.
ADVERTISING VANS, in 1853 a great nuisance, were prohibited in England.
They have recently appeared in New York and other places in the U. S.
JEOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal branch of the Hellenic race :
beginning about 1124 b. c. The JSolians built several large cities both on the
mainland and the neighbouring islands; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered
the capital.
JEOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1653, but it was known
before.
jEQUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Romans, and their lands
annexed after a conflict, 4'7l-302 B.C.
AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been
patented by Thomson in 1807 ; Bakewell in 1882 and 1847; Tylor in 1840,
and by several other persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented
by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7.
^ESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), the science of the beautiful
(especially in art); a term invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher,
whose work ''^sthetiea" was published in 1750.
AFRICA, (p. 15.) Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, and 1849,
(by direction of the government,) he left England to explore Central Africa,
accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died March 4, 1851,
and Overweg September 27, 1852. Dr. Vogel was sent out with reinforce-
ments to Dr. Barth Feb. 20, 1853. Dr. Barth returned to England, and re
ceived the Royal Geographical Society's medal May 16, 1856. His travels
were published in five volumes in 1858. Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary
traveller, returned to England in December, 1856, after an absence of sixteen
years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of South Africa,
and walked about 11,000 miles, principally of country hitherto unexplored. His
book was published in Noveniber, 1857. In Februai-y, 1858, he was appointed
British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, and left shortly after.
Accounts of the assassination of Dr. Vogel were received in 1857. Lieut. Bur-
ton's Explorations of the Eastern Coast, 185-; his journey from Zanzibar to
the interior, 1858 ; and his account of it published in London and N. Y., 1860.
The publication of M. du Chaiiiu's
travels in Central Africa created
miicli controversy and excitetaent in
1861.
Second expediton of Dr. Livingstone,
March, 1858.
Captains Spt'lie and G-rant announce
the discovery of the source of the
Nile ill Lake Nyanza Victoria, Feb.
23, 1863.
[Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by
his own gun wliile alone near Bath,
Sept. 15, 1864]
Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully ex-
plore the White Nile, and undergo
many privations, July, 1863—1864.
Du Chailln starts on a fresh expedition 6 Aug.
1S63.
Dr. Livingstone returns July 23. 1S64.
Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone,
Nov. 30, 1864. .
[He was sent as srecial pnvoy to the Negro
tribes near the Niirer by the Foreign Office
about 1854. He opened commercial rela-
iioDS with Central Africa.]
Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a lake, sup-
posed to be another source of the Nile,
•vvhich he named Lake Nyanza Albert,
March, 1864.
Dr. Livingstone appointed British condul for
Inner Africa, March 24, 1805. Reported to
be killed by natives, Apr. 1867.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. In England, Sir Humphry Davy deUvered
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67
lectures on this subject (afterwards published) at the instance of the Board of
Agriculture, in 1812 ; but it excited but little attention till the publication of
Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impression. Boussingault's
"jGcoiioniie Rurale," an equally important work, appeared in 1844. The
immoderate expectations from this study having been somewhat disappointed,
a partial reaction has taken place, and much controversy ensued. Liebig's
" Letters on Agriculture" appeared in 1859.
AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. By act of July 2, 1862, Congress made pro-
vision for " donating public lands to the st- veral States and Territories Avhich
may provide Colleges tor the benefit of agriculture ami mechanic arts." Up
to Sept. 1863, 15 States had taken advantage of the act, and many colleges in-
troduced AgricuUiire among the branches of their scientific course. Agricultu-
ral college at Amherst, Mass., in process of construction (1867).
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS of 1851 :
Great Britain. France. United States. Russia.
Acresof Land in Cultivation 22,000,000 72,000,000 118,000,000 243.000,000
Bushels of Wlieiit, av. per annum, 336,000,000 676,000,000 100,000,000 1,400,000,000
Number of Horned Cattle, 18,000,000 9,000,000 19,800,000 25,000,000
Number of Horses, ' 1,600.000 2.818,000 5,000,000 18,000,000
Number of Sheep and Goats, 50,000.000 82,000,000 22,000,000 50,000,000
Numberof Swine, 19,000 000 5.000,000 30,000,000 12,000,000
Population of each country, 27,000,000 36,000,000 23,000,000 68,000,000
In 1866, the wheat crop in the U. S., was 180,000,000 bushels, (increase of 80
per cent, in 15 years.) Cattle, 26,935,000, (increase about 40 per cent.); sheep,
41,253,652, increase nearly 100 per cent.
AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the most important material interest of the
United States. It is estimated that seven-eighths of the population are engaged
in agricultural pursuits or in occupations immediately dependent thereon. In
1860 the number of acres in cultivation was 163,000,000, valued at 6,600 mil-
lion dollars. In the same year the value of agricultural implements was $24*7,-
000,000.
1860. 1862. 1865.
Bushels of Wheat 132,000,000 181,000.000 148,000,000
Bushels of Oats 172,000,000 171.000,000 235,000,000
Bushels of Rve 20,000,000 21,000,000 19,000,000
Tons of Hay ." 19.000,000 20,000,000 23,000,000
PoundsofWool 60,000,000 114.0'0.000
Bales of Cotton 4,000,000 l^OGO.OOO
Bushels of Corn 800,000,000 500,000,000 600,000,000
In the Statistics of 1862 and 1865 the states in rebellion are not included. In
1862 the shipment of wheat from the U. S. to Great Britain alone amounted
to 29,700,000 bushels. Total exports of grain 1863 were '77,300,000 bushels.
The cereals of the northern states in 1865 amounted to 1,228 million bush-
els, valued at $1.04 7,000,(00. The southern cotton crop for 1866-7 is esti-
mated at 2,000,000 bales. "Departmt nt of Agriculture " established May 15,
1862, at Washington, D. C. Its object, to diffuse information on subjects con-
nected with agriculture among the people of the U. S.
AIR OR ATMOSPHERE. In 1858, Dr. Angus Smith made known a chemical
method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The re-
searches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist of Basel, led to the discovery
of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. — •
See Ozone.
ALABAMA. One of the United States; Population in 1850; whites, 426,515;
free colored, 2,260. Total free, 428,765 ; slaves, 342,894. In 1855: white,
464,456; free colored, 2,466; slaves, 374,784. Population, in 1860: white,
6
520,444; slaves, 4 3 5, 4 7 3. The slaves have increased more rapidly thao the
whites. Ordinance passed " seceding" from the United States January 7, 1861.
During the war the state was untouched by the national army until Marchj
1865, when Gen. Wilson with 17,000 cavalry, penetrated its most productive
region. In June, 1865, L. E. Parsons was appointed provisional governor.
The state sent 120,000 men to the war, and lost 35,000. Estimated loss in
wealth, $500,000,000. Present debt (1865) is P,400,0u0.
ALBANY, N Y. Population in 1850, 50,700; in 1860, 62,367; in 1865, 62,613.
It became the capital of the State in 1807. The most important article of
commerce is lumber; in 1863, $7,000,000 worth was received there. Its Law
Library, the best in the country, contains 70,000 volumes.
ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many
of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, comntencing in
1494 with MusaBUS.
ALE AND BEER, U. S. By act of Congress, July 13, 1866, a tax of $1.00 is
levied on every barrel of ale and beer manufactured and sold.
A-LEPPO (anciently Beroea), a large town, N. Syria, so named by Seleucus Ni-
cator about 299 B. C. Tlie pachahc of Aleppo is one of the five govern-
ments of Syria. It was taken by the Turks, a. d. 638, who restored its ancient
name Haleb orChaleb; by Saladin, 1193; and sacked by Timour, 1400. Its
depopulation by the plague has been frequent; 60,000 persons were computed
to have perished by it in 1797. It suffered by the plague in 1827, and the
cholera in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes
in 1822 and 1830; and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres.
On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mahometans attacked the Christian inhabitants. They
burnt everything in their way; three cliurches were destroyed, five others
were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total loss of
property amounted to about a million sterling ; no interference was attempted
by the pacha or the Turkish soldiers.
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose soon after the
foundation of Alexandria, 332 b. c. It flourished under the patronage of the
Ptolemies till about 100 b. c. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287-212),
ApoUonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose
about A. p. 140, and lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members were
Ptolemy, the author of Ptolemaic system (150), Diophantus, the arithmetician
(200), and Pappus the geometer (350).
ALGIERS, (p. 162). An insurrection of the Kabyles was subdued by the
French in Oct., 1857. In 1858, the government was entrusted (for a short
time) to Prince Napoleon,
ALHAMBRA. A Moorish palace and fortress near Granada in Spain, founded
by Mohammed L of Granada, about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians,
Jan. 6, 1496. The remains have been described in a magnificent work by
Owen Jones, and Jules Gowry, published 1842-5. There is a fac-simile of a
court of this name in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, near London.
ALIENS, (p. 162.) The rigor of the Alien laws in England was much mitigated
by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66, 1844. In 1850 there were 2,210,800 in the United States. In
1863, 233,408 arrived. Of these 106,000 came from Germany ; 68,000 from Ire-
land ; 36,000 from England. Aliens now pay income tax. (Act of Congress,
July, 1666.) See Emigration.
ALIWAL, Battle or, India, between the Sikh army (24,000), and the Britisi
under Sir H. Smith (12,0C0). Sikhs defeated with loss of 6,0u0, Jan. 28, 1846
SITPPUBMENT, 1851-67.
ALLIANCE, Treaties of, (p. 162) between the high European powers:
Alliance of England, France, and.
Turkey (signed at Con^ta^t^no
pie) March 12, 1854
Alliance of England and France,
ratified April 3, 1854
Alliance of Sardinia with the west-
ern powers (signed at Turin),
Jan. 26, 1855
Alliance of Sweden with the western
powers Dec. 19, 1854
Alliance of Prussia and Austria against
Denmark 1864
Alliance of Prussia and Italy against
Austria 1866
ALL SOULS' DAY {Nov. 2). A festival of the Roman Catholic church to com-
memorate the souls that are in purgatory, instituted it is said, at Cluny about
993 or 1000.
ALMA. A river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on Sept. 20,
1854. See Russo-Turkish IFa?' and Crimea. The English, French, and Turk-
ish army (about 57,000) and the Russians under Menschikoff (46,0(J0). Latter
defeated, with loss of 5,000. Allied loss 3,000, killed, wounded, and
missing.
ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King street, St. James's, London, at first very
exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and opened Feb. 12,
iTes.
ALMANACS, American. A comprehensive and valuable "National Almanac,"
was issued by G. W. Childs of Phila., in 1863-4, but was not continued. Sixty
eight different almanacs are registered among the list of American publicauons
1861-6. French. First French Almanac published in Paris (1442), in a
Bibliotheque. "Almanac Royal" of Paris (16^79), noticed fairs, markets,
genealogy of kings, (fee. "Almanac of Napoleon," and "Almanac of Litera-
ture and Fine Arts," are widely circulated. Tlie "Connaissance de Terns" is
astronomical. There are many inferior ones devoted to burlesque and wit.
German. Almanacs appeared in Germany in 1475. The first one was pub-
lished in a series in a periodical, and contained only the eclipses and position
of the planets. The author was the German Regiomontanus. His sei'ies sold
for ten crowns. " Almanac de Gotha" is 104 years old, and of very high
reputation. Also the " Astronomisches Jahrbuche " conducted by Bode and
then by Encke.
Franklin's " Poor Richard's Almanac,"
(Phil. 1732), was the first of any note
in the U. S.
"The American Nautical Almanac"
■was established in 1849. and superin-
tended by Capt. Davis, IT. S. N. It
has few equals in scientific accuracy.
The "American Almanac" of Boston,
was discontinued in 1857 (?), after
being published 29 years.
The "National Almanac" (valuable and
comprehensive), published by Childs of
Phila., appeared only 1863 and 181,4.
At the present time (1867), no general alma-
nac of any special value is published in the
XJ. S.
The " Family Christian Almanac" of the
Tract Society has a wide circulation.
ALPACA, (or Paco). A species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft
hairy wool of ■w^tich is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It
was introduced into England about 1836, by the Earl of Derby. An alpaca
factory, &c., (covering 11 acres), was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, York-
shire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1852.
AMBASSADORS. The TJ. S. has never sent any person of the rank of ambass-
ador in the diplomatic sense, but is represented by ministers plenipotentiary,
{Kent.) In 1867 the U. S. had her ministers at the courts of Austria, Brazil.
China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Prussia, Russia, Spain. To
the smaller states, " Ministers resident " are sent, 22 in all. Number of con-
suls from U. S to foreign countries in 1862, 272. Some of these are known
8
as agents simply. 10 are stationed in England and 10 in France. The highest
salaries are given to the consuls at London and Liverpool, $7,500 each. Num.
ber of foreign consuls in U. S. in 1863, 856.
AMERICA, Central, including the states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which see, declared their independence Sept. 21,
1821, and separated from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The
states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 1847. There has
been among them since, much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by
the irruption of American lilibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In
Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala, (afterwards joined by Nicaragua)
and San Salvador, (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were de-
feated at Santa Rosa, June 16, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 26 j the
president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled; and Carrera, the dictator of Guate-
mala became predominant over the confederacy. Population, 1859, about
2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama.
AMERICA, South. See Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &c.
AMERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776 the colors used by the American army
exhibited a snake with thirteen rattles, on a crimson ground interlaced with
white. On the 14th June, 1777, Congress resolved, "that the flag of the
thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white ; that the
union be thirteen stars, white, on a blue field — representing 'a new con-
stellation.' "
AMERICANISMS. A useful dictionary of Americanisms, compiled by John R.
Bartlett ; first published in Boston, in 1848.
ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history of
Herodotus, about 1687 b.c. It is considered as ending with the destruction
of the Roman empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Ma-
homet (a.d. 622), or Charlemagne (768).
ANESTHETICS. Substances to alleviate pain. In 1863 Dr. Colton (dentist) of
N. Y. used nitrous oxide. No ill effects followed the 3,000 cases he had up
to 1865. (See this subject in Appleton's Cyclopaedia, 1864.)
ANIMALS, Cruelty to, in England. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator,
zealously labored to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London,
which was established in 1824, effects much good this way. Laws on the
subject were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were for-
bidden to be used for draught by Act of Parliament, 1839. A society, char-
tered by the State of N. Y. in 1866, chiefly through the exertions of Mr.
Henry Bergh, who became its president in 1866. Its object is to prevent
cruel treatment to animals, by bringing offenders to trial. Laws prohibiting
cruelty to beasts and also "game fighting," passed April, 1866. The Pennsyl-
vania Legislature incorporated a similar society in the Spring of 1867.
ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with
1758, and continued to the present time) was commenced in London by R. &
J. Dodsley. The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the Annuaire
de Deux Mondes, first appeared in Paris, in 18-50. An American Annual
Register was published for several years, but was not supported. Appleton'a
Annual Cyclopedia, 1861-6, is a similar work, and very comprehensive.
ANNUALS, the name given to richly-bound volumes, published annually, con-
taining poetry, tales, and essays, by eminent authors, and illustrated by en-
gravings. They first appeared in London, in 1823. They were imitations ol
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 9
eiroilar books in Germany. The duration of the chief of these pubhcatious ia
here given —
Amulet 1827-34
Keepbakc 18'28-56
Hood's Coiiiic Annual 1830-38
Forget-me not (Aclrerman's). . . . 1823-48
friend fillip's Ollering 1824-44
Literary Souvenir (first as The
Graces) 1824-34
Tiie earliest Anjerican " Annuals " were the Talisman^ published by E. Bliss,
in New York, about 1830, 3 vols. (Bryant, Sands, and others contributors) ;
the Tokeu^ S. G. Goodrich (Peter Parley), in Boston, 1837 (?) to (?), about
8 vols. ; and the Gif ^ Carey & Hart, Piiiladelphia, 1840 (?), about 5 vols.
ANONYMOUS LETTERS. In England, the sending of threatening or libellous
anonymous letters was made felony by several acts, 1*722, 182Y, lol?.
Punishment — transportation, imprisonment, and whipping.
ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Winston, the number of
people in the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the
enormous amount of 549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482.
ANTIGUA. A West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; settled by
the Enghsh in 1632.
ANTIET.AM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, U. S. Here was fought a
terrible battle on Sept. 17, 1862, between the Union army under Gen. Mc-
Clellan and the rebels under Lee. The latter after his victory at Bull Run or
Manassas, Aug. 30, having invaded Maryland, was immediately followed by
McClellan. On the 16th Lee was joined by Jackson, and at five o'clock next
morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and the con-
flict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The battle was indecisive;
but eventually the Rebels retreated and repassed the Potomac on Sept. 18 and
19. The Union loss was estimated at 12,469 ; the rebels lost 14,000.
APPEALS. In the U. S. nearly all courts can hear appeals from those next
inferior. The highest courts of the states are courts of a[)peal only. The
Supreme Court of the U. S. sits on appeal from Circuit and To ritorial Courts,
and also from the highest state courts, whenever the question turns upon the
validity of a treaty or law or authority of the U. S. (Statute of 1789.)
APPENZELL. A Swiss canton, threw off the feudal supremacy of the abbots of
St. Gall early in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the
Swiss confederation in 1513.
APPIAN WAY. An ancient Roman road,madc by Appius Claudius Caacus, while
censor, 312 B.C.
APPLES. The Romans knew of 22 varieties of apples, according to Pliny. Ray
reckons 78 lands in bis day, in England (1688). In the U. S. 200 varieties
exist. Afiple-trees of firifst quality last 80 years. Some reach the age of 200
years. Throughout the U. S. the following appear to be the favorites: For
summer apples, the Early Harvest, Sweet Bough and Red Astrachan ; for au-
tumn, the Fall Pippin, Porter and Gravenstein ; for winter, the Baldwin and
Rhode Idand Greening. The demand for the fruit is greatly in advance of
the pnpply, and in London the American apple commands fabulous prices. In
1860, the yield of orchard fruit amounted to $19,000,000, the greater part of
which was derived from the apple product. In 1865, the orchards in the
State of New York yielded 16,275,505 bushels of apples.
APPRENTICES. In the U. S. apprenticeship is not so common as in E:i
gland. The American apprentice rarely pays a ft e to the master. In some
eastern states farmers take them to learn husbandry, clothe them, and, whti.
10
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
they leave present them with a sum of money. Whole number in the U.
S. in 1860 was about 55,000. Tliere is a Library in Mechanics Hall, N. Y.
City, containing 16,000 volumes, for youthful apprentices. For laws respect*
ing them, see Kent's Commentaries. Number of apprentices in N. Y. State in
1865, 1,361.
AQUARIUM, OR Aquavivarium. A vessel containing water (marine or fresh)
in which animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other;
snails being introduced as scavengers. In 1819, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded
in growing sea-weeds inartificial sea-water. In 1850, Mr. R. Warington dem-
onstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants in
jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's
Park, were set up under the direction of Mi-. D. Mitchell. In 1850 Mr.
Gosse pubhshed, "The Aquarium. " Mr. C. E. Hammett, jr., of Newport, R. I.,
published in 1859 his observations and experiments with Aquaria, which were
very remaikable. Aquaria have been introduced into several public museums
in the U. S., and they are also largely cultivated in private houses.
AQUEDUCT. The greatest of modern or perhaps of any times is the Croton
aqueduct, Avhich supplies the City of New York with water from Croton lake,
40 miles distant. It was commenced 1837 ; its completion was publicly cele-
brated in 1842; its cost was $10,375,000. It is carried across the Harlem
liver on a bridge 100 feet high. Chief engineer John B. Jervis ; contractor
for the bridge, Geo, Law. The aqueduct which supplies Boston from lake
Cociiituate, '23^- miles, was commenced in 1846; its completion celebrated Oct.
25, 1848 ; cost $5,370,818. That which supplies the city of Brooklyn, L. L,
was finished 1858 ; engineer J. P. Kirkwood ; cost |64(»,828. Jersey City, N. J., is
supplied by an aqueduct 8 miles long from the Passaic river at Belleville; W. S.
Wliirwell, chief engineer. It was completed in 1856 and cost $640,000.
Washington, D. C. is furnished with water from the Potomac by an aqueduct
15 miles long, commenced in the administration of Pres. Pierce. The water
was first admitted into it Dec. 5, 1863, at which time the cost amounted to
$2,900,000 ; Capt. M. C. Meigs (U. S. A.) chief engineer. This aqueduct dis-
charges 67,596,400 gallons in 24 hours, or nearly 3 times as much as the Cro-
ton aqueduct.
ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated
into French by Galland, and published in 1704 ; but their authenticity was
not acknowledged till many years after. The best English translation from
the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 1839, v/ith valuable notes
and beautiful illustrations.
ARCHITECTURE, (p. 173.) Dates of notable buildings
Egyptian Pyramids, B.C. 1500
S'.'lomon's Temple begun b. c.lOOO
Temple of Jupiter, Rome, ...b. c. 616
Babylon built b. c. 600
Parthenon finished b. c. 438
Pantheon at Rome a. d. IS
ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS.
iions.
Coliseum a. n. 70
Basilicas at Rome a. d. 330-900
St. Sophia's, Consta .tinopie i-eguii.A. d. 532
Canterbury Cathedral a. n. 602
Mosque of Omar a. d. 637
York Minster begun a. d. 741
See North-West Passage^ and FranklhCs Expedi*
Lt. Hartstein with the Arctic and
release leaves Brooklyn, May 31,
1S55, and finds Dr. Kane at Lieve-
ley, Greenland, Sept. 13, 1S55 ;
aiid returns to N. Y. with him
Oct.ll, 1855
Steam_er Fox, Capt. McClintock, sails
from Aberdeen (sent by Lady Frank
lin) in search of remains of Franklin's
exj)edition July 10, 1857
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 1]
Capt. McClintock returns, ■bringing
relics and remains of Franklin's
expedition, and ascertaining his
fate 1859
Mr. C. F. Hall sailed from JS^ew
London, Conn., in ship George
Henrv May 29, 1860
Returned Sept. 18, 1862
He went again with >trong hopes
of tindi uiT some of Franklin's
men. Discovered the fate of four
who died from cold and starva-
tion, June 1864
Dr. Hayes sailed from Boston in
schooner United States, and returned
in lilteen months. Valuable surveys
and experiments made by him
July 10, 1S6C
Capt, Parker Snow sailed from Eng-
land in schooner Intrepid, in se:ircli of
Franklin's companions, June, 1861
Expedition from Sweden blockaded hj
lee and unable to accomplish its ob-
jects, May 9, 1861
ARGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFEDERATION. Originally fourteen, now
thirteen, provinces — Buenos Ayres having seceded in 1853. This country
was discovered by the Spaniards in Ibll ; isettled by them in 1553, and form-
ed part of the great viceroyalty of Peru till 1778, when it became- that of Rio
de la Plata. It joined the insmrection in 1811, and became independent in
1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 1828, for the possession of
Uruguay, which became independent at Montevideo. It was at war with
France from 1838-40. TJrquiza was chosen President for six years in 1854.
See Buenos Ayres.
ARIZONA, known as the Gadsden purchase, a teri-itory of 30,000 square miles,
purchased from Mexico by the U. S. for $10,000,000, in 1855. It had in 1856
about 5,000 inhabitants, chiefly Mexicans. By act of Congress, Peb. 24,
1863, the territory was organized and part of New Mexico added to it, the
whole containing 131,000 square miles. The capital is Prescott. The first
Governor appointed, in 1863, was R. C. McCormick. Population in 1866,
white, about 8,000.
ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase.
It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in
1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including- 19,935 slave?.
Population in 1860, 435,450, of whom 111,115 were slaves. The state "se-
ceded " from the Union May 6th, 1861. Being unaided during the war by tie
Confederate Government, she manufactured her own war material. At the
close of the rebellion I. Murphy was appointed provisional governor (1865.)
Many of the plantations have been divided up for sale, and land can be bought
at |1 to $5,000 per acre (L866).
ARMY OF THE U. S.
Date.
July, 1861..,
Jan. 1, 1862
Jan. 1', 1863.
Jan. 1, 1864.
Jan. 1, 1865.
May 1, 1865.
NCLUDiNG Volunteers.
The followir
g list is official :
Regulars. Vol imfPTs.
Present for D
ity. Aggregate.
14,108 109,480
.... 183,588
.... 286,751
19.871 .... 507,:J3.'5
.... 5-2 7, 204
17.5.917
19,169 .... 679,633
.... 693,8-12
.... 918.191
17.-2:.7 .... £91,013
.... 621. -150
860,737
14,6(51 ••■• CC6.263
620,924
959,460
.... 797,807
....1,034,064
From May 1, 1865, to Jan. 20, 1866, 918,722 volunteers were mustered out of
service. Entire number of colored troops during the war, 178,975. By act
of Congress, July, 1866, the regular army comprises 45 regiments of infantry,
10 of cavalry, 5 of artillery ; 2 regiments of cavalry and 4 of infantry are col-
ored troops. Total number of regulars in service, Jan. 1867, 54,3n0. The
higher officers are ; 1 General, 1 Lieut.-General, 5 Major-Generals, and 10
Brigadier-Generals. During 1861-5 the Pay Department disbursed $1,029,-
239,000 among the troops. The loss of life in the Northern armies during the
war was 280,751, of whom 5,221 officers and 90,886 men were killed or 'died
of wounds, and 2,321 officers and 182,329 men died of disease. See Enlist
12 THE WOELD's PEOGEESS.
ment The following is a list of ordnance and ordnance stores furnished th«
army during 1861-65 :
Carjion— number .■ 7,892
Artillery carriages— numbtr 11,787
Artillery projectiles (shot ami t^lioll)— iimnbtr 6,335.595
Grape and canister shot— lioundt,. 6,539,999
Field artillery ammunition— round^ 2802,177
Small arms, muskets, rilles, carbines, and p tsliu. 3,477,655
(Swords, sabres, and lancet; 544,475
I Infantry accoutrements — compieie sets 2,146,175
Cavahy accoutrements — conip.ete sell: 216,371
Horse equipments— sets 539,544
Two-horse artillery harness— ^els- 28,164
Horse blankets — number 732,526
(Cartridges for Fin all arms— nuuiLci 1,022,176.474
Percussion caps for smail arms — nuniljci 1,21:0,555,435
Caiinoii-primers 10,281,305
Puses for si, ell 4,2116,377
Gunpowder— pound^ 26,440,054
Nitre— pour.ds 6,395,152
Lead in pigs and bullets— poun at 90,416,295
This only includes what was consumed in the army, and not what was used by
the navy.
ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently
occur) are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing
water, which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises through the
boiing tube to that level. The fountains in 'J'rafalgar Square in London are
supplied by two of these wells. The great well at Paris was completed in
1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot, at an expense of about
£12,000. It yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr.,
in twenty-four hours. These wells are now becoming common in various
parts of the world. Tens of thousands of them are t^aid to have existed in
China from an early age. The U. S. Government have contemplated
making them in the vast western plains on the overland route to California,
ARTISTS' FUND SOCIETY, N. Y. In Nov. 1865, sixty pictures were con-
tributed to it by members, which sold for $'7,500. The object of this society
is to assist indigent and disabled artists. Established in 1859.
ARTS, Fine. The progress in the fine arts has been very marked in the U. S.
since 1850. The National Academy of Design founded 1828 ; its new build-
ing, the first in the United States wholly designed for such a purpose, was
completed and dedicated 1864. The amount annually expended in the U. S.
for works of art has increased ten-fold in as many years. In 1864, 30 collec-
tions of pictures in N. Y. sold for $500,000. The Academy of Fine Arts in
Philadelphia had on exhibition in April, 1865, a collection of over 800 pictures
and sculptures. A handsome building lor the Yale School of Fine Arts was
completed at New Haven in 1866, the gift of Mr. Street. The first exhibition
was opened with much distinction July, 1867. Over 10 paintings and 13
sculptures were sent to the Paris Exposition (1867) by the American Com-
mittee ; See Paintings ; TuckermarC s Book of the Artints.
ART UNION. For distributing works of art by lot.. The first was in Germany
founded at Munich in 1823 ; followed by those of Berlin (1828), Dresden,
Leipzic, Bremen, Dusseldorf, Frankfort, Vienna, &c. " Roman Catholic Art-
Unions " were started in 1851. London Art Union founded 1837; its receipts
increased in nineteen years from $5,000, to $90,(i00 per annum. The first in
the U. S., the Ameiican Art Union (originally the Apollo .Association) was
founded at N. Y., in 1839. It continued thirteen years, purchasing and distrJb*
SUPPLEMEKT, 1951-C7. 13
uting works to the amount of $458,853, It was closed in 1851 as being
forbidden by the state laws against lotteries.
ASCENSION DAY. This day, also called Holy Thursday, is that on which the
Church celebrates the ascension of our Saviour, the fortieth day after hia
resurrection from the dead. May 14, a. d. 83 ; first counnemorated, a. d. 68.
Some Christian writers affirm that Christ left the print of his feet on that part
of Mount Olivet where he last stood ; and St. Jerome says that it was visible
in his time.
ASSAY OFFICE, U. S. The one established in K Y. City, in 1854 assayed
more than $180,000,000, of gold, in the seven years prior to 1866. The follow-
ing table, taken from the official returns in the Treasury Department, shows
the collections on bullion and the amount of bulHon assayed in each state and
territory of the United States during the fiscal year ending June SO, 1866 :
States and Territories. Collections en Bullion. Bullion Assayed.
California $294,121 $49,020,250
Colorado 1,219 219 860
Idaho 3,210 535,105
MitJSouri 4 815
Nevada 91.635 15,272,246
New Jersey 82 13,688
New York 43,774 7,295,803
Oregon 28,711 4,785,2->l
Pennsylvania 24,265 4,044,218
Ebode Island 13 ,. 2,211
Utah 361 60,278
"Washinglun 837 139,533
Total $488,377 $81,389,541
The ibregoing compilation does not include the coinage of the United States
Mint at San Francisco, which amounted to $20,000,000.
ASTRONOMY. Astronomy received little attention in the U. S. prior to 1843.
At that time, a large comet suddenly appearing, public interest in the science
Avas awakened. Profs. Bond and Pierce, of Cambridge, Mass., Capt. Davis,
U. S. N., Prof. Hubbard, Naval Academy, Profs. Olmstead and Loomis, of
Yale^ Prof. 0. M. Mitchel, of Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell, of Nantucket,
have contributed largely to the science. Asteroid No. 66 was first seen from
Harvard College, April 10, 1861. Others have since been discovered. The
La Lande Astronomical Prize, 500 francs, was awai^ded by the French Acad-
emy of Science to For the planets recently discovered see
Planets. The Dudley Observatory at Albany, chiefly the gift of Mrs. B.
Dudley, inaugurated Aug. 28, 1856. The progress of this science in theU. S.
has been much accelerated by the labors of W. C. Bond at Cambridge, 0. M.
Mitchel at Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell at Nantucket, now of Vassar College,
Poughkeepsie.
ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Submarine Telegraph.
ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. The first experiments in England at Wormwood
Scrubs, 1840. First in Ireland near Dublin, 1843, given up 1855. See Pneu-
matic Railway.
AUGUSTINS. A religious mendicant order, which ascribes its origin to St.
Augustine, who died a. d. 430. These monks really first appeared in the 12th
century, and the order was constituted by Pope Alexander IV., in 1266. Its
rule requires strict poverty, humility and chastity. Martin Luther was an
Augustin monk. The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were the
rivals of the Dominicans.
AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin auris) of
14
THE world's PEOGEESS.
the priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been for-
bidtien in the fourth ceutiu-y by Noctarius, archbishop of Constantinople.
It was first enjoined by tht' Council of Latcran in 1216. It was one of Six
Articles of Fairh enacted by Henry VIIL in 1539, and by the Council of Trent •
but was abolished in England at the Relbrmation. Its revival in England
was attempted by the church party called Puseyites or Tractarians, but with-
out success.
AURORA BOREALIS, or Northern Lights. The most remarkable exhibitions
of this phenomenon on record arc those of 1560 in London, in the form of
burning spears ; 1514 (described by Stow), and the close of the 18th cen-
tury ; again in 1835, 1836, and IBS'/. In >«ortiiern Europe, this plienomenon,
now very common, was very rare previous the 18th century. In 1859-60,
the Aurora was very brilliant at several times, in different parts of the United
States, and the telegraph wires were sensibly affected by the electricity.
AUSTRALIA, The smallest continent or largest island in the world, about one-
sixth the size of North and South America, and ten times larger than Borneo,
its area being about 3,000,0(..O square miles. Its colonization by convicts was
•first proposed at the close of the American war of Independence. It is now
divided into four provinces : New South Wales, South Austraha, Victoria,
(or Port Philip), and Western Australia (or Swan River).
Cai)t Cook landed at Botany Bay. 1770
Sydney founded 1788
Guv. B iuh for his tyranny de-
posed l>y an insurrection 1808
AUSTRIA See p. 184.
Trial by jury abolished 1852
Marriage of the emperor to Ehza-
beth, diiU2;ht(-'r of Maxim lian,
duke of Jiaviiria Apr. 24, 1854
Alliance with England and
France on the Eat-teru Ques-
tion Dec. 2, 1854
Der^rading Concordat with
Rome .Aua-. 18,1855
Diplomatic relations witli Sar-
dinia broken ott'on ace. of at-
tacks of Sardinian press March, 1857
Excitement on the address of
Napoleon III. to Austrian
minister, Hul:ner Jan. J, 1859
Preparations for war. Banks of
the Ticino fortified
Feb. and March, 1859
Austria demands that Saidinia
disarm. Refused Apr. 26, 1859
Austriaus cross the Ticino Apr. 2H, 1859
First Ch. of Eng. Bishop (Broughton).. 1836
Melbourne founded Nov. 1837
Trai'sportation suspended 1839
Transportation ceased 1853
French troops reach Genoa Apr. 27, 1859
French emperor declares war May 3, 1859
Austrians defeated at Montebello,
May 20, 1859
do do Palestro, May 30-1. 1859
do do Magenta, June 4, 1859
do do Marisfnano, June 8, 1859
Death of Prince Metternich, aet. 80,
June 11, 1859
Austrians def. at Solferino, June 2-i, 1859
Armistice agreed upon July 6, 1859
Emperors of France and Austria meet
July 11, 1859
Prelim 'naries of peace at Villa Fran-
ca, Louibardy tc belong to
Sardinia Tuly 12, 1859
Fruitless conference of envoys at
Zurich Aug. 8, to Sept. 1859
For war against Dei;mark, and against
Prussia and Italy, see Prussia.
BAALBEC, OR HELIOPOLIS, both of which mean "City of the Sun." An
ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood
(in 1757) and others. Its origin (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity.
Antoninus Pius is stated to have built a magnificent Temple of Jupiter here.
The city was sacked by the Moslems, a. d. 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400.
BADEN, (p. 186.) 1852, Frederic (born September 9, 1826), regent to Sept. 5,
1856, when he was declared grand duke, and still remains so (1867). Heir,
his son, Frederic William, born July 9, 1857.
SUPPLEMENT, 185 1-6 7. 15
BALAKLAVA (small sea-port iu the Crimea), Battle of. Russians aboiitl2,000
commanded by Gen. Liprandi, British by Lord Raglan. In this battle Lord
Cardigan's cavalry made the ianious "charge of the light biigade ;" only 198
out of 607 returning from the charge, Oct. 26, 1854. Another engagement
here, Russians defeated, losing 2,000, Allies losing 6(j0, March 22, 18o5. Elec^
trie telegraph between this place and London completed April, 1855.
BALLOOjS", (p. IST".) An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, in Den
mark, Sept. 14, 1851 ; his corpse was subsequently found on the sea-shore in a
contiguous island, dashed to pieces. On June 23, 1859, Mr. Wise and tbrc3
others ascended from St .Louis in a balloon. After travelling 1,150 miles they
descended in Jefferson county. New York, very narrowly escaping with
their lives. A monster balloon, constructed by Mr. Lowe for the professed
intention of an air-voyage to Europe, was inflated and exhibited at New York,
May 1860, and again in Pennsylvania, but the weather or accident defeated
the project. Equestrian ascents were made by Green in London in 1850, and
stopped by law, 1852. In France ascents on horses in balloons have been fre-
quently made since 1850. Balloons were used for reeonnoitering, during
the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859; and by the Army of the Potomac
1861-5. Ascents lor scientific observations made in England by Jas. Glai-
sher, one ascent reaching 1 miles, 1862-5
BALLOT. Secret voting w^as practised by the ancient Greeks. A tract entitled
" The Benefit of the Ballot," said to have been written by Andrew Marvell,
was published in England in the "State Tracts," 1693. The ballot-box was
used in a political club which met in 1659 at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster.
The ballot has been an open question in British Whig governments since 1885.
On June 30, 18oY, the House of Commons rejected the ballot, 257 being
against, and 189 for it. It became part of the electoral law of Victoria, Aus-
tralia, in 1856. Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in France
from 1840 to 1845, and was employed also after the coup d'etat in 1851. In
the United States the ballot is used iu all public elections.
BALL'S BLUFF, on the banks of the Potomac, on the Virginia side.
On October 21, 1861, by direction of Gen. C. P. Stone the heroic Col E
D. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the rebel
camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with great loss, the force of the rebels
having been misrepresented. Treachery was evident somewhere, and Gen.
Stone himself was arrested, but released without trial.
BALTIMORE, (p. 187.) Population in 1860, 214,037, including 2,213 slavss.
On the 19th of April, 1861, U. S, troops passing through the city to the de-
fence of Washington were fired upon and two men killed. Military occupa-
tion of the place by Gen. Butler, May, 1861. President Lincoln, who passed
through Baltimore (1861) in disguise, to his first inauguration, was nomina-
ted with great enthusiasm for his second term by convention there assem-
bled (1864).
BANKING SYSTEM, U. S. Before the outbreak of the rebellion, paper currency
issued from incorporated independent banks. In 1860, there were in the U
S. 1,562 banks, having an aggregate capital of $4 21,880,000, and a circulation
of $207,104,400. In 1861, the banks generally were compelled to suspend
specie payments. The government established by act of Congress Feb. 25,
1863, a uniform national banking system. An additional act was passed June
3, 1864. In Jan. 1866, theie A\ere 1,579 National Banks. Capital, $403,350,
000. Circulation, $213,000,000. These banks deposit bonds with the U. S.
Treasurv to the extent of one-third of their car)ital. There ar3 14 cit'.ei cz.^'
16
taining 218 banks, which are selected as points of redemption. Jan. 186*7, the
national bank-note circulation was $291,093,294 ; total currency of the United
States (circulation and deposits), $1,496,672,065.
BANKRUPTS m England, (p. 189.) The number in 1850, was 1,298 ; in ISST,
it was 1,488 ; in 1858, there were 1,346 ; in 1859, there were 959 ; and in 1860J
no less than 8,470. In Scotland, there were 463 in 185Y, and 445 in 1860. In
Ireland, 73 in 1857, and 113 in I860.
BANKRUPT LAWS in the U. S. A general bankrupt law was passed by Con-
gress, April 4, 1800, and repealed 1803. Another was passed Aug. 19, 1841,
and repealed 1843. An act " establishing a uniform system of bankruptcy in
the U. S.," passed Congress, Maich, 1867, and is now in operation (July, 1867),
the "Registers in Bankruptcy" throughout the Union having been appointed
by Chief Justice Chase, as prescribed in the law. In England, a Court of
bankruptcy was first established 1831. An important act relating to the sub-
ject was passed 1849, amended 1854, and further discussed for amendment
1859. See Commercial Failures.
BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was estab-
lished in 1823, by Sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustrative
of the history, antiquities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 113 vol-
umes were issued.
BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or
banners — Num ii. (1491 b. c.) The standard of Constantine bore the inscrip-.
tion, in hoc signo vinces — "By this sign thou shalt conquer," under the figure
of the cross. See Cross. The magical banner of the Danes, (said to be a
black raven on a red ground), was taken by Alfred when ho defeated Hubba,
878. ► t. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebiated auriflamraa, or oriflam-
me, were the standards of France about 1100. See Aurijlamma, Standards^
&c.
BAPTISTS, U. S. A. (p. 190). In 1858, they had 12,000 churches with about
1,000,000 members. In 1762, they had 56 churches only; 1792, 1,000; 1812,
2,432; in 1832,5,322; 1852, 9,500: 1866 {Baptist Almanac), they hud 59-2,
associations, 12,702 churches, 7,867 ordained ministers, and 1,040^300.
members.
BATTLES, (p. 192.)
In the British and French {allies) war with Russia :
Tcliern<iya Aug. 16, 1855
Malakoft" taken by tlie French.
Sept. 8, 1855
Iiisour, (Ru88. and Turks) Nov. 6, 1855
Baidar, (E,uss. and French) Dec. 8, 1855
Silistria June 13-15, 1854
A.ma Sept. 20, 1854
Bulaklava Oct. 25, 1 854
Inkerman.... Nov. 5, 1854
Eupatoi-ia, (Turks and R.) Feb. 17, 1855
Sebastopol.' March 22-4, 1855
Jn British war against mutineers in India :
Conflicts before Delhi, May 30 I Cawnpore, victory of Campbell,
to July 23, 1857 | Dec. 6, 185?
Havelock's victories before Cawn- | Lucknow taken March 14r-19, 1858
pore, &c July 12 to Aug. 16, 1857 | Gwailor ([Joije victorious) Junel ,1858
Assault and capture of Delhi, Uegum of Oude' defeated Feb. 10, 1859
September 16-20, 1857 |
Allied {French and Sardinians) against Aiistrians in Italy :
Austrians cross the Ticino. I Magenta, (Allies vict.) June 4, 1859
April 27. 1859 | MaPgnano, do June 8, 1859
Montebello (Allies vict.) May 20, 1859 I Solftrino, do June 24, 1859
P&lestro do May 30, 1859 | See Sardinia, Naples, &c.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
17
Naval conflict in China :
Mouth of the Peiho June 25, 1859
Frencli and English attack on
Pekin Oct. e
BATTLES, Austrians against Prussians and Italians, war of 1866.
Battle of Custozza, between Ital-
ians and Austrians, [Italians
defeated] June 24, 1866
Battle of 8ka]itz in Bohemia,
between Austrians and Prus-
sians, [Austrians retreat].
July 27, 1866
G-reat battle of Sadowa, between
Austrians and Prussians.
BATTLES, U. S. In the War for the IJnion,
Fort Sumter, Charleston, S. C,
bombarded by the Rebels.
April 12. 1861
Wilson's Creek, Missouri, (Na-
tionals retreat and G-en. Lyon
killed.) Aug. 10, 1861
Carthage, Mo. (Nat. victory)
July 10, 1861
Rich Mountain, Va., (Nat. vic-
torjO July 11, 1861
Bull Run, Va., (Nat. defeated)
July 21, 1861
Lexington, Mo. (Nat. surren-
der) Sept. 20, 1861
Balls Bluff, Va., (Nat. defeated.
Gen. Baker killed) Oct. 21, 1861
Mill Spring, Ky. (Nat. victo-
rious) Jan. 19, 1862
Roanoke Island, N. C. (Nat.
capture 46 guns, 2,500 prison-
ers') Feb. 7-8, 1862
Fort Donelson, Tenu., iNat. cap-
ture 13,300 prisoners, 55 guns.)
Feb. 16, 1862
Pea Ridffe, Avk., (Nat. victo-
rious) .": March 6, 7, 8, 1862
Shiloli, Tenn., (Rebels retreat
after desperate fighting).
April 6-7, 1862
Island No. 10, Miss. River, sur-
renders to U. S. forces, with 125
guns, 6,000 prisoners. April 7, 1862
Williamsburg, Va.,(Rebs. retreat)
May 5, 1862
Winchester, Va., (Nat. retreat)
May 25, 1862
Fair Oaks, Va., (Nat. defeated)
May 31, 1862
Seven Pines, Va., (Nat, victo-
rious) June 1, 1862
Seven D;iy8' Battles near Pach-
mond (Nat. repulsed).
June 26-Ju]y 1, 1862
Bull Run, Va., (Is at. defeated).
Aug. 80, 1862
Antietam, Md. (Rebs. defeated)
Sept. 17, 1862
Fredericksburg, Va,, (Nat. de-
feated) Dec. 13, 1862
Murfreesboro', Tenn., " Stone
River " (indecisive ; Rebs. re-
treat. Nat. loss very heavy),
Dec. 31, 1862 to Jan. 3, 1863
2
[Nearly 500,000 men engaged.
Prussians completely victo-
rious] July 3, 1866
Austrians defeated at Ohnutz,
July 15, 1866
Naval fight off Lissa, between
Italians and Austrians. [Ital-
ians lose two war ships]. July 20, 1866
1861-5.
Grierson's raid through. Missis-
sippi April 17 to May 2, 1863
Chancellors\ille,_ Va. (Nat. re-
pulsed) ', May 2-4, 1863
Champion Hills, Mississippi,
(NTat, victorious. .Siege of
Vicksburg begins) May 16, 1863
Gett\sburg, Penn., (Eebs. de-
feated) July 1-4, 1863
Chickaniauga, G-a., (Rebs, de-
feated; Sept. 19-20, 1863
Vicksburg, Miss. (30,000 prison-
ers and '220 guns surrendered
to U. S. forces under Gen.
Grant) July 4, 1863
Port Hudson, La., (7,000 prison-
ers surrender toU. S. forces).
July 8, 1863
Chattanooga, Ga., (Nat. victo-
rious) Nov. 23-26, 1863
National " Red River Expedi-
tion" under Gen. Banks, (de-
feated) April 8, 1864
Wilderness, Va. (indecisive>;
loss heavy on both sides).
Mr.y 5-6, 1864
Spottsylvania,Va., (Heavy light-
ing, but Rebels retire).
May 10-12, 1864
Resaca, Georgia, (Rebs. retreat)
May 15, 1864
Cold Harbor, Va., (Nat. i-e-
pulsed) June 1-3, 1864
Battles about Petersburg, Va.,
(indecisive) Tune 15-19, 1864
Sherman fniJs in an attack on
KenesaAV Mountain, Ga.
June 27, 1864
Petersburg Mine, Va., (Nat. de-
feated) July 30, 1864
Terrible lighting about Atlanta,
Ga„ (Rebs. defeat.) July 20-22, 1864
Atlanta, Ga., taken by Sherman,
Sept. 2, 1864
Opequan, Va., (Gen, Sheridan
defeats Early, Rel>el),.Sept. 19, 1864
Fisher's Hill, Va., (Early again
d efeated) . Sept. 22, 1864
Cedar Creek, Va., (Early totally
defeated alter gaining some
success) Oct, 19, 1864
Sherman starts on his march
across Georgia Nov. 14, 1864
18 THE world's PEOGRESS,
Fr;inklin, Tenn., (E,ebP. de- | Grant defeats Lee at Five
fented) Nov. 30, 1864
Nashville, Term., (Kebs. com-
pletely routed, losiuir60 guns^.
Dec. 15-19, 1864
SJieriaan enters Savannah, Ga.
Dec. 21, 1864
Fort Fisher, IST. C, taken l-y as-
snlt of U. S. forces.... Jan. 15, 1865
Kinubton, K". C, (Rcbs. re-
pulsed) March 10, 1865
Porks, and continues' fighting:
until the latter surrendered ai
Appomatox Court House, Va.
Apiil 1-9, 186f
Gen. Johnston (Hehel) surren-
ders to Sherman near Raleigh,
N. C April 26, 186*
The last rebel army under Kh'-
by Smith surrenders west of
the Mississippi May '^8, 1865
For complete list of battles and skirmishes, see Appleton's Annual Cyclopeedia,
1865. See Naval Battles^ Atlanta^ Aniietam^ Getlysburg, Vicksburg^ Nashville^
Corinth.
BAVARIA. Louis IT. (b. 1845), became king on death of his father Maximilian,
March 10, 1864. Population of Bavaria 18()1, 4,689,837.
BEDOUINS. Wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c.
They profess a form of Mahomniedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They
are said to be descendants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respect-
ing him, B. c. 1911, Gen. xvi. 12. They are the scourge of Arabia and
Egypt.
BENEVOLENCE, British. During 1859, there were contributed to about thirty
of the principal religions societies of Great Britain, $4,262,435, an average of
$82,(100 a week, over $11,000 a day, and nearly $500 an hour. And yet this
is but a portion of the amount given in that country for evangelical and be-
nevolent purposes. The income of the British and Foreign Bible Society was
$774,530; of the Wesleyan Missionai7 Society, $645,380; of the Church Mis-
sionary Society, $610,440; of the Religious Tract Society, $489,490 ; of the
London Missionary Society $366,440.
BENEVOLENT Societies, (p. 199). The receipts of some of the principal be-
nevolent societies of Nev/ York for the year ending April 30 were :
1857
Amer. Tract Society
" E.ble ,441.805
" B. C. Foreio-n Missions, ....388,932
" Home Missionary Soc 178,060
*' Sunday School ^nion
Charities^ Missions^ etc. In New York city, in 1866, there were about 300 re-
ligious and benevolent societies, hospitals, dispensaries, asylums, &c. Total
receipts of 28 leading societies in 18ti6, $4,766,698,81. These are national
organizations, and the proportion contributed by New York city is from 10 to
15 per cent.
BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's "Dictionary of
the Bible," 1722-8 ; Kitto s " Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," (3 vols.)
1843 and 1866; and Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," (3 vols.) 1860. See
Concordances.
BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the poor), consisting of engravings illus-
trating Scripture history, vvith texts, carved in wood, a "block book," printed
early in the fifteenth century, was compiled by Bonaventuia, general of the
Franciscans, about 1260. A facsimile was published by J. Russell Smith, in
1859.
BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed was established by some Ro-
man Catholic prelates, in France, in 1774. CJiambers's Ed. CI. The British
and Foreign Bible Society distributed, during the forty-five years ending Jan,
2-558
1859
1860
1348,049
1866
390,759
415,011
4:9.799
642,625
334,000
850,815
435,956
175,970
188,139
185.216
(sales),
202,426
234,436
^ SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. l9
2, 1851, more than twenty-three millions of copies in one hundred and forty
different lan,£^u;iges. The American Bible Society, in fifty years ending 1866.
expended $10,434,953.
3IBLI0GRAPHY, the science op books. The following works on this subject
are highly esteemed: Peignot, J/cmweZ, 1823 ; Home, Introduction to the
Study of Bibliography, 1814; Scriptctral — Orrae, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824:
Darling, CyclopEedia Bibliographica, 1854-8; Clas-sical — the works of Fabri-
cius, Clarke, and Dibdin; English — Watts' Bibliotheca Britannica, 1824;
Lowndes' Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn, 1857-61); French — Queraid,
1828 et seq. As a general work of reference, Brunet's Manuel du Lihraire,
3842, is exceedingly valuable. The most important work on English and
American bibliography is Allibone's Dictionary of Authors, 2 vols. R, 8vo.,
1859-61. In 1866, Mr. John R. Bartlett pubhshed the bibliography of the
American Civil War, containing 6,073 titles of books and paniphlets relating
to that struggle, and issued between 1860-6.
BIRDS. Divided by Linnaeus into six orders (1735); by Blumenbach into eight
(1805); and by Cuvier into six (1817). The most remarkable works ever
published on birds are those by our American Audubon, and those by John
Gould in England ; the latter will consist of thirty-one folio volumes of color-
ed jlate.'^, &c. Each set, bound, will cost about £500. Audubon's great work
on Birds of America was engraved and published by him in Edinburgh, in
four huge folios, about 1835 ; the subscription price was $800. It was repro-
duced in seven smaller volumes in 1840, and in the original form in 1859-60-,
at New York.
BISHOPS, U. S. A. In 1866, there Avere forty-one Episcopal Bishops in the
United States. Methodist Episcopal Bishops in 1865 numbered twenty-two.
Lieut.-Gen. Folk (Confederate), Piotestant JEpiscopal Bishop, was killed near
Eenesaw Mountain, Georgia, June 14, 1864. In 1859 the Catholic Bishops
numbered forty-five.
BLACK LETTER. Employed in the first printed books in the middle of the
fifteenth century. The first printing types were Gothic, but they were modi-
fied into the present Roman type about 1469, Pliny's Natural History being
then printed in the new characters.
BLACK-MAIL. A compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the Low-
landers to the Highlander.^, for the protection of their cattle; existed till within
a few months of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agricultural
improvement almost impossible.
BLIND. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine
Haiiy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in
Scotland, in Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799, Printing
in raised or embossed characters for the use of the blind was begun at Paris
by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at Glasgow in raised Roman
characters about 1848. There is hardly any department of human knowledge
ih which Wind persons have not obtained distiriction. Laura Bridgman, born
in 1829, became dumb and blind two years after : she was so well taught by
Dr. Howe, of Boston, U. S., as to become an able instructor of blind and dumb
persons. By the census of 1851, tliere were in Great Britain, 21,487 blind
persons, 11,273 males; 10,214 females: about one blind in 975. Asylums for
THE BLIND. The numbcF in the IT. S. in 1860 was 20. The first one was the "Per-
kins Institution and New England Asyluni," founded at Boston in 1832, by
Dr. Howe and Col. Perkins. New York Institute for the Blind, 1832. Phil-
20 THE woeld's peogeess.
adelpliia Institute, 1833. Institute at Columbus, Ohio, 183Y. At Raleigh, ¥.
C, 1848. Number of blind persons in the U. S. in 1860, 11,125. Estimated
at about the same number in 1866.
BOLIYIA. A republic in South America, formerly of Peru; was declared indepen-
dent, Aug. 6, and took the name of Bolivia, in honor of General Bolivar, Aug.
11, 1825. The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, under Tupac Amaru Andres,
took place in l'780-2. Slavery was abolished in 1836. General Sucre govern-
ed ably from 1826-8; Santa Cruz ruled from 1828 to 1834; after which
many disorders occurred. In 1853 free trade was proclaimed. General Cor-
dova president, 1855-7, was succeeded by Jose Maria Lenares, 1859, Gen.
Cordova, 1860 and Jose M. de Acha, 1861. Population in 1855, 2,826,126.
BOLOGNA, (p. 208.) During the Italian war of 1859, the Romagna threw off the
temporal sovereignty of the Pope, and voted for annexation to Sardinia. On
Oct. 2, the provisional government at Bologna decreed that all public acts
should be headed " under the reign of Victor Emmanuel."
BOOK-TRADE, United States, (p. 211.) The number of new books recorded as
published during one year ending June 30, 1851, was 1,261, No accurate
statistics have been compiled in recent years. In 1855 the number of new
works and new editions recorded as then first published in the U. S. was about
2,400. There were in the U. S. (1860) about^'3,000 booksellers and 400 pub-
lishers. In 1864 there were 2,028 separate publications; in 1865, 1,802, of
which about 80 were histories and stories of the late war. The uicreased cost of
paper and labor has raised the price of books about 60 to 80 per cent, since
the rebellion began.
BOOK-TRADE of Great Britain, (p. 210.) Number of new publications in
1850, 4,400. In 1859 there were 5,5(j7 different works entered for copyright,
and 4,066 volumes and pieces of music. This is an increase of 700 per cent,
on the returns of 1828: about 400 percent, on those of 1836, and about 60
per cent, on those of 1854. In 1864 the number of publications was 3,553.
BOOK-TRADE, France, (p. 210.) The value of books imported in 1855, was
1,829,470 francs. Value of exports, 12,344,855 francs; increased of exports
since 1851, 30 per cent.
BORNEO, an island of the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Aug.
tralia, was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. The Dutch traded here in
1604, established factories in 1776, and still remain on the island. The Brit-
ish chastised Bornean pirates in 1813, and again 1843, and in 1846 they took
possession of a part of the island, Sir James Brooke being appointed "Rajah"
of Sarawak." An English bishop for the island consecrated at Calcutta, Oct. 18,
1855. Insurrection of Chinese in Sarawak, Feb. 18, 1857 ; subdued by Brooke,
and 2,000 insurgents killed. British government urged to purchase Sarawak,
Nov. 1858, but declined.
BOSTON, U. S. A. (p. 212.) The population in 1850 was 136,881 ; in 1855, 16Q,5<"8
in 1860, 177,902. Free Public Library, a noble institution, first opened 1858.
Population in 1867, estimated at 200,000. In 1867, an. act was passed by
the legislature uniting Roxbury with Boston ; this was vetoed by the governor.
During the last twelve years, she has spent for teachers, $3,668,000 ; for school-
houses, $1,600,000 ; incidentals, |1, 357,000— -a total of |6, 629,358, which ia
claimed to be a larger proportionate expenditure than that of any other city
in the world for educational purposes. The salary of the Principals in the sev-
eral high schools is $4,0i)0.
BOUNDARY QUESTIONS between the U. S. and England. The " Nor th-East
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 21
Boundary " between Maine and the British possessions adjusted by the
Webster-Asliburton Treaty at Wasliington, 1842. The Oregon Boundary,
adjusted by treaty at London, June 18, 1856.
BRAZIL, (p. 216.) First steamship line to Europe, 1850 ; Slave trade sup-
pressed, 1852 ; Railways commenced, 1852 ; Rio Janeiro lighted v/;th gas,
1854. War with Uruguay. Brazillians march on Montevideo, Feb. 2, 1865.
Alliance with Argentine Republic ; the emperor joins the army against Lopez,
pres't of Paraguay, Aug. 1865. First steamship line from New York to
Brazil, established through the agency of Rev. J. C. Fle-tcher, 186- Kiddei
and Fletcher's work on Brazil (the most comprehensive) published in succes-
sive editions 1859-1867. Prof. Agassiz, scientific explorations in Brazil,
1866. Preliminary steps taken to abolish slavery in the empire, April, 186Y.
The plan is the gradual emancipation of the slaves in 20 years.
BREWERIES, U. S. The number of them in the Northern States in 1860, waa
969. In that year 3,235,345 barrels of ale and beer were manufactured.
Number in New York State in 1865, 201. Philadelphia has a greater num-
ber of breweries than any other city,
BRIBERY IN THE v. S. An attempt to bribe, though unsuccessful, has been
held a criminal offence in Virginia. Indictments for bribery have been rare
in this country.
BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS IN ENGLAND, (p. 217.) Borcugh of St. Albans disfran-
chised for bribery, 1852. Elections at Derby and other places declared void
by bribery in 1853, and at other places 1857-9.
BRICKS. In the U. S. very fine bricks come from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and
Milwaukee, Wis. Number of brickmakers in 1860, 13,700. The time for
burning bricks is 3 or 4 days ; 16 cords of wood are necessary to 100,000
bricks (Prof. Mather). A patent for pressing brick was granted in 1847 to Mr.
Sawyer, of Baltimore. A brick-machine patented by Mr. Gard, of Chicago,
1866, turns out by steam-power 25,000 bricks per day. Number of manufac-
tories in the U. S. in 1860, 1,595. Annual value of 'products, $10,253,734.
BRIDGES, U. S. The famous natural bridge in Virginia, Rockbridge co., is
100 feet long over a chasm 215 feet deep. Another in Walker co., Alabama,
120 feet long and 70 high. There are also two in California, Calaveras co.,
remarkable lor their immense arches. The finest stone bridge in the U. S. is
High Bridge across Harlem river, N. Y. ; it is 1,450 feet long, 114 feet high,
and is supported on 14 arches. The Schuylkill R. R. bridge at Philadelphia,
has a single span of 340 feet. The first suspension bridge in the U. S. was
built by Mr. Finley about 1800. The Wheeling bridge over the Ohio, with a
span of 1,000 feet, was put up in 1848 and blown down in 1854. The R. R.
suspension bridge over the Niagara was built by Mr. Roebling; completed in
1858. The span is 821 feet ; height 245 feet ; 14,500 wires are used in the
cables. The Covington and Cincinnati suspension bridge is 2,252 feet long.
Height of pier, 80 feet; width, 45 feet; size of cable, 12 inches; cost
$1,750,000. The R. R. bridge across the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace is
8,273 feet long ; completed in 1865, after 4 years work of about 1,000 men.
It is a trestle-work with arches, and rests on solid piers sunk in the river.
Cost, $1,500,000.
BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The Rev. Francis, Earl of Bridgewater, died
in April, 1829, leaving by will, £8,000 to be given to eight persons, appointed
by the president of the Royal Society, who should write each an essay on the
poAver, wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the Creation. The
22
essays (by Sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckland,
William JProut, J. M. Roget, and the Revs. William Whewell and William
Kirby) were published ia 1834-3'7.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement op Science. It holds annua:
meetings, the first of which was held at York in 1831. One of its main ob^
jects is to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science. A vclume
containing reports of the proceedings is published annually.
BRITISH AMERICA, United by act of Parliament under the name of Domin-
ion of Canada, 1867.
BRITISH MUSEUM, (p. 220). In 1816 the Right Hon. Thos. Grenville
bequeathed to the Museum his library, consisting of 20,240 vols. The Assy-
rian sculptures and other treasures were collected by Mr. La yard between
1847-50. Great additions to, and improvements in the building have lately
been made by the munificence of Parliament, independently of a large annual
grant for scientific purposes. The present magnificent reading-room was
opened to the public, May 11, 1857. The room contains about 80,000 vols.,
and will accommodate 300 readers. The library contains about 562,0;J0 vols.,
exclusive of tracts, MSS., &c. The alphabetical catalogue was completed
from A to H in May, 1858 in above l,00l> folio vols.
BROOKLYN, on Long Island, but really a suburb of the city of New York, in
1800 had but 3,298 inhabitants; in 18o0 it had 15,292; in 1855 (then con-
solidated with Williamsburg) it had 205,250. In 18G0, it had 270,425 ; in
1865, 296,378. See Additions.
rUDDHISM. The religion formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia
beyond the Ganges and Japan, from which Brahminism is derived. Buddha,
or the Wise, flourished about 1,000 or 1,10a b. c. The Buddhists believe
that the soul is au emanation from God, and that, if it continues virtuous,' it
will undergo various changes of abode. Buddhism was expelled from India
about A. D. 596.
BUENOS-AYRES, S. A.merica. (p. 222.) The independence of the province
was declared July 19,1816, and it was recognized in February, 1822, as form-
ing part of the Argentine Confederation ; but for some years the country was
a prey to civil war under various leaders, among whom were Oribe, Urquiza,
and Rosas. The last was defeated in battle, Feb. 3, 1852, by Urquiza, to
whom Buenos-Ayres capitulated, and Rosas fleeing to England, arrived at
Plymouth, April 25, 1852. General Urquiza having been deposed Sept. 10,
1852, invested the city, Dec. 28. He defeated his opponent's squadron,
April 18, 1853, but withdrew his forces, July IS, and the civil war ended. In
1853, Buenos-Ayres seceded from the Argentine Confederation, and has been
generally recognized as an independent state. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado was
elected governor, Oct. 12, 1853. Dr. Valentin Alsina was elected governor
for three years. May, 1857. Population in 1854 about 350,000.
BUILDING SOCIETIES, for mutual benefit of persons of limited means who
would build or buy their houses economically, are said to have originated at
Kirkcudbright, Scotland. A large number were organized in New York w
1848-49, but they do not appear to have been generally sustained.
BURMESE OR BiRMAN Empire. For the events of war with England, and of
the Burmese war commenced in 1851, see India. The province of Pegu
annexed to British empire, Dec. 20, 1852. War declared at an end, June 20,
1853.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 23
c
CABINET, U. S., See Administrations.
CABRIOLET. One-horsed cabriolets (v?*^^^?, cabs) were introduced in London
as public conveyances in 1823, when the number in use was 12. In 183G
they had increased to 165. In 1859 there were in London 5,500 cabs, of
which about 1,500 ply on Sunday. Hackney-coaches there are now almost
extinct. In 1853 the legal fare was made 6d. per mile. In New York and
other Amer. cities, a clumsy style of cab was introduced in 1844-5, but not
being a desirable shape they were not popular, and soon disappeared. An
improved pattern — the coitjjS, was again introduced, 1865-6, and is used to some
extent.
CALENDS were the first days of the Roman months. The JVones of March,
May, July, and October, fell on the 'Zth ; and their Ides on the 15th. The
other months had the AWes on the 5th and the Ides on the 13th. As the
Greeks had no Calends, ad Grcecas Calendas, " on the Greek Calends," meant
never.
CALIFORNIA, (p. 230.) In 1831 the population (Mexican) was estimated at
23,000. By the cen.^us of 1850 the number was 92,597 ; by that of 1852 it
was 2H4,435, of whom only 22,193 were white females. In 1856 the popula-
tion was 518,380, of whom 336,380 were Americans; 15,000 Mexicans;
10,000 Irish; 10,000 Germans; 2,000 Enghsh; and 15,000 various (white)
nationalities ; 50,000 Chinese ; 65,000 Indians. From 1849 to 1857 inclusive,
75,301 Chinese arrived at San Francisco, of whom 17,524 returned duiing the
same time. Population in 1860, 380,000 ; in 1866, nearly 500,000. In 1865
there were 947 schools in the State, and over 100 newspapers and periodicals.
From 1848 to 1864, her mines produced $816,500,000. Of this $541,600,000
has been coined at the mints. In 1866, the export of gold was $44,360,000.
Over 18,000,000 bushels of cereals were produced in 1863; 17,000,000 vines
were growing in 1866, giving 1,252,000 gallons of superior wine.
CALORIC ENGINE. First reduced to practice by John Ericsson in London in
1833, and.then considered a success, but not made practically available till
1852. In that year it was introduced in a ship of 2,000 tons which it propelled
from New York to Alexandria in the Potomac and back in very rough
weather, February, 1853, This achievement created great excitement in the
scientific world, but the speed attained was not commercially sufficient.
Subsequently Ericsson devised an engine that for all purposes requiring a
moderate power, has proved entirely successful, and is now extensively used
in the United States, Cuba, Canada, and in many South American and Euro-
pean States. It isinexplosive, entirely free from danger, -consumes but little
fuel and requires no water. Innumerable motors have been planned and
patented by men of science during the last hundred years, but the only one
(other than steam-engines) that has become an article of use and commerce
is Ericsson's Caloric Engine, patented in the United States, Dec. 14, 1858.
It estabhshes an epoch in the history of motive power.
CANADA. Ottawa, formerly Bytown, was appointed the capital in 1858. A
regiment of the line (the 100th) spontaneously raised in 1858. The upper and
lower provinces united and designated Canada East and Canada West. Sir
Edmund Head gov. gen. 1854, Grand Trunk Railway 850 miles long, from
Quebec to Toronto, with branch to Portland, Maine, opened Nov. 12, 1856.
Victoria Bridge at Montreal completed 1860, and opened with great ceremony
by the Prince of Wales, 1860. Population in 1852: Upper Canada, 952,004;
24 THE WOELD'S TEOGEESS.
Lower Canada, 890,261. In 1857 it was estimated thus: I pper Canadn,
1,805,923 ; Lower, 1,220,514. The value of exports in 1857 was £6,751,656.
Lord Monck gov. gen. Nov. 28, 1861. Population in 1861, 2,506,755. Products
of the U. S. imported into Canada under the " Eeeiprocity Treaty," in 1862,
114,430,626. Imports in 1864, $50,619,217. Exports, |33,317,873. Total
militia force, (1863) 305,140. Length of Railways, 2,000 miles. In Oct. 1864,
a raid from the Canada side into St. Albans, Vermont, by fome confederates,
created great excitement in both countries. Gen. Dix, IJ. S. A., ordered that
U. S. troops should cross the lines and capture such raiders, if not surrender-
ed. The government revoked the order promptly. The "Dominion of Can-
ada," consisting of the United Provinces of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, &c., established by the Queen's consent, 1867.
CANALS, (p. 228.) The Chesapeake and Ohio canal (Md.), cost $10,000,000;
completed ; the Lachine canal, in Canada, 8* miles, cost $235,934 per
mile; the Erie canal cost $19,679 per mile. Number of miles completed in
1858, 888 ; cost $90,000,000. Tolls received from U. S. canals in 1866, $4,-
436,639. Number of boats, 485. By the Erie canal 2,235,700 tons of pro-
duce from the west were brouglit to tide-water.
CANCER. A hospital to receive persons suffering from this fearful disease was
founded by Miss Burdett Coutts, at Brompton, near London, on May 30, 1859.
Experiments to cure it by acetic acid in progress in New Haven and New York
(1866-7).
CANNON, (p. 234.) In 1820 the maximum size of guns in American forts was
a 24-pounder ; in 1850 the largest was 10-inch bore, carrying balls of 124 lbs.
A. vol. of reports of experiments in gunmaking was published by the U. S.
Ordnance Department in 1856. Just before the rebellion Captain Parrott in-
vented, at West Point, a rifled gun of great efficiency. The 10-pounder has
a range of 5,000 yards. The 300-pounder can throw a shot of 250 lbs. 5;^
miles. The guns invented by Major Rodman during the war have a smooth
chamber ; calibre, from 8 to 20 inches. The first 20-inch gun was cast at Pitts-
burg in 1864; weight, 116,000 lbs.; weight of shot, 1,000 lbs.; charge, 100
lbs. of powder. The guns generally in use in the navy were invented by Capt.
Dahlgren, U. S. N. The 9 and 11-inch bores are unequalled for powerful ef-
fect in close action. An enormous Columbiad is mounted at Fortress Monroe,
carrying shot of 525 lbs. weight. From 1861 to 1866 the Ordnance Depart-
ment (U. S.) provided 7,892 cannon for tlie army and navy. Steel cannon
wore first manufactured in the U. S. by Mr. N. Wiard of New York, June,
1861. In England, since 1860, great improvements in cannon have been
made by Whitworth, Mallett, Armstrong and others. Dahlgren of the TJ. S.
navy (now Admiral) and others have also invented new constructions. An
American cannon weighing 35 tons was cast in 1860.
CANTON, (p. 285.) In consequence of an outrage on a British vessel the forts
guarding the city wore captured, and Canton was bombarded, Oct. 29, 1856,
by order of Sir J, Bowring, who was afterwards censured by a vote of the
House of Commons. Canton taken by the British and Frencli, Dec. 29, 1857,
and Yeh, the governor, was sent to Calcutta a prisoner.
CAPITOL or the United States. The corner-stone of the original edifice was
laid by Washington, Sept. 18, 1793. It was burnt by the British 1814; re-
stored 1818. Coiner-stone of the new wings laid by Pres. Fillmore, July,
1851. The present structure is 751 feet long, and covers 3^ acres. The co*
lossal statue of Freedom, by Crawford, was raised to the top of the dome Dec,
6UPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 25
2, 1863. The iron dome cost $900,000. Up to Nov., 1862, the cost of the mar-
ble and the setting of the same was |2,402,000.
CARICATURES. The modern caricatures of Gilray Rowlandson (H. B.), (John
Doyle {o = HB), R. Doyle and J. Leech are justly celebrated. The well-known
"Punch " was first published in 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction
(Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) have con-
tributed to this amusing periodical. " Vanity Fair," commenced in New
York, 1860, enlisted some of the best American talent in this department, but
was shortlived. See Satire.
CARNIVAL. {Carni vale, Italian, * e.. Flesh, farewell!) A well-known festival time
in the Roman Catholic Church, observed in Italy, particularly at Venice, about
Shrove-tide or beginning of Lent. This is a season of mirth and indulgence,
and numbers visit Italy during its continuance.
CAROLINA.— See N. and S. Carolina.
CARPET MANUFACTURE.— The value of carpets manufactured in Mass. in
1855 was $1,362,000. Carpets imported into the U. S. in 1857, valued at $2-
181,200. In 1866 there were 200 carpet manufactories in the country, but ot
these only six were capable of producing the fine class of carpeting required^
in the best houses.
CARTES DE VISITE. The small photographic portraits thus termed, are fsaid
to have been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferriei-, in 1857. The Duke of Parma
had his portrait placed upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon fol-
lowed in Paris, London, and in the United States.
CASUALTIES for 1865. During the year 1865, there were 854 fires in the
United States where the amount of loss was .$20,000 or upwards, at which
property was destroyed amounting, as estimated, to $43,139,000. The losses
by fire from 1855 to 1865, inclusive, were $214,588,000. During the year
there were 183 railroad accidents, by which 335 persons were killed and 1,427
wounded; and 32 steamboat accidents, by which 1,788 were killed, and 265
wounded. During the last twelve years there were 1,413 railroad accidents,
by which 2,204 were killed, and 8,356 W'Ounded ; and 324 steamboat accidents,
by which 5,372 were killed, and l,o79 wounded.
CAUCASUS, (p. 241.) The subjugation of the Caucasian tribes has long been
the object of the Russians, and seems now almost achieved by the capture of
Schamyl (Sept. 7, 1859), who was honorably received by the czar.
CAWNPORE. A town in India; during the mutiny in 1857, was garrisoned by
native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler. They revolted and were joined by
Nana Sahib, who captured the place, June 26, and massacred great numbers
of the British, without regard to age or sex. Cawnpore was retaken by Have-
lock, July 17, 1857.
CAYENNE, (p. 242.) Many poUtical prisoners have been sent here by the
Freijch em.peror since 1852.
CEMETERIES, National. For soldiers of the U. S. who fell in battle or died
in the service. In June, 1866, there were 41 National Cemeteries, with 104,-
528 graves. Ten more were to be added, containing a total of 249,397 graves.
The '• Antietam National Cemetery," has 8,000 graves, half of them marked
" unknown." Provision made by Congress in 1867 for substantial headstonea
and improvements. Oration delivered by President Lincoln at the dedication
of the Gettysburg Cemetery, July 4, 1864. In the suburbs of New York, sev-
eral new rural cemeteries have been opened (1840-67), viz., Woodlawn,
Calvary, The Evergreens, &c.
26 TBM WOELD's progress.
CEXSUS OF THE United States, has been taken at eight different periods, v\r^
1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860. See Population. The
Census is taken by the general government every ten years; that of New
York, lUinois, Wisconsin, and Florida is by those states taken decennially at
intei-mediate periods, thus giving returns every five years. Other states have
different periods for a census. In 1865, it was taken in the states of Illinois,
Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Alabama, Rhode Island, and Iowa.
The number of persons employed in taking the U. S. census of 1860 was 4,481 ;
expense to the Government, $1,045,206.
CENSUS REPORTS, U. S. In 1700, the entire population of the Anglo-Ameri-
can colonies was 262,000; in 1750, it was 1,000,000 ; in 1775, 2,389,300. In
1790, the population of the United States alone was 3,929,827 ; and in 1860,
31,443,321. Anticipated population in 1900, 107,000,000.' The unimproved
lands of the United States, in 1860, amounted to 244,101,818 acres ; improved
lands, 163,110,720 acres; cash value of the whole estimated at |6, 645,045, 007.
Estimated product of our manufactures in 1860, 14,000,0^00, OoO. Com-
mercial railroads in the United States, 35,935 miles, costing $1,432,649,
OCO. City railroads, 402 miles, costing $14,862,840. Slack-water canals
and branches, 118, of which 68 cost $147,393,997. Real and personal property
estimated at $19,089,156,289. Educational institutions reported, 113,006';
te?chers, 148,742; students, 5,417,880. Collegiate institutions, 445; students,
64,969. Churches, 54,000. Newspapers, 4,051 ; circulation, 928,000,000
copies. Revolutionary army, from 1775 to 1783, 231,791; vessels, 4. In
1812, regulars, 32,360; volunteers, 6,000; militia, 30,000; navy, 8 frigates,
and 170 gun-boats. In 1815, 276 vessels, with 1,636 guns. In March, 1865,
we had 684 vessels of war, with 4,477 guns, many of them of large calibre ;
and the aggregate number of men raised for the Union armies was 2,688,()00.
If the Confederate forces be added, the grand total would be reached of
4,000,000 of men at arms — the largest force ever yet raised in any country
or age of the world. — Christian Ahnanac.
CHxiLDEA. The ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S.
W. portion of it. The Chaldeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology.
See Dan. 2, &c.
CHANCELLORS, LORD, England, (p. 245)
Sir Thomas "Wilde, created Lord
Truro 1850
Sir Eflw. iSuiiden, created Lord
St. Leo nrrls 1852
Robert Mousey RoJfe, created
Lord Cranworth 1852
Sir ?red. Thesiger, created Lord
Cheluieford... 1858
John, Lord C;impl)eli 1859
Richard Eetliel, Lord Wi.stburv,
Juije'26, 1861
Thomas, Lord Cranworth, ag! in
July 6, 1865
CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U. S., named from a hotel, once kept by a Mr.
Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4,
1863, between the Army of the Potomac under General Hooker, and the rebels
under General Lee. On Apr, 28, the Union army ciossed the Rappahannock ;
on May 2, General " Stonewall" Jackson furiously attacked and routed the
right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mis-
take. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3
and 4, v/ith great loss to both parties. Hooker was compelled to retreat aerosa
the Rappahannock. The struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont
during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died May 9.
CHANCERY. In the U. S. federal courts equity and law are both administered,
and this system was adopted by the state of N. Y. in her Constitution of 1846
SUPPLEMENTj 1851-67. i'T
CHARITIES OF THE WAR in the U. S. A careful statement made qI th«
amount contributed by the people of the loyjil states for philanthronic pur-
poses connected with the war, not including the donations for relijrious or
educational objects, gives the following noble record : The total contiibutions
from states, counties, and towns for the aid and relief of soldiers, amounted
to $187,209,608.62; the contributions of associations and individuals for the
care and comfort of soldiers were $24,044,865.96 ; for sufferers ab^-oad, |380 '
040.74; for sufferers by the riots of July, lor freednien and white refugeeei,
$639,633.13: making a grand total, exclusive of expenditures of the govern-
ment, of $212,274,248 45. See Sanitary Commission, &c.
CHARLESTON, S. C. Population in 1860, 40,578. A severe fire desL:-oyec:
the business portion of the city, December 11, 1861 ; 17 old hulks W3re sunk
by U. S. forces to blockade the channel, December 21, 1861, The c'*^^y surreo
dered to National troops, February 18, 1865.
CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self <,..
relatives; and British laws juslily a woman for killing a man in defence of her
chastity; and a husband or father in taking the life of him who attempts tj
violate his wife or daughter. In 1,000 years from the time of Numa, 7:.0 b. C,
to the reign of Theodosius the Great, a. I). 394, only eighteen Roman vestals
had been condemned for incontinence.
CHATTANOOGA, Battle of, U. S. Fought on Nov 23, 1863, between the
Uiiion armies under Gen. Grant and the Confederates under Gen. Bragg. The
Confederates were driven from every position. Or. tne right, Hooker stormed
Lookout Mountain ; Thomas in the centre carried the rifle-pits ; Sherman forced
the left after hard fighting. On the 25th th? ivhole of Missionary Ridge was
in the hands of the Lnion army, and the eneaiy completely routed. This has
been regarded as one of the most brilliant achievements of the war. Union
loss about 4,000 ; 6,000 Confederate prisoner? and 42 guns were captured.
CHICAGO, Illinois. Population in 1860, 109,260: m 1865, estimated at i80,-
000. This city is the largest pork-packing depot in the country; 1,000,000
hogs are annually killed and packed here. Loss by fires in Chicago in
1866, $2,457,673.
CHICKAMAUGA, Battle op, TJ. S. A creek by this name was the scene of a
severe battle between the Unjon and Confederate forces, Sept. 19, 20, 1863.
The Union right was completely broken and retreated. The left under Gen.
Thomas withstood the fierce assaults of the enemy, and saved the army from
a total defeat. Gen. Bragg (Confed.) had been reinforced by Longsireet irom
Va. Gen. Rosecrans (Union), withdrew to Chattanooga, and acted entirely on
the defensive for some time after. The entire rebel loss, as stated in their
papers, 18,000. Union loss, 16,350, and 36 guns.
CHILI, S. America, (p. 248.) The present president (1869), Don Manuel Moutt,
was elected Oct. 18, 1856. Population in 1855, 1,439,120. Civil war was
going on in 1859. Population in 1857, was 1,558,468. Exports in 1857
amounted to $20,126,461. Jose Perez elected pres. 1861. Rupture between
Chili and Bolivia respecting the Guano isles, March, 1864. Pop. in 1857,
1,558,319.
CHINA, (p. 249.)
Death of TaonKwang... Feb. 25, 1850 Rebels take N'ankin, March 19,
Rebellion breaks out in Quanaf-si, Amoy, May 19, Shangi.ae,
Aug. 1850 Sept. 7, 1853
Rebel emperor or pretender Rebels besiege Canton unsuc-
Tienteh appears... March, 1851 ceesfuUy Nov. 1854
28
THE WORLD'S PROGKESS.
Canton forts taken by the Brit-
ish (see Can/on) Oct. 8, 1S56
^Tnericans capture 3 f.irts, N'ov. 21, 1856
CiiiiK^se burn European fac-
toi'iee, and murJer English
sailors „ D .-c. 1856
Lord Elgin sent out as British
envoy March, 1857
Briiish"^ destroy the Chinese licet,
June 1, 1857
British blockade Canton Aug. 1S57
Canton taken by English and
French Dec. 28-9, 1857
TTeli, gov. of Canton, who is s lid
to have beheaded 100,000
rebels, sent to Calcutta Jan. 1858
Forts at mouth of Peiho captured
by the English and French.
May 20, 1858
Treaty of peace signed by Key-
ing, Lord Elain, and Bar. Grros.
June 28, 1858
[Principal articles: Ambassa-
dors to be at both courts ; free-
dom of trade ; Christianity to
be tolerate.! : expanses of war
paid by Chii'a ; tariff to be
revised ; Chinese epithet of
" barbarian" no longer to be
applied to foreisiTiers.]
Mr. Bruce, British envoy, stop-
ped at the mouth of the Peiho.
Admii'al Hope attempting to
force the jiassage defeated,
losing 81 killed, 300 wounded.
June 25, 1859
Pekin taken by the French and
English forces, and tlie em-
peror's palace sacked 1860
Pekin given up by allies. ..Ni>v. 5, I8C0
English and French embassies
established there 1 861
Mr. Buiiiugame appointed U. S.
Min.ster to China... 1861
Emperor nien-fung d ( s, and is
succeeded by Ki-tsiaug. Aug. 24, 1S61
Canton restored to Chinese.
Oct. 21, 1861
English and French aid the gov-
ernment against the rebels 1862
English Capt. G-ordon deteats
rebe s a' id tak.. s Nankin, and
rebel emperor Tienw:iiig kills
himself July 18, 1864
CHINA TRADE. A large trade is developed with China through the city of San
Francisco. "Flotir, wheat, lumber, bacon, butter, cheese, lard, wine, and
vegetables are exported from that city in increasing quantities." The value
of expoi^ts from the U. S. to Jhina in 1862, was $4,328,500. In 1866, 2,530,-
000 lbs. of tea were received through San Francisco ; in the same year one
shipment reached New York^ via California and Panama, in 60 days. In 186*7,
a regular line of steamers was estabUshed between China, Japan, and CaUfor-
nia, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. of New York. Anson Barlin-
grime appointed U. S. Minister to China, 1861.
CHLOROFORM. See Anmthetics.
CHOLERA. The Cholera visited America again in 1865-6, and was most
severe at the Avest, especially at Chicago, St. Louis, and Nashville. From
July to Sept., 1866. there were 573 deaths from this disease in Brooklyn, and
583 in N. Y. city.
CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, LondOxN, founded by Edward VL, 1552.
CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in colors.
CHRONOLOGY, (p. 253.) The following works are much esteemed : Pky-
laiv's Chronology, 1784 ; Blair's Clironologv, 1753 (new editions bv Sir H.
Ellis in 1844, and by Mr, Rosse in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables,
1838. Sir Harris Nicolas's Chronology of History is very useful.
CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (p. 253.) The number of churches in England for
Protestant worship, in 1851, was 14,077. Pubhcation of " Essays and Re-
views." and numerous Replies, 1881-2. The Church divided into High, Low,
(or Evangelical) and Broad church — the latter including those who hold the
opinions of Dr. Arnold, F. D. Maurice, and others. Publication of a work on
the Pentateuch by Dr. Colenso, Bishop of Natal, causes great agitation,
1863-6. The bishop deposed by Bishop of Capetown, April, 18(54. This pro-
ceeding declared by the Privy Council to be null and void, Oct. 21, 1865.
"Oxford declaration" on eternal punishment signed by about 3,000 clergymen
and sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury, May 12, 1864.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 2U
CTIFRCH RATES in England in 1854 arnounted to £318,200. Bill to abalisli
them passed by the House of Commons but defeated by the H. oi T^ords, 1858.
CIDER. In the State of New York (1865), 591,379 barrels of cider were manu-
factured.
CINCINNATI, Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies In the
United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and
Nv^vv Jersey. Population in 1795,500; in 1800, 7'50; in 1810,2,540; in
1820,9,642; in 1830,24,831; in 1840, 46,338 ; in 1850,115,486; in 1860,
Ifi 1,044.
CIRQUE PORTS, England, (S. E. coast.) They were originally five: Dover,
Hastings, Hy the, Rommey, and Sandwich ; Winchelsea and Rye were after-
wards added. They are governed by a particular policy and are under a
lord warden. The Duke of Wellington filled that office from 1828 to his
death, 1852.
CIRCASSIA. (p. 255.) By the treaty of Adrianople, in 1830, Circassia was
surrendered to Russia by Turkey. But the Circassians, particularly under a
native chief named Schamyl, have ever since carried on a war of indepen-
dence with varying success against the whole power of Russia. In June,
November, and December, 1857, the Circassians were defeated by the Rus-
siaii governor, Prince Orbelliani, who also in April, 1858, conquered a large
tract of country, and expelled the inhabitants. On Sept. 7, 1859, Schamyl
was captured by the Russians, and treated with great respect. The Circas-
sians becnnie Mahometans in the 18th century.
CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circum-
ference, has exercised the ingenuity of mathem;'.ticians of all ages. Archi-
medes, about B. c. 221, gave it as 7 to 22. Abraham Sharp (1717), as 1 (and
72 decimals) to 3; and Layny (1719), as 1 (and 122 decimals) to 3.
CIRCrLATING LIBRARY. The laigest circulating library in the U. S. is the
Mercajitile of N. Y. city. It contains 86,000 volumes, and has 10,000 mem-
bers ;] 2,000 volumes were added in 1866, costing $16,000; 200 copies of
the "Cuutj of Joseph n." were bought to supply the demand, and liberal
numbers of all new books of general interest.
CLERMONT (France), Council of. The celebrated council in which the crusade
against the infidels was determined upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed
t'.' 'J. iiunaiid it, in the pontificate of Urban II., 1095. In this council the
'..aiiie of pope was first given to the head of the Roman Catholic church,
exehisively of the bishops, who used until this time to assume that title.
k hilip I. of France was (a second time) excommunicated by this assembly.
Henault.
CLOACA MAXIMA. The chief of the celebrated sewers in Rome, the construc-
tion of which is attributed to Xing Tarquinius Prisons (b. c. 588), and his
successors.
CLOCK (p. 258). The great Westminster (London) clock set up. May SO, 1859.
The London v atchmakers established the Horological Institute in 1858, which
publishes a j ur lal. In 1857, 266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches were im-
ported into tiie Linited Kingdom. Clockmaking of a cheap kind, on a large
scale, was commenced in Connecticut in 18 — . The American watch compa-
nies, founded 1850, at Wnltham, Roxbury, &c., make large quantities of supe-
rior watches. Num.ber of clock manufactories in the U. S. in 1860, 23 ; value
of products annually, $1,181,51)0.
CLUBS IN THE UNITED STATES. In New York: The most important areth«
aO THE world's peogeess.
Aihenceum, founded 1859, in 5th avenue, aftei:'wards in Union square, now
(ISB'Z) in Madison square ; Century, founded in Broadway in 1 48, now 'n
15th street; Jidectic, founded 186- ; Jockey, founded 186- ; J)^ew York, 18- ;
Travellers', 1S6-; Union, 5th avenue Jind 21st street; Union League, founded
Feb. 6, 1863, incorporated Feb. IG, 1865; University, founded 186- The
Century and the Athenceum were orio;inated as "associations for the advanc'i-
'C It of Hterature and art." The Union League was started on the basis of
''unconditional loyalty" to the government, and to aid in the suppression of
treason and rebelUon. It was said to have made loyalty " lasliionable in the
best circles." It raised three regiments of colored troops for the U. S. vcluu-
teer forces, and otherwise rendered important services. In Philadelphia,
the Union Leagice Club, founded Dec. 27, 1862, was the foremost of its kind
in the U. S. It raised ten regiments for the government. It numbeis 2,000
members, and has a magnificent club-house. One of the oldest clubs in Phila-
delphia was the Wistar. In Boston, the Union League Club was founded in
1863. Clubs originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred
tastes and pursuits, who met together at slated times for social intercourse.
The club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the end of the sixteenth
century, consisted of Raleigh, Shakespeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a
club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, frequently met at But-
ton's coffee-house, as described in the Spectator. The present London clubs,
some comprising 300, others about 1,500 members, possess luxuriously fur-
nished edifices, several of great architectural pretensions, in or near I'all Mall.
The members obtain the choicest viands and wines at very moderate charges.
Many of the clubs possess excellent libiaiies, particularly the Athenceum
(which see). The annual paynunt varies Irom £(i to £11 lis.; the entrance
fee from £9 9s. to £31 lis. The following are the principal clubs :
Kit-Cat 1703 1 Travellers' 1.819
Becf-Steuk 1735 Oxford and Cambridge 1829
White's {Tory) established., .1736 Carlton (Conservative) 1832
Boodle's 1762 I Reform (Liberal) 1836
Army and ISavj Ib37
■Whittii glon (founded by Douv:laB
Jerrold and otlLeis) 1846
Literary Cub (ic/iich see),
termed also " The Club,"
and Johnson's Club. 1763
United Service 1815
French. The first of these arose about 1782. They were essentiaMy politi-
cal, ajid were greatly concerned in the revolution. The Club Bretotc became
the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised amung
its members Danton and Camille Desmouliiis. From these two clubs %&(ue
the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists, 1*793, and fell in its turn
in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Direciory in 1799. They were re-
vived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their former
eminence.
COAL IN THE U. S. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, first mined
ai d used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal stiata in Pennsylvania,
Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. The "Statistics of Coal," by R. C. Taylor, pub-
lished in Phihidelphia in 1854, give a full and reliable account of coal pro-
ducts in all parts of the world. The nnthracite coal of Pennsylvania was first
used by a blacksmith in the Wyoming Valley in 1775. Bituminous coal first
mined 'in the U. S. in 1845. Total amount produced in I860, 6,218,o80 tons.
Amount of all coals in 1860, 14,333,992 tons. Coal is worked in fifteen of the
states. The upper soam of the Pittsburg coal fields is estimated to contain
53,516 tons. A single lump of coal, weighing 4 tons, was sent to the
Paris Exposition of 1867. The area of coal in the U. S. is 2C6,939 square
RTJPPLEMENT, 1851-67, -^1
miles; 4*70 miles is anthracite in Pennsylvania. The product in 1865 was
22,000,000 tons, of which 10,000,000 was anthracite. The consumption of coal
in France, in 1780 only 400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1845. The
United States produced between 8 and 9 millions of tons ; Belgium, 5,000,-
000 ; and France, 4,500,000, la 1855
COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect, which derives its color from feed-
ing on the cactusj became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of
Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe about 1523. It was not
known in Italy, in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. See
Dyeing. In 1858, it was cultivated successfully in the Teneritfe, the vines
having failed through disease. The import into England in 1850, 2,360,0(!0
lbs. In the United States the importation in 1858 amounted to $221,332.
CODE NAPOLEON. The Civil Code of France, promulgated from 1803 to 1810.
This was considered by the emperor as his most enduring monument. It was
prepared under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, from the 400
systems previously existing.
COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at uifTsrent periods
is reported by the Secretary of the Treasury thus :
1821 Tfa, 4,586,223 Ihs Coffee, 11,386,063 11)8.
1830 " 6.87:3,091 lbs. .. " 38,363.(i87 lbs.
1835 " 12.331,638 lbs " 91 753,002 lbs.
1842 " 13,482.645 lbs " 107,387 567 lbs.
1846 '^ 16.89L020 lbs " 124 336,054 lbs.
1856 " 240,676,227 lbs.
In 1867 a company was being organized to innodfce the cultivation of
coffee in South Florida. The duty on imports of ^.offee, by tariff of July,
1862, is five cents per pound.
ODD-LIVER OIL was recoP-imended as a reraedy fc chronic rheumatism by
Dr. Percival in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongh's
treatise on cod-liver oil was pu*>lished in Latin in 1844 ; in English in 1849.
COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The gold coin-
age consists of double eagles $20, eagles, halt-eagles, quarter engles, and dol-
lars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. Thefirst deposit of California gold
for coining was made by Mr. David Carter, 1,804 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848.
COINAGE of the U. S. Mint from 1793 to 1866, incmsive.
Gold. Total.
1793 to 1850. 57i years 117.569,825 196,054,0?."
1851 to 1860, 9^ years „ . . .470,838,1 80 520,175,553
186110 1866, 6 years 'J57, 128.586 271,194,433
Total , .........1845,536,590 $987,424,026
COLONIES. The population of the British colonies in all parts of the world
was estimated, in 1852, at 1«2,983,672, of vhich 176,028,672 belong to the
East Indies.
COLORADO, U. S. A territory of the U.S. organized March, 1861. Area,
104,000 square miles. Capital,' Denver City. In 1862, $12,000,000 in gold was
produced from its mines. Population in 1860, 34,230, and about 6,000
Indians. A bill to admit the territory as a state passed Congre:^s, but was
vetoed, May, 1866.
COLUMBIA, District of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by
Virginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the
seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown, and
Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was receded to Virgina. Population in
iSOO, 14,093; in 1840, 43,'7]2, including 8,361 free colored persons, and
4,694 slaves. In 1850, 51, 687, including 3,687 slaves; in 1860,61,403;
h\ 1864, 75,000, including 31,500 blacks. In 1866, 74 colored schools were
in operation in the district. Its area is 60 square miles. Population in 1867,
118,800, of whora there were several thousand more women than men. Im-
partial suffrage bill passed by Congress, admitting colored voters in the dis-
trict, 1867 ; put in force at the municipal election of 1867, when colored votes
were cast for city officers.
COMBAT, SINGLE, in Eingland. It commenced with the Lombards, a. d. 659.
Introduced into England, and allowed in accusations of treason, when no other
evidence was produced, 1096. The last combat proposed was prevented by
the king in 1631.
COMETS. (P.264.) Donati's comet, so called from its having been first ob-
served by Dr. Donati, of Florence, June 2, 1858, being then calculated to be
228 millions of miles fronj our earth. It was very brilliant in England in the
end of September and October following, when the tail was said to be 40
millions of miles long. On the 10th of October it was nearest to the earth ;
on the 18th it was near coming into collision with Venus. Two new comets
were discovered in 1862; one at Athens, Greece, July 2d, another at Cam-
bridge, Mass., July 18th. Besides these, the regular return of Encke's comet
took place in the begmning of the year. In 1863, five new comets were
found, none of them in the IJ. S. ; only one was visible to the naked eye with
any certainty.
commanders-in-Chief, IJ. S. am.y.
Jacob Brown 1821 Geo. B. McClellan 1861
Alexander Macomb 1815 Henry W. Hallcck 1862
Winfield Scoit... \U\ TJlvfeses £. Grant ISCd
British Army.
Duke of Moninonlh ........1674 Hon. Georse Conway 1782
Dnke of Marlboroujib 1«90 Duke of York 1705
Duke of Schombcrg 1691 Sir Davifl Dunda^ 1809
Duke of Ormoml 1711 Dukeof York ;:gai 1811
Earl of Stair 1744 Duke of Wellington 18-7
Fieldmaisl al Wade 1745 Lord Hill lS-28
Lord Ligonier 1757 Duke of Wellington again 1842
Marquess of Gran by 1766 Lord Hardinge... .lSn2
Lord Amherst... ,...o 1778 Dukeof Cambridge 1856
COMMERCE, See Exports and Imports, Navigation and Shipping^ &c.
COMMERCri;.L FAILURES The circular of Dan, Boyd, & Co., of N. York
gives the following statistics of failures in the U. States*
1857 1858 1859 1860
Failures 4,937 4,225 3,913 3,676
Amount $291,750,000 *95,750,000 $64,294,000 $79,807,000
Of the 3,676 failures in 1860, 695 are set down as swindlers ; their debts
amounting to $10,664,000. In the Northern States in 1862, the number of
failures was 1,652 ; liabilities $23,049,300. In 1865, 530; $l'7,625,0O0.
CONCEPTION, Immaculate, of the Virgin. On the 8th of September, 1854,
the pope promulgated a bull with great solemnity and pathos, declaring this
dogma to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should
doubt or speak against it. The Conceptionists were an order of nuns in Italy,
established in 1488.
CONCORDANCE. (P. 268.) Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance to Shakespeare,
xi remarkable monument of a woman's intelligent and patient industry, was
completed in 1844, after ten years' labor.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 33
"CONFEDEEATE STATES or AMERICA." The efforts of the Southern
States ior the extension of slavery , and the zeal of the Northern States for
its jibolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great seces*
sion of 1860-1. See Uniied States^ also Chronological tables. On Nov. 4,
1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected
president of the United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest of the
South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South Carolina seceded from the
Union ; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia
(except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also seceded
early in 1861. Jefl'erson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern
Confederacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861.
CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, or Creeds. See Apostles', Athanasian, and Mcem
creeds. Augshurgh Confession. Confession of Divines at Westminster agreed
to, 1643. Congregational confession of Faith adopted in England, 1833.
CONGRESS, U. S. A. The apportionment made by Congress, March 4, 1862,
under the census of 1860, increased the number of R( presentatives to 242.
There were also 9 Delegates from the Territoiies, who deliberate but have no
vote. The Senators in 1862 were 62 in number. E;ich Senator and Repre-
sentatiA^c is allowed $10,000 compensation for each Congress (two years) de-
ducting for absence (1866). In the 39th Congress thei^e were 52 Senators
and 192 Representatives, the Southern States not yet being represented. In
the 40th Congress, (1867), the same number, with the addition of Senators
and Representatives from Tennessee.
Ct>NGRESS, " Confederate." Delegates from seven Southern states met at
Montgon:ery, Georgia, Feb. 4, 1861, to organize a congress ; Howell Cobb,
chainnan. On the 8tb, a constitution was adopted similar to that of the U. S.
On the 9th, a President and Vice-Pres. were elected for the " Confederacy ;"
Jelf. Davis and Alexander H. Stephens. Virginia was admitted into it May 7,
1861. May 22, it adjourned to meet at Richmond, Va., on July 20, 1861,
The Confederate Government was compelled to leave the city in haste, by the
approach of the National army, April 3, 1865. Its Congress never assembled
again,
CONNECTICUT. Population in 1850,370,792; 1860,460,670, This state
sent 54,882 men to the National armies, 1861-5,
CONSCRIPTION. A mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the
French and other armies. On Sept. 5, 1798, a mihtary conscription was or-
dained in France, comprehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of
age: from these selections were made. The present law of 1818 (modified
in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual contingent from each department,
— for all the country, 80,000 men — which may be increased. The duration
of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are permitted. A con-
scription for 350,()6o men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian
campiiign, and in Dec. of same year another for 300,000, after the battle of
Leipsic. In the U. S., during the war for the Union, 1861-5, "drafts" were
ordered and enforced at two different times. The first draft was the (nominal)
cause of riots in New York, July, 1863.
CONSERVATIVE, U. S, A term used in American politics, to denote the
opposite of extreme and sectional views. In the Presidential campaign of
1860, Mr. Fillmore was known as the candidate of the " Conservative party,"
in distinction from the anti-slavery party of the north and the pro-slavei-y
party of the south.
3
84 THE WOELd's PROGIiESS.
CONSOLIDATED FUND in England, (hence the term "Consols,") was formed
of the other funds hi 1*786. On Jan. 5, 1816, exchequers of Great Britain
and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated.
CO^CSTITUTION" OF the U. S. The great amendment to the constitution,
al)olishing slavery in the U. S., passed Congress, Jan. 1865. Three-fourths ot
the states, 27 in number, ratified it and it bec;ame the law of the land, Dec.
IS, 1865. Another amendment passed Congress, June 13, 1866, declaring
all men to be equal before the law ; that representatives shall be apportioned
according to the whole number of persons in each state; that no peison who
shall have engaged in the insurrection shall hold any office under the U. S.
government ; and that the validity of the national debt shall not be ques-
tioned nor the rebel debt recognized. This amendment has not yet (186*7)
been mtified by thiee-fourths of the states.
CONSULS. See Ambassadors.
CONTRABAND of war. A term said to have been first employed in the treaty
of Southampton, between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle
between Spain and Holland both powers acted with much rigor towards ships
of neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This provoked the resistance
of England. A milder policy was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650;
and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856.
CONTRABANDS. U. S. In May, 1861, some slaves coming into the lines of
Gen. Butler at Fortress Monroe, Va., he refused to surrender them to their
owners on the ground that they were "contraband of war." Since then the
term has been used for " blacks or slaves."
CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in the British
Parliament, 1*782.
CONTRIBUTIONS, m aid of the Government of the U. S., (1861-65.) See
Charities. The contributions from states counties and towns for the aid
and relief of Union soldiers, amounted to $187,209,608. The contributions of
associations and individuals for the care and comfort of soldiers were
$24,041,865; for sufferers abroad, |880,OtO; for sufferers by the riots of
July, for freedmen and white refugees, $639,633. Total voluntary contribu-
tions of the people of the loyal states, $-212,274,248, The famous Sanitary
and Christian Commissions, in which hundreds volunteered tlndr services for
the relief of soldiers, were of invaluable assistance to the government during
the war. See Sanitary^ &c.
CONVENTION, m the U. S. In Feb. 1861, a Convention of distinguished
men from the states met at Washington, D. C, as a Peace Conference, to pro-
pose compromise measures between the north and south. Their pi-opositions
were referred to Congress, which rejected them. 'M'hila. Convention" of
delegates, north and south, supposed to favor the policy of Prcs. Johnson in
regard to reconstruction, Aug. 14, 1866. Southern Unionists' Convention,
Sep. 1, 1866, (opposing the policy of the preceding.)
COPPERHEADS. A name given about 1863 to such members of the Demo-
cratic party in the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on
any terms.
COPYRIGHT OF DESIGNS, for manufactures in England, first granted 178V,
for 2 months, extended in 1794. Copyright on sculpture conferred for 14
years, 1814. Copyright on other designs extended to 12 months, 1839. Or-
namental designs of all kinds fully protected, from 9 mos. to 3 years, by act
of 1842, and still further in 1850."
BUPPLEMEK^T, 1851-67. 35
COPYRIGHT IN THE U. S. The law modified so that the cop.y of the book is
to be seat to the library of Congress, instead of Smithsonian Inst. 1865. (?j
The law of 1831 gives an author exclusive right to his works for 28 yeurs,
and a right of renewal to himself, his wife and children for 14 years more, niak
ing 4 2 years in all No foreigner can secure a copyright unless residing in
the U. S. So far (1867), the American government has refused or failed to re-
spond to the British offer of reciprocity in literary copyright. A treaty lor
tliis purpose was framed by Mr. Everett in 1854, but never acted upon.
COPYRIGHT OF BOOKS, Produce of. The most profitable copyrights in
the U. S. have been those on school text-books, many of which have yielded
large suras to the authors. Of literary and historical works the most profita-
ble have been the works of Prescott, Bancrolt, Irving, Longfellow, Kane. Mrs.
Stowe, and the several histories of the recent war (1865-7).
COPTS. In Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled
with Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity, derived
from the Eutychians, a sect of the fifth century.
CORINTH, U. S. A town in northern Mississippi ; important during the wLr aa
a military position. After the battle of Pittsburg Landing, Gen. Beauregard,
(Confed.) entrenched himself there, and was partially besieged by U. S. forces
under Gen. Halleck. Heavy fighting there May 27, 1862. The place was
evacuated by the rebels. May 29, 1862.
CORN, Indian, U. S. See Agriculture. The monthly report of Agriculture
for December, contains a final estimate of the corn crop of 1866. The total
result is 88C,000,OuO bushels. Corn used for fuel in Iowa in 1865. It is said
to give as much heat per bushel as coal. Exports of corn iu 1866 amounted
to $12,299,879.
COSTA RICA. A republic in Central America established in 1848. It has been
niu"h disturbed by filibuster's from the U. S. See Nicaragua and Cev.tral
America. On Aug. 14, 1859, the President, Juan Mora was suddenly deposed,
and Dr. Jose Montealegre made president.
COSTUME. An attempt to introduce a serai-masculine female costume, known
as Bloomers (from Mrs. Bloomer of Seneca, N. Y., was made in 184-, but with
very limited success. It was overshadowed by the other extreme, the crinoline^
ascribed to the empress Eugenie, originating a few months before the birtii of
the heir to the French throne (about 1854). The latter was the prevailing
fashion until 1866-7 when it was superseded by a walking dress with a very
small expansion.
COTTON, U. S. (p. 278.) The exports of cotton since 1821, have thus advanced
;^stated in millions of pounds weight) :
1821
124 mil s.
, average price 16 cts.
1859
1386 mills.
avei
age pi
•ice 11 cts
1530
298 "
"
"
9 "
1860
17G7 "
«'
u 11 U
1840
743 "
((
i(
14 "
1861
307 "
((
«' Hi"
1849
1026 «
((
((
6 "
1862
5 "
((
" 23|"
1850
635 «'
((
«
11 "
1863
11 ««
<(
" 66 »
1855
1098 «'
«
<c
8 "
1864
lOf "
<(
" S3 "
1856
1351 «
cc
((
9 "
1865
6J «
u
« 88 "
1857
1048 '«
((
«c
12 «
1866
650 "
«(
«' 43 "
1858
1118 «♦
«
«
11 "
Total value of cotton exported in 39 years, 2,383 millions of dollars. Yalue
in 1859, 161 millions. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the
6 years 1844-9, were as follows ; U. S. 78i per cent.'; India, 10^ ; Brazil,
V : Egypt, 3^ ; West Indies, &c., ^ per cent. In England a cotton supply
association to obtain from Africa, India, &c., wasfornied at Manchester about
^^ THE WOKLD's PKOGRESS.
■SSY. Lieut. Burton, who explored the interior of Africa in 1859, states '^ha\
cotton grows there in great profu.sion, and a decent kind of cotton cloth i?
manufactured by the natives. In the U. S. the estimates show a total product
of 1,750,000 bales of 4lO pounds each in 1866. Tho estimates are made up
as i'ollows : North Carolina, 91,000 bales ; South Ciuolina, 152,000 ; Georgia,
'205,OuO ; Florida, 36,0CO ; Alabama, 220,000 ; Mississijipi, 270,000 ; Loui-
siana, 100,000 ; Texas, 300,000 ; Arkansas, 182,0v 0 ; Tennessee, 148,000 ;
other States, 87,000 bales. In 1860 the product of the U. S. was 5,198,077
babs. Revenue to the government from the production of cotton in 1866,
$18,409,655. Exports of cotton in 1866 amounted to $281,385,223. Imports
of cotton manufactures in 1866, |30,166,300.
C0TT2N GIN. This invention, in 1793, by Eli Whitney of New Haven, gave
an extraordinary impetus to the culture of cotton in the U. S. It cleans and
prepares 300 lbs. per day ; by the old mode only a single pound a day could
be cleansed.
COTTON GOODS Exported from Great Britain.
Official Vahip. , Official Value.
1697 .... i:5,915 1860 .... £52,012,430
1701 '23,253 ! 1861 46,872,489
1780 .... 355,('00 18G2 .... 36',75<i,97l
1790 1,1 6-^,o69 1863 47,587.188
1800 . . . . 5,406,501 I 1864 . . . . 54,S56;289
1820 20,509,926 !
In 1860, 12,419,096 cwt. of raw cotton was imported of which 9,963,309 cwt.
came from the United States, and 1,822,698 cwt from India.
los.
264.0c0.000
5;^2,5i 0,1 '00
1,390,988,752
.■ . l,256,CiS4,7::6
523,973.206
669,583,204
893,304,720
COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following
was the estimated, number of spindles in actual operation; Great Britain,
17,000,500; France, 4,300,000 ; Zollverein States, 815,000; Russia, 70(t,000,
Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium, 420,000; Spain, o00,r00 ; Italy, oOO,000 :
Total, 27,485,000. In the U. S. in 1860, the number of spindles employed in
the five New England states was 2,751,078; in 11 other states, 236,480.
Number of spindles in the whole country in 1860, 5,335,727. The prices of
cotton fabrics in the U. S. increased 172 per cent., or 81 per cent, in gold be-
tween 1860 and 1866.
COURT, SUPREME, or the U. S. By Act of Congress, July 23, 1866, no vacancy
in this Court is to be tilled, until the number is reduced to one Chief-Justice,
and pix Associate Justices. Before this there were eight Associate Justices.
The U. S. is divided into nine districts for Circuit Courts.
COURTS-MARTIAL, U. S. By act of Congress, May 29, 1830, officers comnnd-
ing distinct posts, and all general officeis, can convene courts-martial. There
are several limitations to the act. The number fcrming a court is from five to
13. Great numbers of these courts were in session during the late war. In
1866, 8,188 records of courts martial and military commissions were received
and reviewed at the Bureau of Military Justice, Washington, D. C.
CREDIT MOBILIER. A joint-stock company with this name was established at
COTTON RAW Imported into Great Bri
tain.
1697 .... 1,976,859
1830
1730 .... 1,545,472
1840
1764 .... 3,S70,S92
1860
1790 .... 31.500,000
1861
1800 .... 56,000,000
1862
1810 . . . . 132,500,000
1863
1820 .... 151,500,000
1864
SITPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 37
PariSj Nov. 18, 1852, by Isaac and Eniile Pereire, and others. It takes up or
originates trading enterprises of all kind?, applying to them the principle oi
commandite, or limited liabilities, smd is authorized to supersede or buy in any
other companies (replacing their shares or bonds in its own scrip), and also to
carry on tlie ordinary business of banking. The funds were to be obtained by
a paid-up capital of 2| millions sterling, the issue of obligations at not less
than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current ac-
count. The society has apparently prospered, but is nevertheless considered
by experienced persons as a near approach to Law's bank of 1716, and likely
to end disastrously. In Sept. 1857, several of the directors failed; and in May,
1858, no dividend Avas paid.
CRIME, New York City. Who Furnish our Criminals and Paupers. A recent
pubhcation states that of the criminals in New York city for twenty-one
months, 31,088 were natives of this country, while 89,589 were foreigners; of
whom 60,442 were Irish, 9,488 German, and 4,000 English. Of 28,821 persons
admitted to the alms-house in ten years, 22,468 were foreigners ; 15,948 were
Irish., 1,240 Germans, and 1,297 English. During the same time, of 50,015
admitted to Bellevue hospital, 41,851 were foreigners. Of 4,3-35 inra.ues of
the lunatic asylum, 3,o6U were foreigners. Of 251,314 committed to the city
prison, only 59,385 were natives, while 86,431 professed to be members of the
church of Rome. Number of arrests in New York city, in 1865, 39,616.
11,222 were convicted in the court of Special Sessions. During the war,
there was a marked diminution of punished crime throughout the country. See
Prisons. In England. The number of convictions by trial in England and
Waks was, in
, Persons. Capi'al Ofences.
1849.-O....C..C......0 21,001 66
iaS5 19.971 50
1858 13,2-16 f.o
1864.. o....... .14,726 32
Since 1848 there had been no commitments for political oifencfs, such as treason
or sedition, until the Fenian outbreaks and trials, in Ireland, 1867. En 1856
there were 2,636 persons liberated on " tickets of leave." Expenses of crimi-
nal prosecutions m 1856 were £194,912.
CRIMEA, OR Crim Tartar?. War having been declared by England and
France against Russia, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to
the East, which after remaining some time at Gallipoli, &c., sailed for Varna,
where they disembarked May 29. The expedition against the Crimea having
been determined on, the allied British, French, and Turkisli forces, amountiiig
to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St.
Arnaud, sailed from Varna, Sept. 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th,
without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebas-
topol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40 and 50,000 strong
(under Prince Meuschikoflf), intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to
be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. See
Alma and Russo-Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the
allies quitted the Crimea in July following.
CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of erin, hair) is the modern
name of the "fardingale " of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats
made of whalebone, &c., revived in France, England and the United States,
since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of Ufe, by coming in con-
tact with fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatler, published Jan. 5,
1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. See Costume.
38
CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to
have heen found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground, with two others, by St.
Helena, May 3, 328 ; Christ's being distinguished from those of the thieves by
a sick woman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Cliosroes,
king of Persia, on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered by the
emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle) Sept. 14, 615, and that day has
since been commemorated as "the festival of the Exaltation of the Cross," es-
tablished in 642. It is asserted by church writers that a shining cross, two
miles in length, was seen in the heavens by Constaiitiiie, and thai it led him
to adopt it on iiis standards, with the inscription "/» hoc signo vince.s,^^ "in
this sign thou shalt conquer." With thesi? he advanced to Rome, where he
vanquished Maxenlius, Oct. 2'7,312. LengLet.
Signing with th" cross was first
pracLised by Christians to dis-
tinguit^li .themselves fiom the
Piigan^;, about 110 ; aijd in the
time of Tertulian, 260, it was
deemed efficacious against
poison, witcucraft, &c.
Crosses in churches and chambers
were introduced about 431 ; and
set up on staples about 568
Crosses and idolatrous pictures
were removed from churches,
and crosses in the street* demol-
ished by order of parliament. 1641
CRYSTAL PALACE in r^EW York, built chiefly of iron and glass, in form of a
cross, with a dome, was commenced Oct, 1852. Exhibition opened to the
pubhc (Pres. Pierce being present), August, 1852. The building destroyed by
lire, with its contents, as exhibited by Amer. Institute, Sep. 1859.
CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London, built for the Exhibition of the
World's Industry in 1851. Its length was 1,851 feet, width, 408 feet, with ad-
ditional projection. Entire area, 7'72,*784 square feet, or about 19 acres.
Building commenced Sept. 26, 1850, and finished and oper.ed May 1, 1851.
Closed to the pubUc Oct. 11, same year. It cost £176,030.
CRYSTAL PALACE at Sydenham, near London, built chiefly of the materials
used in the foregoing, was commenced August 6, 1852. Capital of the com-
pany £1,0 00,000, in shares of £5. each. Area of grounds 300 acres. In its
erection 6,400 men were engaged at one time. It was opened by the Queen,
June 10, 1854. Great Handel festival held there June 20-4, 1859. In 1857
the receipts were £115,627 ; expenditures, £87,872.
CUBA. Second expedition of Lopez, in connection with Col. Crittenden, of
Kentucky, Aug. 1851, defeated ; Lopez taken and garroted at Havana,
Sept. 1. Crittenden and 50 companions shot, August 16. Other prisoners
sent to Spain, and were pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. See Ostend Con-
ference. A proposition to place $30,000,000 in the hands of the Pres. of the
U. S., with reference to the purchase of Cuba, was introduced by Mr. Slidell,
in rj. S. Senate, 1859. See Submarine Telegraph.
C'USTOM " DUTIES in the U. S. The amounts collected were in 1850, $39,000-
000; 1855, $53,000,000; 1863, $69,0'J(),O00 ; 1866, $179,046,630; from 1789 to
1861, $1,575,152,579.92. Expenses of collecting Customs and duties in 1863,
$3,238,936 ()0.
CYMRI, OR KiMRi (from which comes Cambria). The name of the ancient British
who belonged to the grtat Celtic family, which, coming from Asia, occupied
the greater part of Europe, about 1500 b. c. About a. d. 640,Dyvnwal Moel-
mud reigned "King of the Cymri." See Wales.
CYNICS, a set of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 c. c, Biog.,
Xaert., Clinton)^ who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences,
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-G7. 39
except morality; were very free in reprehending vice; lived in public, and
practised i^reat obscenities without blushing. Diogenes was one (died
323 B. c) "
DACIA. A Roman province, now part of Hungary. After many contests it waa
subdued by Trajan, a. d. 1()6, when Decebalus, the Dacian leader, was slain in
battle.
DAGUERREOTYPES. In 1855, not less than 15,000 persons were engaged in
this business in t'tie U. S. In IS&'l, the number must be nearer 30,000. The
art of photography on paper, however, has wholly superseded the former us3
of metal plates. See Pltoiography.
DALMATIA. An Austrian province, N. E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally con-
quered by the Romans, 34 b. c. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at
Spalatro, and retired there a. d. 305. Dalmatia was held in turn by the Goths,
Hungarians, and Turks, till its session to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of
Carapo Formio, in 1*797, it was given to Austria. In 1805, it was incorporated
into the kingdom of Italy, and ga^e the title of duke to Marshal Soult. In
1814, it reverted to Austria.
DAMASCUS, (p. 287). Horrible massacres of the Christians there July 9, 1860.
DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. Wallachia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest
and Jassy. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, which was con-
quered by Trajan about a. d. 106, and abandoned by Aurelian about 270.
For some time after they were alternately in possession of the barbarians
and Greek emperors; and afterwards of the Hungarians. The provinces
having participated in the Greek insurrection in 1821, were afterwards severely
treated by the Turks, but by the treaty of Adriauople in 1829, they were
placed under the protection of Russia. Tlie Russians quitted these provinces in
Sept., 1854, and an Austrian army entered (by virtue of a (;onvention between
the Sultau and Austria), and remained ihere till March, 1857, The govern-
ment of the principalities settled at the Paris conierence, Aug. 19, 1858.
DARDANELLES, Passage of the. (p. 287.) The allied Engiisii and French
fleets passed the Dardanelles at the Sultan's request, Oct. 1853.
DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which
gave the full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated
that the eldest son of the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from
it. the first dauphin named in that treaty, was Philip, second son of Philip of
Valois. Jlenault. The late duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, was
not called the dauphin.
DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In
1840, there were 6,616 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population; 7,659
deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228 ; 17,434 insane or idiotic, or 1 in 979. There
were in the United States 23 asylums ior the insane, with about 2,840 patients.
In the United States in 1860, tliere were 14,269 deaf and dumb persons. The
institution for such persons situated at N. Y. city, is the largest for the " in-
struction of deaf-mutes only, in its accommodations and number of pupils, in
the world" {National Almanac). Number of teachers in Dec, 1863, 16, of
whom 8 were deaf-mutes. Number of pupils 332. The asylum was founded
in 1817. Whole number of graduates 1,300. In 1862, there were 22 institu-
tions in the country for the deaf and dumb, with 130 teachers and 2,000 pupils.
Their annual support requires about $350,000, of which $300,000 is appropriated
40 THE world's pkogeess*
by the legislatures of 29 states. Among the most prominent and successful
of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment
of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, Dr. But-
ler, and Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe of Boston.
DEATH, Punishment of, U. S. Is inflicted for the crimes of murder, treason, and
arson, in the first degree. Capital punishment abolished in the state of Wis-
consin, 1865. In England by the criminal law consoUdation acts of 1861, the
death penalty was confined to treason and wilful murder. A parliamentary
commission respecting capital punishment was appointed early in l&d4. Capital
punishment w^as restricted in Italy in April, 1865.
DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weights, &c., was established in France in 1V90,
and shortly after in other countries. The subject was brought before the
English Parliament in 1824, 1838, 1843, 1853, 1854, 1855. The decimal cur-
rency was adopted in Canada, 1858. International Decimal xissociation
formed at London, 1855. Congress of the U. S. passed laws legalizing the use
of the MeCric system in the country, in 1866, without at once substituting it for
our present system. It is already used in some arts and trades. By act of
Congress, July 21, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury is to furnish each state
with one set of the standard weights and measures of the Metric system.
DECLAR-iTION OF INDEPENDENCE. The Mecklenburg Declaration of In-
dependence (North Carolina), was passed in May, 17*75, two months before
that drawn up by Jefferson at Piiiladelphia.
DEDICATION. The dedication of books was introduced in the time of Maece-
nas, 17 B. c, and the custom has been practised ever since by authors, to
solicit patronage or to testify respect. Maecenas was the friend and counsel-
lor of Augustus Caesar, and was so famous a patron of men of genius and
learning, that it has been customary to style any one imitating his example,
the Maecenas of his age or country. The Scriptures speak of the dedication of
the Tabernacle, b. c 1490, and of the Temple, b. c. 10U4. The Christians
under Constantine built new churches, and dedicated them with great solem-
nity, in A. D. 331 et seq.
DEGREES, U. S. Academical degrees are marks of distinction conferred on
students, in testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences. They are of
pontifical origin. Bouvier. Graduates of American colleges are Bachelors of
Arts, A. B. By a further course of study for three years, they become Master
of Arts, A, M. The title of Doctor of Medicine (M. D.), is conferred on students
on their graduation from medical schools. But Doctor of Divinity (D. D.), and
of Law (LL, D,), is an honorary degree conferred by faculties on distinguished
persons.
DELAWARE, The smallest of the TJ. S, except Rhode Island. First settled
in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus,
and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by
the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English
in 1664, and then named Delaware. The Duke of York granted it to Wm.
Penn in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775.
This State bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suff"ered much in the
struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U.S. by a unanimous vote ia
Conveution, Dec. 3, 1787, Population— 1790, 59,094 ;' 1810, 78,085, includ-
ing 2,605 slaves. Population in 1850, 89,242, and 2,290 slaves; in 1860,
110,548, and 1,805 slaves. The Delaware Breakwater two-thirds of a mile
long cost the Government $2,000,000.
DELPHIN CLASSICS, A collection of the Latin authors, originally made for
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 41
the use of the Dauphin {in usum Delphini), son of Louis XIV., edited cy
Huet, bishop of Avranches, Madame Dacier, and others. Each author i:'
illustrated by valuable notes, with an index containing every word in the
work. The number of volumes publislied was sixty, printed between 164''(f
and 1691, except Ansonius, in l^oO. A new edition with additional notes,
published by Mr. Valpy of London early in the present century.
DEMOCRATS. Advocates for government by the people themselves (demos, peo-
ph^ and Iratein^ to govern)^ a term adopted by the French republicans in 179C
(who termed their opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The
name Democrats was adopted by the pro-slavery par'y in N. America (the
soutlicru states), and the abolitionists were called Hepublicans. Into these
two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presidential
election in 1856, In I860, the Repubhcans formed " Wide-aw^ake " clubs for
electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham
Linccln, elected president, Nov. 4. Haydn. See United States, 1860.
DEMOCRACY of England, France, and the United States, compared (1850):
Votes
No. to
Countrv. Pop. Votes. Pop.
England ....17,000,000 630,721 * 1 in 26
Wales 850,000 37,924 1 in 23
Votes
Fo. to
Country Pop. Votes. Pop.
""Sl^SmS (25,650,000 839,3711 in 42
Scotiaud 8,rOu.0OO 72,720 linSSj France 34,000,000 250.000 1 in 137
Ireland 8,000^000 98,006 lin8l| United States., 20,000,000 2,750,000 1 in 7
DENMARK. Frederick VII., son of Christian VIIL, succeeded to the throne
1849. Danes defeat the Holsteiners at Idstedt, July 25, 1850. Friedriohstadt
bombarded by Holsteiners, Sept. 29-Oct. 9. 1850. Treaty of European
powers for settlement of succession to Danish crown. May 8, 1852, New
constitution offered by the King, adopted Oct. 1,1855. Sound dues abolished
for a compensation, March 14, 1857. Death of Frederick VII. and accession
of Christian IX., Nov. 15, 1868. Danes retire from Holstein, Dec. 24, 1863,
German troops enter Holstein, Jan. 21, 1864, Pius.>^*ans tal-fi Schleswig,
Feb. 6, 1864. Danes defeat the Allies in a naval battle ofl Hehgoland, May 9,
1864,
DENOMINATIONS, The Three (presbyterians, congregationnlists cr inde-
pendents, and baptists), were organized in 1727 as an association, witli the
privilege of direct appeal to the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. — Haydn.
DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to Gcd^^). Formerly in England, anything
(such as a horse, carriage, &c.), which had caused the death of a human
being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord of the msinor, and was to be
sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished (1846),
D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several coun-
tries, and been minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was aiBrmed
to be 'd female, at atrial at the King's Bench in 1771, in an action to recover
wages as to his sex. He subsequently wore female attire : but at his death it
was fully manifested that he was of the male sex.
DEPUTIES, Chamber of. The title given to the French legislative assemb'y,
from the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852, when it took the
name of Corps Legislatif.
DESIGN, ACADEMY OF, of N. Y. Founded in 1826, A beautiful building, in
the Gothic style, was erected in 1863. Architect, P. B, Wight ; cost, $150,«
♦ The Reform Bill of 1867, largely increased this number.
42
000. There is an annual exibition of paintings, lasting from April to July
See Arts, Paintings.
DETEOIT, Michigan, U. S. Established as a military post by the French, 167o.
Came into the possession of the British, 1760. In 1183 surrendered to the
United States. In 1812, captured by the British, but evacuated in the same
year. In 1805, the town was completely destroyed by fire. It was the capital
of the State until 1850. Population in 1865, about 60,000.
DIAMONDS. The Eohiuoor, or "Mountain of Light, " found at Golconda in
1550, belonged to Nadir Shah and other Afghan rulers, brought to England
and presented to the Queen, 185u. Its original weight 800 carats, reduced
by cutting to 279 carats ; in shape and size like the pointed half of a small
hen's egg ; yalue about t\\ o millions sterling.
DICE. The invention of dice is asciibed to Palamedes, of Greece, 1244 b. C.
The game of Tali and Tersera among the Romans was played with dice.
DICTIONARY, U. S. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English
language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven, in 18'i8.
It was reprinted in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. The
revised edition of Webster's Dictionary, in one volume quarto, was issued by
its present proprietors (Messrs. Merriam), in 1844-5. A new and enlarged
edition appealed in 18ti4 ; it contains 114,000 words, and 3,000 illustrations.
Worcester's edition, in quarto, "was published in 1860. It is also illustrated,
and contains 104,000 words. The former is edited at Yale College, *he latter
at Cambridge, Mass.
DILETTANTI, Society of. Established in 1134 by several noblemen, desirous
of encouraging a taste for art in Great Britain. It aided in publishing
Stuart's Athens (1162-1816), Chandler's Travels (1115-6), and other works.
DIFIITHERIA (from the Greek diphihera, a membrane). A disease developing a
false membrane on the mucous membrane of the throat. So named by Bro-
tonnsau of Tours, in 1820. It has been fatally prevalent in many parts of
the TJ. S, particujarly among children, 1859-60. The number of deaths by
this disease in New York State from Dec. 1864, to June I''S65, was 2,942.
DT?LOMACY of the United States. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great
Britair. and France. (See p. )
GREAT BRITAIN.
1852 James Buclianan, Pa. min.plei
1853 James K. Inscrsoll do. do.
185C George M. i>a!'as, do do.
18G1 CliB. Franci£ AdiirQj.Mass. do.
FKANCK.
1853 James Y. Mason, Va. min. plen.
1857 Charles J. Faulkner, Va. do.
1S61 Wm. L. Da.N ton, N. J. do.
1865 John r>ige:(AV, K. Y. do.
1866 Jolm A. Dix, do. do.
By Act of Congress 1856, the salary of ministers plenipotentiary was raised
as" follows: Min. Plen. to England, $11,5(iO; to France, ,^11,500; to Russia,
Spain, Prussia, Mexico, Brazil, Chili and Peru, eaih ,^12,000. The " outfits"
were abolished at the same lime. Ministers resident to 19 other countries
are paid $1,500.
DIRECTORY, New York City. The earliest published was in 1186: a small
volume of eighty two pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street. The
names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy thirty-three
pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the city. United
States Government, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address, the editor
states it was the " first directory ever attempted in this coujitry," The New
York Historical Society possesses a complete set from its first publica-
. tiou. The Directory of 1866-1 contains 116,511 names; increase of 10, 367
STJPPLEMEN^T, 1851-67. 43
over 1865-6. The volume for 1867-8 contains 177,317 names — a further in
crease of 806 only.
DISPENSATIONS, Ecclesiastical, were first granted by pope Innocent III,
in 1200. These exemptions from the discipline of the church, with indulgen-
ces, absolutions, &c., led eventually to the Keformation in Germany in 1517,
and in England in 1534, et seq.
DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with medical advice and medicines, begar
in London with the Royal General Dispensary, established in St. Bartholo-
mew's Close, in 1770. It reheved about 20,000 persons in 1861. Low's
Charities.
DISPENSARIES, U. S. There are eleven in New York city. The oldest wag
founded in 1795. The poor receive treatment and medicine in them free of
charge.
DISTILLATION, [J. S. The number of distilleries in the U. S. in 1860 wag
1,138, employing a capital of $24,253,000. Nun)ber in New York state in
1865, 67. The consumption of distilled spirits in U. S. in 1865 was about
40,000,000 gallons. It appeared in that year that for every three gallong
that paid Uie revenue tax, five evaded the payment. The revenue amounted
to $29,198,000.
DOLLAR, the German thaler (the h not sounded). Stamped Spanish dollars
were issued from the mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. following. The
dollar is the principal silver coin in the United States.
DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes (born 1547 ; died 1616).
The first part of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part in 1608. It
is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of the first part were circulated before
the second could be made ready for the press. Watts.
DRAGOONS. The nauie is supposed to have been derived from dragon,
" because, mounted on horseback, with lighted match, he seemeth like a fiery
dragon." Meyrick. The draconarii were horse-soldiers, who bore dragons
for ensigns. The first regiment of dragoons was raised in England, it is be-
lieved, in 1681.
DRUSES. A warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lebanon ; derive
their origin from a fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt about 996,
and fled to Palestine, to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of
the religion of their ancestors; they do not practise circumcision, pray or fast,
but eat pork and drink wine. In the middle of 1860, in consequence of dis-
putes (in which doubtless both parties were to blame), the Druses attacked
their neighbors the Maronites {wh ch -see), whom they massacred, it was said,
without regard to age or sex.
DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS. The absolute and u;:iqualified claim of sovereigns
to txie obedience of their subjects, was defended in England by many persons
of otherwise opposite opinions, e. gi. by Hobbes, the free-thinker, in 1642, and
by Sir Robert Filmer, in his JPatriarcha, in 1860, and by the High Church
generally.
DIVORCE. In this country adultery is a ground of divorce in all the States,
la Massacliusetts, Maine, and New Jersey, wilful desertion for five years, and
in some other States, desertion for two and three years, and some other causes,
are ground for divorce. Divorce has been granted most frequently in
Vermont, Connecticut, and Indiana. In Connecticut, cruel treatnient is a
ground of absolute divorce. The Ministers of the Go'^pel in that State have
called the attention of the Legislature to the laxity of its Divorce laws.
44
DOGS, Laws about, U. S. In New York dogs are required to be muzzled
during June, J'uly, and August. A reward of fifty cents is given for every
dog brought to the pound unmuzzled. Unless redeemed in '24 hours they are
drowned. In 1866, 4,819 dogs were drowned in New York Citv, at a!.i expense
of $3,000.
DUBLIN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. Opened by the lord lieut. May 12,
1853 ; closed Nov. 1, same year.
DUELLING, (p. 300.) Duel between the duke of Wellington and the earl of
Winchelsea, March 21, 1829 ; fifteen noted duels have since occurred in Eng-
land. The most noted American affairs of the kind were these: two during the
revolution, viz., Gen. Chas. Lee and Col. Juo. Laurens ; and Gen, Cadvvallader
and Conway (1778) ; Gen. Greene was ciiallenged by a Capt. Gunn, of Ga., but
refused to fight, and his refusal was approved by Washington. Gen. Hamil-
ton killed by Aaron Burr, July 11, 18()4. Com. Decatur killed by Com. Barron,
Mar. 22, 1820. Henry Clay encountered John Randolph, April 8, 1826. Gen.
Jackson killed Mr. Dickinson, and had other duels. Col. Benton killed a Mr.
Lucas, and had other duels. Cilley, of Maine, killed by Graves, of Kentucky
(both mem. of Cong.), 1838. Dewitt Clinton exchanged five shots with John
Swartwout, 1802. Sue Millingen's Hist, of Duelling^ and Sabine's Notes on
Duels, 1855.
E
EAGLE, (p. 301.) An ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and cur-
rent in the first years of Edward I., about a. d, 1272. The American gold
coinage of eagles, half-eagles and quarter-eagles began Dec. 6, 1792 ; an
eagle is of the value of ten dollars.
EAST INDIA COMPANY. (Brit.) Chartered originally by queen Elizabeth, in
1660, with a capital of £30,000, was rechartered and extended its operations
until in 1856 it maintained a military force at an annual expense of more
than £10,000,000. By the act of Parliament, *' for the better government of
India," Aug. 2, 1858, the Company's jurisdiction of India was surrendered to
the queen. See India.
EARTHQUAKES, (p. 303.) An elaborate catalogue of earthquakes, with com-
mentaries on the phenomena, by R. P. W. Mallet, was published by Brit.
Association, 1858-9.
Earthquake at Cape Haytlen, St. Do- ' April 16,1854.
miugo, 5,000 lives lost, May 7, 1842.
At Rhodes, and Macii, mountains
crushing a village, 600 lives lost,
March, 1851.
At Valparaiso, 400 houses destroyed,
April 2, 1851.
In Sonta Italy, Melfi destroyed, 14,000
liveslost, Aus. 14, 1851
At Philippine isles, Manilla nearly de-
stroyed, Sept.— Oct.. 1852.
N. W of England, slight., Nov. 9, 1852.
Thebes in Greece, nearly dest. Sept.
1853.
St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed,
Ona>iaca, in Japan ; Simoda, in I^iphon,
nearly destoyed, Dec. 23, 1854.
Jeddo n; arly destroyed, Nov. 11, 1855.
Island of Sanc^-er (Moluccas), 3,000 lives lost,
March 12, 1856.
In Calabria, several towns destroyed,
22,000 lives lost, Dec. 16, 1856.
Corinth, nearly destroyed, Feb. 21, 1858,
Quito; ranch'injured, and 5.000 lives lost,
March 29, 1859.
Mendoza, S. America, 7,000 lives lost. March
;0, 1861.
Manilla, Philippine Isles, 10,000 persona
polish, June 3, 1363.
EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, first built, 1696;
<lestroyed by tempest, 1703; rebuilt 1706; burnt, 1755; rebuilt by Smea.'on
and finished, Oct. 9, 1759, and his structure still stands, 1861.
EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. Founded by James YI. (I. of Eng.) 1582
SUPPLEME^^T, 1851-67. 45
Few buildings erected 1789. Lord Brougham's discourse as Chancellor o?
the Univ., 1860.
EGYPT. Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened Nov. 1, 1861. Said, Viceroy,
July 14, 1854, dies Jan. IS, 1863. Ishmael, Viceroy, Jan. 18, 1863 ; visits
France and England, July, 1867.
EL DOEADO (ihe " Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico
and Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard ot
a golden city ruled by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust,
(which report was founded on a merely annual custom of the Indians), they
organized various expeditions into the interior of South America, which were
accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. Raleigh's expeditions in
search of gold in 1596 and 1617, led to his fall.
EDUCATION. Some of the most noted educational theorists were Fenelon and
Rousseau, in France, 18th century; Basedon, Walke, and Pestidozzi (Swiss),
Fellenburg, Jacotot, and others, in Germany; Joseph Lancaster (d. 1839), iu
England. In Prussia, all children from 7 to 14 are compelled by law, and un-
der penalty, to attend school ; but this governmental system does not appear
greatly to advance practical civilization and progress among the people. In
France, a national system was adopted by Guizot, in 1833, from repoits of the
Prussian svstem by Cousin. In England (p. 306). See Oxford^ Cambridge^ and
£''on. In the reign of Queen Anne numerous " Charity" schools were founded,
and many others by "Society" effort, in 1641 etf^eq. Jos. Lancaster started his
"Monitorial" system, 1186, and originated the Brit, and For. School Soc, 1808.
The Gov. grant of £20,000, in 1834, for public education, Avas increased to
£150^,000 in 1852, and £450,000 in t856. In 1851, there were 2,466,481 day
scholars. Educational Conference, June 22, 1857, Prince Albert presiding.
Industrial School Act passed 1857. In the U. S. Has been largely promoted
and s}stematized since 1835, by the efforts and publications of Horace Mann,
Ht'nry Barnard, D. P. Page, Alonzo Potter, Barnas Sears, and others. Am.
Inst, of Instruction, organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830, and has held annual
meetings since. During the last two years of the war, 1864-5, the very large
sum of $848,000 was donated to New England colleges. The New England
seminaries for young ladies meanwhile received less than a fiftieth part of the
noble subsidy. The munificent donation of George Pcabody ($2,000,000), to
promote education in the Southern States was confided to a Board of Trustees,
Robert C. Winthrop of Boston, President, 1867 ; and Barnas Sears, President
of Brown University, accepted the general agency of this Trust. See Colleges
and Schools.
ELECTRIC CLOCK and Ball. Alexander Bain, of London, is said to have first
conceived the idea of working clocks by electricity in 1837 ; his clocks, as well
as those of Mr. Shepherd, appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric
clock with four dials, illuminated at night, was set up in front of the office of
the Electric Telegraph Company, in the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time
ball was set up by Mr. French, in Cornhill, in 1856. A time ball connected
with the observatory at Albany, placed on the Custom House, New York,
1860.
ELECTRICITY, (p. 308.) Oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism, 1820. Far-
raday (Lond.) discovered magnetic-electricity in 1831, and published "Re-
searches," in 3 vols., 1833-55. Sir Wm. Snow Harris received £5,000 for hia
invention of lightning conductors for ships. Important contributions to the
knowledge of electricity and its uses, have been mad*^ by Prof. Jos. Henry,
and Prof, Page, of Washington, Prof. Draper, of N'ew York, &c.
46
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. The electro-magnetic force was applied by M. Bre-
guet of Paris, in the manufacture of theodolites and the finer kind of mathe-
maiical instruments, in 1855.
ELECTRO-PLATING. Carried to great perfection by Elkington & Mason, of
Birmingham, England, and the process has been introduced successfully into
New York, 1858-9.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, (p. 308.) Prof. Morse's services to the world as the
originator of the practical application of electro-magnetism to telegraphing,
were acknowledged by the French government in 1859, by the voluntary pre-
sentation to him of 180,000 (?) ; and by pu-blic honors and rewards from other
governments of Europe in 1860. House's printing telegraph, 1846; Bain'3
electro-chemical telegraph, 1846; Hughes's system, 1855; the American com-
bination system (of the preceding), which can convey 2,000 words an hour,
adopted by the American Telegraph Company, Jan., 1859. Wheatstone'a
automatic printing telegraph patented, 1860.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES. In 1860, in America, 45,000 miles ; in Eng.
land, 10,000; in France, 8,000; in Germany and Austria 10,000; in Prussia,
4,000; in Russia, 5,000; in the rest of Europe, 7,650; in India, 5,OU0; in
Australia, 12,000; elsewhere, 500. Total iul858, 96,350. Over all the lines
in the United States tJie number of messages per year is estimated at 4,000,-
000. It is supposed that a telegraph could be laid around the globe for les.-4
than half the cost of the Erie railroad. See Sitbmariiie Telegraph. In the
United States the overland line from Missouri to California was completed
Oct. 22, 1861. A cable was laid across Chesapeake Bay from Fortress Mon-
roe in 1861. Ninety-live lines of telegraph are laid under American rivers.
ELECTRO-TINT. Mr. Palmer of Newgate street, London, has patented an in-
vention by which engravings may not only be copied from other engraved
plates, but the engraving itself actually produced by electrical agency. There
are several processes by which this is accomplished, one of which, also pro-
tected by a patent, Mr. Palmer called Glyphography (about 1842).
ELZEVIRS. A celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is based
on fine pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683.
EMIGRATION prom Great Britain, (p. 309.) increased from 129,851, in 1846,
to 335,000 in 1851, and 368,000 in 1852 ; and then fell off as follows:— in 1853,
329,000; in 1855, 176,000; in 1857, 212,000. About three-fifths of this
emigration is to the United States; one-eighth to Brit. America; remainder
to Australia. To the United States. The total number of alien emigrants
vho arrived in the U. S. from 1819 to 1856, was 4,212,624. From 1784 to
1819, the number did not probably exceed 150,000: in all. say 5,000,000 ar-
rived from 1784 up to January, 1859. Of this number about 2,600,000 came
from Great Britain and Ireland; 1,600,000 from Germany; 200,000 from
France ; 50,000 from Sweden and Norway ; 40,000 from Switze,rland, and
18,000 from Holland. {AppletorCs Cyclo.) The commission for receiving emi-
grants at Castle Garden, N. Y. city, was established in 1847. From that time
to 1867, 3,658,800 emigrants have landed there. The number in 1865 was
237,397. See Aliens.
ENCYCL0PJ5DIA. The Iconographic Cyclopaedia, 6 vols., based on a German
work, published at New York, 1853-4. The English Cyelopcedia (Charles
Knight), based on the Penny Cyclopaedia, 1855-60. The 8th editioii o( Bncy-
clop. Britannica completed 1860. Appleton's Cyclopedia 1867-62, 16 vols.
(N. York). Appleton's " Annual Cyclopaedia," begins with the year 1861, and
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 41
is a complete review of the great events in the worlo, of each year. The
vohinjes, 1861-5, contain a valuable history of the war
ENGLAND. For succession of events, see Chronological Tables, p. 160 to IDO.
ENLISTMENT, U. S. The following is a list of the vaiious " calls '' for troo-.z
by the Government during the war: —
Date of Call. Namber of M.m. ~
A.prill5, 1862 75.000
May to.) una 25, 1862 530,000
July 2, 1862 300,000
Aug. 4, 1862 300,000
Oct. 17, 1863 800,000
Feb. 1, 1864 200,000
March I4, 1864 '200,000
Juiy 18, 1864 500,000
Dec. 19, 1864 300,000
Tkere were other calls for 30 and 100 dfiys^ men. The whole number called
for was '2,759,049 ; total obtained, >i,656,553. By Act of March 3, 1803, called
the " Consoriptioii Act," tlie President was authorzed to dr.ift troops. The
act provided lor an enrollment, adrait, the reception of substitutes, and arrest
of deserters. About 3,000,000 men between the ages of 20 and 45 were eri-
roUed. The calls from Oct. 17, 1863, were orcicrs for drafts. But probably
not more than 50,000 drafted men performed personal service. Substitutes
were obtained. "The Substitute Fund" of the Government, consisting of
money paid in as a release from service, and which was used as a "Bounty
Fund" for volunteers, amounted to $2o.^902,029. See Army of U. 8.
EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos^ a song). Narratives in verse. Some of the most
famous are :
Term of Service.
Numher obtair.zd
3 months
93,326
3 years
714,213
3 years
481,9.': 8
9 iiionths
.... 87,00C
3 years I
3 years ^ *
374,807
...... 3 y tars
284,021
..=,.. 1-2-3 years
384,882
1-2-3 years
204,568
Homer's " Iliad " and " Odys-
Sfy" (Gi-ck), betvveen 8th and
Sth centiary, before Christ.
Virgil's "-iEneid ' (Latin), about
3. 0. 19
Ovid's, "Metamorphoses" (La-
tin) about A. D. 1
Dame, (died 1321) " Divina Corn-
media" (Italian) a. d. 1472
Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso "
(I*a!.) A. B. 1 56
Ca-noene, " Lusiad" (Portuguese) 1569
7;a!^so, " Jerusalem Delivered"
(Ital.) 1581
F.ilion, " Pnradise Lost" .1667
Voltaire " Henriade " (French). . .1728
Walter Scott, " Lay of the Last
Minstrel" 1805
The chief American epic which has hitherto been recognized as at all worthy
of a national fame is Barlow's "Columbiad."
EPIPHANY. The feast of Epiphany (Jan. 6), called Twelfth Day, celebrates the
arrival of the wise men of tlia East, and the manifestation to the world of the
Savior, by the appearance of a blazing star, which conducted the Magi to the
place where he was to be found. Instituted a. d. 813. Wheatley. Pardon
says, " The heathens used this word to signify the appearance of their gods
upon the earth, and from the heathens the Christians borrowed it."
EPISCOPAL CHURCH m the United States. Episcopacy established
in New York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first
bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White
of Pennsylvania and Provost of Nevv York, consecrated in London, 1787.
First Episcopal convention, 1 789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky
and Ohio consecrated at New York, Nov. 2, 1832.
EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, Greeks, Romans, and others.
Mr. T. J. Pettigrew published, in England, a collection called Chronicles
of the Tombs, in 1857.
EQUATOR (or Ecuador). A South American republic, founded in 1831, when the
Colombian republic was divided into three ; the other two being Venezuela,
and New Granada. The populat on of Equator is about 1,040,400, of which
48 THE world's PEOGRESS.
76 000 are in Quito, the capital. General Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859:
defeated in battle by Guueial Flores, Aug. 1869. President (elected in 1861),
G. G. Moreno.
3iiQUlTY COURTS of U. S. In New England, New York, and several other
StateSjthe same Judge niav try cases of Equity as well as of Law. There are
no Chancellors in these States. In New York the distinction between ac-
■jons at law and suits in Equity, was abolished in 1849. In New Jersey,
"Delaware, and other States, the English form of Chancery Courts and practice
'.s still preserved (186'7).
SEASTIANISM. A term applied to the opinions of Thomas Lieber (Latinized
J'^rastus), a German physician (1523-84) who taught that the Church had no
right to exclude any person from the ordinances of the Gospel, or to inflict ex-
communication.
ERASURES. In England, by order of Sir John Romilly, Master of the Rolls in
1855, no document corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth
received in the Court of Chancery, The errors must be corrected with the pen.
ESQUIRE, TITLE OF, U. S. A title applied by courtesy to officers of alm.ost
every description, to members of the bar, and others. No one is entitled to
it bylaw, and, therefore, it confers no distinction in law. — Bouvier.
ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the
inhabitants of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but is
now considered to apply properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and North-
ern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of Meroe, the
civilized part of ancient Ethiopia.
Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by
Aza B. c. 941
A dynasly of Ethiopian Kings
reigned over Egypi from b. c. 765-715
Terhakah, King of Ethiopia,
marclies against Semiacheril)
Ethiopia invaded by the Cam-
"byses without success between
B. c. 322-326
Can dace, Queen of Moroe, ad-
vancing against the Roman
settlenieiits at Elephantine, de-
B. c. 710 I feated and subdued by Petro-
I Bius A. D. 22-23
ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind
to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was pub-
Mshed in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work. Researches on the Physical His-
tory of Mankind, 1841-7. The London Ethnological Society, estabhshed in
1843,' publishes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Latham's works, on the Ethnol-
ogy of the British Empire appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnological
Societv was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first presi-
dent. ' It has published 3 or 4 vols, of " Transactions." The works of School-
craft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief
in the original unity of the human race has been opposed in the works of Nott
and Gliddon {Ethnological Researches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9. Mr.
George Peabody, in 1S66, donated to Yale College |1 50,000 to maintain a
museum and Professorship of Archeology and Ethnology, also a liivc amount
for the same purpose to Harvard College.
ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. Eruptions
are recorded by Thucydides as occurring in 1'7.34, 4'7'7, 425, B. c. Eruptions
also A. D. 40, 254, 420, 1669, 1830, 1832, and 1852.
ETRURIA, or Tuscia, hence the modern nr.me Tuscany. An ancient province of
Italy, wlience the Romans in a great measure derived their laws, customs, and
superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colonv
of Lydians. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
49
to reinstate the Tarquins, 506. b. c. The vases and other works of the Etrus-
cans still remaining show the degree of civilization to which they had attained.
See Tuscany. Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgewood's porcelain works, was found-
ed 1771.
EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, England, founded by Sir Culling Eardley Smith
and others in 1845, with the view of promoting unity among all denominations
of Christians. It holds annual meetings. It met Sept. 1857 at Berlin; in 1858
at Liverpool; 1859 at Belfast.
EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil
service in England, has been enforced since 1855. [Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said
that the present might be termed the " age of examinations."] A bill for a
similar system in the U. S. was introduced in the senate by Mr. Sumner, 1865.
EXCHANGE (Merchants') in New York. The present building, on the site of
the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and fin-
ished in 1840.' It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was
purchased by the U. S. government for use as the Custom House. That of
Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846.
EXCHEQUER BILLS. In England the government securities so called, were
first issued in 1697, and first circulated by the bank in 1796. About £20,000,
000 of tliese are often in circulation.
EXCISE Revenue in Great Britain in 1855, £16,389,486 ; in 1858, £17,902,000;
1860, £20,361,000; 1864, £19,558,000.
EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue.
EXHIBITION OF 1851, in London. See Crystal Palace. This exhibition origi-
nated with the Society of Arts ; Prince Albert, President. It was started by
a royal commission, appointed Jan. 3, 1850. The Crystal Palace, designed
by Paxton, begun Sept. 1850, and the exhibition was opened by the Queen,
May 1, 1851. The No. of exhibitors exceeded 17,000. Number of visitors
6,lVo,000, averaging 43,000 daily. Largest No. in one day, 109,760. Exhi-
bition open 144 days. Amount of entrance fees £505,107. Net profits
£150,000. Of 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to
be held inl861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859,
&c. The scheme was revived in April 1860, when the prince-consort en-
gaged to guarantee £10,000, if £240,000 should be subscribed by other persons.
The exhibition was opened by
the duke of Cambridge and a
distinguished company on
May 1,
The Exhibition was closed on
Nov. 1. when the total number
of visitors (exclusive of attend-
ants) had Deen 6, J 17,450.
862
The success of the Exhibition
was much impared by the de-
cease of the prince consort,
Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking
out of the civil war in the
United States of America.
The foreign exhibitors in 1851,
were 6666; in 1862, 16,456.
EXPLORING EXPEDITION. U. S., consisting of the Yincennes, sloop of war ;
Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller
vessel?!, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed frcm Hampton Roads, Va., Aug.
19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the
Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on
the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Vincennes (flagship) returned to
New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain
Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo, and quarto, was
published in 1845. The scientific reports '^^ <lie expedition form about 20
quarto and foho volumes.
4
50
THE WORLD'S PKOGRESS.
EXPORTS AND IMPORTS of the U. S. (Stated in round miUions.)
Exports of
1849 $131 1
1850 134
Produce.
nillioiis...
u
it
of M
16 I
15
48
4i
inuj
aiill
"aciures.
ons
To
...147
...U9
-.364
...247
'al.
Imports.
147 millions.
178 "
'860 316
n
362 '•
J 861 204
»<
286 *
1862 182
((
33
275 '•
186 i 249
t(
50
2M9
11
252 "
1S64 217
..-. 45
64
64
...-()2
., 318
...530
....3 9 "
I860 254
(C
234 "■
1866 466
K
437 '*
EXPORTS OF Great Britain, (p. 318.) Total exports in 1850, £1'75,126,'706. In
1851, £190,397,810. Exports of British and Irish produc(>, in 1856 £115,826,-
948. In 1857, £122,155,257 ; 1861, £125,115,133 ; 1863, £146,489,768 ; 1865,
£218,865
EXTENSION OF TERRITORY of U. S. Since the formation of the government
in 1787, the following additional territory has been acquired :
Sqaare Miles. Square Miles.
J,599, Louisiana, «&c., by
jiurehase of
Prance, for $150,-
000,000 1803
66,900, Florida, by treaty
"with Spain cost
$6,489,000 1820
318,000, Texas, by annexa-
tion, tendered by
its people 1845
308,052, Oregon, settled by
the treaty with
Great Britain. ...1846
650,445,
'California, by tieaty
with Mexico 1848
Mesil.ia Valley (Ari-
zona), by purchase
of Mexico for §10,-
000,000 158
Russian America by
purchase fi:oin Ru.--
81^, negotiated by
Mr. Seward. Sec. of
State 1867
^'ATROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecli-
sive battles between the rebels, under Gen. Joseph Johnston, and the army of
the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, May 31, and June 1, 1862.
FALKLAND ISLANDS. A group of islands in the South Atlantic, belonging to
Great Britain. Seen by Americus Vespucius; visited by Davis, 1592. Taken
possession of by Prance, 1763 ; French expelled by the Spaniards, and in 1771
Spain gave up the sovereignty to England. A colony from Buenos Ayres set-
tled at Port Louis, which was destroyed by Americans 1831. In 1833 the
British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided
there.
FARTHINGS. One of the earliest of the English coins. Farthings in silver
were coined by King John ; the Irish farthing of his reign is of the date of
1210. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined
in copper by Charles IL, 1665 ; and again in 1672, when there was a large
coinage of copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in the reign ot
Victoria, 1843."
FASTS, (p. 319.) Fast-days are appointed by the Reformed Churches in timos
of war and pestilence. The British gov. appointed a fast, March 21, 1855, for
the Russian war, and Oct. 7. 1857, for the Indian mutiny. Pres. Buchanan
appointed a pubUc fast on account of threatened secession of slave states, which
was observed Jan. 4, 1861. National Fasts appointed by Pres. Lincoln at dif-
ferent times during the war. Fast on account of his assassination, May 1865.
FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The following are the principal :
Athanasius, . d.
ST3
,
166
Ephrem Syrus, d. about
,
. 373
■ •
200
Basil . . d. .
67!)
Cyril of Jerusalem, (7.
,
. 386
Gregory Nazianzeii, d.
389
Grt'iioiy JSysseu, d. about .
,
. 394
, ,
217
Epiphuiiius . d.
402
> •
253
Chr^NSusiom . d. . .
,
. 407
Cyril of Alexandria, d.
444
, ,
220
Latin.
230
Araobius m Jl. . ,
,
. 303
, ,
258
Lac:aiiiius • d. about
,
330
Ambrose , d. .
•
. 397
Greek.
Jerome • , d. • •
. 420
340
Augustine • d.
430
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
SKCONB CENTrRT. GrecTt.
Jusliu Martyr, d. about
Ire. aeus . . d. about
Atbenagoras.
THIRD CENTURY. GreeJc,
Clements . . d. about
Origen . . d. about
Latin.
Tertnllian . d. about
Minutius FeliXjj'? aViout
Cyprian . . d. about
FOXIRTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES.
Eusebius . • d. about
FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renewed in cheap-books, flourished about ttie
end of the 15th century. Goethe's poem, "Faust," appeared in 1790.
FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean. There are 80 inhabited
islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,00 inhabitants.
FENIANS (See p. 297). A society of Irishmen in the U. S. and in Ireland,
pledged to work for the liberation of Ireland. Organized in 1857. First at-
tracted notice in the U. S. in 1863. In that year Nov., a Fenian Congress met
in Chicago, composed of 200 delegates. In 1865 the regular members of the
order numbered 80,0(0. " Head Centre " Stephens figured conspicuously
as the leader. In 1866, Fenian meetings were held all over the country. In
the Spring consideiable numbers assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., and St, Albans,
Vermont, apparently with hostile intentions towards Canada. June 1, 1866, a
body of them crossed over and engaged in a skiimish with Canadian troops.
They were compelled to re-cross with slight loss. The Fenian officers were
arrested by the U. S. government, and the men sent to their homes. lu 1867,
the excitement over this organization had greatly subsided. Attempts to
create a revolt in Ireland proved unsuccessful. Several of the leaders were
arrested and tried and condemned to death, but the sentences were commuted
to imprisonment for life. This movement was unquestionably originated and
carried on by men of Irish birth and immediate descent, and waswo^ an Amer-
ican movement as indicated by Haydn, p. 297.
FILIBUSTERS. A name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts
of America in the 17th century, ^^e. Buccaneers, It was applied to Walker
and other adventurers from the United States, who within the last few years
endeavored to obtain possession of Central America and Cuba.
FINLAND. A Russian principality, was conquered by the Swedes in the middle
of the 12th century, who introduced Christianity. It was several times con-
quered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743);
but in 1809 they retained it by treaty.
FIRE ANNIHILATORS. An article so called was exhibited in New York, 185-»
but its practical usefulness has not been demonstrated.
FIRE-ARMS, U. S. The Sharpe's Rifle was the first breech-loader used in this
country. During the war, great impiovements were made in this branch of
ordnance. The Spencer Repeating Rifle patented in I860, carries seven cart-
ridges. The Henry Rifle can be fired 15 times before reloading; patented 1861.
120 shots have been fired from it in 5:^ minutes, including the time for reloading.
The standard musket used in the U. S. Army, is the Springfield Rifle,
muzzle-loader. They are being converted into breech-loaders at the arsenal
(1866-7).
52 THE woeld's pkogeess.
FIRE DEPARTMENTS, with steam engines and paid employees. In 1867, the
following cities had introduced the new system as follows: —
Cost
$73,000
162,098
Steamers.
Men
Baltimore, 7
114
Boston, 11
2S1
Buffalo, 7
189
Cleveland, 5
56
46,470
39,000
Steamers. Men. Cost.
Chicaso, 13 140 $245,500
Cincinnati, 12 140 141,000
New York, 34 664 869,957
FIRE-ESCArES. In England the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from
Fire was first established in 1836 ; its object was not fully attained till 1843,
when it was reorganized, beginning with six escape stations in London ; in
March, 1859, it possessed 67. In 1858, 504 fires had been attended, and 57
persons rescued by the Society's officers. In New York city the necessity for
effectual means of escape from fires in large buildings was sadly shown by the
loss of life by fires in tenement houses, 1859-60. Two or three different fire-
escapes were exhibited in the autumn of 1860.
FIRES IN THE U. S. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865 inclusive were
$214,588,000. In 1865, there were 354 fires, where the loss was upwards of
$20,000, at which property was destroyed to the amount of $43,419,000. The
largest tire of late years was at Portland, Mahic, July 4, 1866. 1,600 build-
ings were burned ; loss, $9,000,030 ; insurance, $3,500,000. Fire in Nash-
ville, Tenn., July 24, 1866, loss, $1,OUO,000. Colt's Armory, Hartford, burned,
Feb. 8, 1864 ; Loss, $1,000,000. Academy of Music and University Medical
College, N. Y., burned, May 21, 1866. Pike's Opera House, Cincinnati,
March 23, 1866. The Suiithsonian Institute, Washington, partially burned
Jan. 24, 1865; the Meteorological department suffered heavily.
FLAG. See American Flag. The flag acquired its present form in the sixth
century in Spain ; it was previously small and square. Ashe. The flag is
said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, before which time the
ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon The term
flag is more particularly used at sea, to denote to what country a ship belongs.
The honor-of-the-flag salute at sea was exacted by England at a very early
date, but it was formally yielded by the Dutch in a. i). 1673, at which period
they had been defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards
to lower their flag to the French, 1680. Renault. After an engagement of
three hours between Tourville and the Spanish Admiral Papachin, the latter
yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, June 4, 1688.
FLORIDA, (p. 322.) Passed an ordinance of secession from the U. S., Jan.
11, 1861, and seized the U. S. Navy Yard at Pensacola. Population, 1850,
87,445. In 1860, 81,885 free, and 63,800 slaves. In 1866, 77,747 white ;
62,677 colored; total 140,424. Mr. Marvin appointed Provisional Governor,
July 13, 1865.
FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries
in the pay of the British government. An act for the formation of the
Foreign Legion as a contingent to the Russian war (1855) was passed Dec. 23,
1854. The endeavor to enlist for the legion, in 1854, in the United States,
gave great offence to the American government. Mr. Crampton was dis-
missed, and Lord Napier sent out as English representative.
FRANCE, (p. 326.) For the succession of events in France, see Chronological
Tables^ page 65 e^ seq.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
53
Government.
New Republic proclaimed ; provi
eional govermneut established,
LMmarrine at the head 1848
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte dfclar-
ed Pres. by the Nat, Assembly,
Dee. 19,1848
Louis Napoleon, Emperor of the
French. Votes lor ihe empire,
7,8;;9,552 ; noes, 254,501 ; laill,
63,609 Nov. 21, 1852
The Emperor proclaimed. .Dec, 2, 1853
Emprtsu : Marie Eugenik (a Spa-
niard), born May 5, 18::6, married
-Ian. 29, 1853
Heir : NAPOLEON-EtrGENXE-Louis-
Jean Jo.-eph, boru....M;irch 16, 1856
Heir preHumptice, In default of
Louis Napo. eon's i»sue : Prince
Jerome Napoleon, a ad his heirs
male
FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN, (p, 327.) The restricted diet of the Germanic
Cont'ederution was constituted at Frankfort, Aug. 10, 1850. The plenipoten-
tiaries of Austria, Bav.iria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg, Mecklenburg,
assenibled here, and constituted themselves the Council of the Germanic
Diet, Sept. 1, 1850, Prussia refused to recognize it. Frankfort annexed to
Prussia after the war with Austria, 1866.
FRANKING PRIVILEGE, U, S. This privilege was granted to the widows of
Presidents Madison and Harrison. An act granting the same privilege to
Mrs. Lincoln, passed Feb. 10, 1866.
FRANKLIN, Sir John. His last Arctic expedition in command ofH.M. Ships
Erebus and Terror sailed from Greenhithe, May 24, 1845. His last despatches
home were dated July 12, 1845. As no later news came from him, the
British gov. in 1850 offered £20,000 reward to any who miglit discover or
assist the missing ships. Several expeditions were sent in search of them
from England and the U. S., viz. :
1. H. M, (Ship Plover^ Capt. Moore,
Jan. 1, 1848
2. Land Expedition nnder Sir J.
Richardsoii and Dr. Rae, Mch,25, 1848
3. Sir Jas, Ross, in the Enter prisa
and Ince!<tigatoi' June 12, 1848
4. Capt, CoUinson and Com. Mc-
Clure Bailed in same vessels
June 20, 1850
5. Capt. Austin, in the Rentlute,
«feo Apr. 25, 1850
6. Capts. Penny and Steward, in the
Lady Franklin^ «&c Apr. IS, 1850
7. The Grinnell (Amee.) expedi-
tion, under De Haven (Dr. Kane,
surgeon), in the Advance and
Itescup May 25, 1850
8. Sir John Ross in the Felix,
May 22, 1850
9. Sir Ewd, Belcher's exnedition
(5 vessels), Assislance^ &c.
Apr. 15, 1862
Lady Franklin fitted out the
four next (private) expeditions,
10. The Prince ^»er^....June 5, 1850
11. The same vessel June 4, 1851
12. The Isabel, Com. Ingleficld,
Nov, 1852
13. The same vessel 1853
14. H. M. S. Rattlesnake Aui?, 1853
15. Second American exptd. (Dr.
Kane, in the Advance).. .June 1853
16. The Phoenix and others under
Capt. Ingietield May, 1854
17. 3d American exped. (in senrch
of Dr. Kane), Lieut, Hartstene,
in the Release and si earner
Arctic May ol, 1855
19. The 18th British exp. equipped
by Lady Franklin and friends,
in the Fox. Capt, McClintock
(found remains of the Franklin
Expedition), sa led July 1, 1857
20. 4tli, American exped. (■n pe irch
of Polar sen), under Dr, Hayes
(surgeon to Kane exped.). sailed
from Boston July, 1S60
Returned 1863
FREE TRADE. Principles advocated by Adam Smith in his " Wealth of
Nations" (1776), triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in
1846, and the commercial treaty with France was adopted in 1860. Mr. Richarl
Cobden, who was very instrumental in passing these measures, has been
termed "The Apostle of Free Trade." Since 1830 the British exports have
been tripled. In New York the advocates of Free Trade established a
" League " in 1866 (?) Wm. CuUen Bryant, President; and a monthly periodical
called the League was first issued May 1867.
FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Very ancient onea
54 THE world's pkogeess.
exist in Egypt and Italy, and modern ones in the British houses of parlia
ment, at Berlin, and other places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others
at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed in the 13th century, are
justly celebrated.
FEONDE, Civil wars of the, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53),
during the government of the queen, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Muza-
rin, between the followers of the court and the nobility, and the Parliament
and the citizens. The latter were called Fro7ideur& (slingers), it is said, from
an incident in a street quarrel.
FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, introduced in the U. S. Senate by Mr. Mason of Va.,
and passed, Sept., 1850. It imposes a fine of $1,000 and 6 mos. imprisonment
on any person harboring fugitive slaves or aiding their escape. It was de-
clared by the Sup. Court of Wisconsin to be unconstitutional, Feb. 3, 1855.
This law was repealed by Congress, June 23, 1864.
G
GALAPAGOS. Islands on the coast of Ecuador (N. Pacific), ceded to the United
States by Ecuador, Nov. 3, 1854, the British, French, and other powers pro-
testing against it.
GALATiA. An ancient province of Asia Minor. In the 3d century
B. c. the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Helles-
pont, and conquered the Troas 278 ; were checked by Attains in a
battle about 239; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogrse-
cia and Galatia. The country was annexed to the Koman empire
B. c. 25, on the death of the king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians
was probably written a. d. 58.
GAME LAWS (p. 330), have been enacted in several states for the protection of
game during certain seasons, to prevent its entire destruction.
GAMUT. The invention of the scale of musical intervals (commonly termed
do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si), for which the seven first letters of the alphabet are
now employed, is ascribed to Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025,
GAS (p. 332). Introduced in Boston, 1822 (?); New York, 1823 (N. Y. Gas
Liglit Co.); now used in nearly every large town of the United States. Used
in 43 towns of N. Y. State, 1860. Price in 1860 ranged from $1 50 per cu-
bic foot in Pittsburg, Pa., to $7 in Belfast, Me., and other places.
GAUL, Gallia. The ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives were
termed by the Greeks, Galatae, by the Romans, Galli or Celtae. They came
originally from Asia, and invading eastern Europe, were driven westward
and settled in Spain (in Gallicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), France and
Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British Isles (the lands of the Cymrior
Gaeli). They gave great trouble to the rising Roman republic by their fre-
quent invasions, 528 to 591 B. c. The Gauls under Brennus defeated the
Romans and sacked Rome, but were expelled by Camillus, b. c. 390 They
overran Northern Greece, B. c. 280. Gaul invaded by Julius Csesar and
subdued in eight campaigns, B. c. 58-50. Christianity introduced in Gaul,
A. D. l&v. Franks and otlier invaders defeated by Aurelian, a. d. 241. Ju-
lian proclaimed en)peror at Paris, 360. Invasion and settlement of Burgun-
dians, Franks, Visigoths, &c., 406-450. Huns under Attila defeated near
Chalons, 451. Paris taken by Childerick, the Frank, 464. Frank kingdom,
estabhshed, 476. History of Gaul by Parke Godwin, pub. New York, 1860.
GAUNTLET. An iron glove, first introduced in the 13th century, perhaps
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 55
about 1225. It was a part of the full suit of armor, being the armor for the
hand. It was commonly thrown down as a challenge to an adversary.
GAUZE. This fabric was much prized by the Roman people, about the begin-
ning of the 1st century. " Brocades and damasks, and damasks and gauzes,
have been lately brought over" (to Ireland). — Dean Swift, in 1698. The
manufacture of gauze and articles of a like fabric, at Pai.stey, in Scotland,
where they maintain great repute, was commenced about 1759.
GENEALOGY (from the Greek, genea, birth, descent). The art of tracing pedi-
grees, &c. The earliest pedigrees are those contained in the 5th, loth, and
11th chapters of Genesis. The first book of Chronicles contains many geneal-
ogies. The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and Luke iii. Many
books on the subject have been published in all European countries: one at
Magdeburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henniiiges, in 1598; Anderson,
Royal Genealogies, London, 1*732 ; Sims's Manual for the Genealogist, &c.,
1856, will be found a useful guide. The works of Collins (1756 et seq.\ Ed-
mondson (1764-84), and Nicolas (1825), on the British peerage universally
esteemed. The Genealogical Society, London, was establisiied in 1853. The
Hew England Hist, anl Genealogical Soc, founded 184-, publishes a quarterly
magazine oti those subjects. A volume called American Genealogies, publish-
ed in Albany, 1855, and numerous private publications of family genealogies,
have been printed in New England. Savage's Genealogical Hist, of N. Eng-
land. 4 vols. 8vo., Bost. 1860-1.
GENOA (N. Italy), (p 333.) April, 1849, the city was seized by insurgents,
who, after a murderous struggle, drove out the garrison, and proclaimed a
republic, but soon after surrendered to General Marmora. Genoa warmly
supported its sovereign, Victor Emanuel, in the struggle with Austria (1859),
and furnished many volunteers for Garibaldi's demonstration on Naples, 186(».
GEOGRAPHY, U. S. The Am. Geographical and Statistical Society was incor-
porated April 3, 1852, at N". Y. It publishes occasionally a Journal chiefly of
original papers.
GEOLOGY Works on, U. S. " Geology of the Globe " by Prof. E. Hitchcock,
1853. Prof. St. John's Elements of Geology, 1855. " Text-book of Geology,"
Prof. Dana, 1863. Besides these text-books there are many treatises and
reports on Geology which are to be found in most of the large libraries in the
country, such as Prof. Hall's Geology of New York; Owen's, of Indiana; Per-
cival's, of Wisconsin ; Hitchcock's, of Massachusetts ; each in quarto volumes.
GEORGIA. Population in 1860 (including 462,198 slaves), 1,057,286. Act of
''secession" passed Jan. 19, 1861. The state was occupied by Sherman's
army in his great march, and Savannah surrendered to him Dec, 1864. Debt
of the state in Oct., 1866, $5,706, 5( 0. Georgia, the ancient Iberia, now a
province of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alexander, 323 b. c,
but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to Rome by
Pompey, 65 b. c, but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was intro-
duced into it in the 3d century. In the 8th century, after a severe struggle,
Georgia was subdued by the Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish sultan AIp-Arslan,
1068; and by the Tartar hordes, 1235. From the 14th to the 18th centuries,
Geoigia was successively held by the Persian and Turkish monarchs. In 1740
Nadir Shah established part of Georgia as a principality, of which the last
ruler, Heraclius, surrendered his territoiies to the czar in 1799; and in 1803
Georgia was declared to be a Russian province,
GERMANY, (p. 335.)
56 THE world's PEOGEESS.
German National Assembly
elected the King of Prussia
emperor of G-t'imuny, (but de-
clined) March 28, 1849
Treaty between Austria and
Prussia Sept. 30, 1849
Treaty of Munich betw. Bavaria,
Saxony, and Wurtemburs^.
Feb 27, 1850
German Confederation Assem-
bly, at Frankfort Sept. 2, 1850
Aiistrian and Bavaiian demon-
stration agaijist Hesse-Cassel.
Nov. 1,1850
Conference at Dresden, for set-
tling German affairs.
Dec, 1850 to May, 18^1
Great excitement throughout
Germany in regard to French
successes in Lombardy ; appre-
hension of French designs on
German territory... May- June, 1853
Meeting of new Liberal Party at
Eisenach, in Saxe-Weimar,
proposing a strong central
gov't., (no practical results).
Aug. 14, 1859
See Austria, Prussia^ Hanover, &c.
GETTYSBURG, Battle of, U. S. Fought July, 1, 2, 3, 1863, at Gettysburg, Penn.
near the Maryland line. Uuion forces 60,000 and 200 guns; Confederate
about 80,000. On the first day the 1st and 11th corps, (U. S. forces) were at-
tacked and beaten by the superior numbers of the enemy : Maj.-Gen. Reynolds
(U. S. A.) killed. On the second day, the 12th 3d and 2d corps came up, and
the whole under command of General Meade formed line on Cemetery Ridge.
No fighting until. 4 P. M., when a terrible artillery fire was opened by the
rebels, and fierce assaults made on the left and then on the right of
the Union army. The contest was heavy and doubtful until evening, when
the enemy retired. On the third day the sanie furious charging and stubborn
resistance was continued The Union army bravely held its ground, and at
night the enemy retreated. Union loss 2,834 killed, 13,'709 wounded, 6,643
missing. In the brief campaign which ended with this battle, tl)e rebels lost
3 guns, 41 standards, 13,621 prisoners, besides an enormous number of killed
and wounded. Over 6,000 men, loyal and rebel, were buried on the field.
The Union victory was of immense importance to the country at that critical
period.
GHOSTS are now produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks described his method
at the British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor exhibited scien-
tific ghosts in March, 1863. Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the
Royal Polytechnic institution, July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost.
GIRONDISTS. The name of a party, which played an importnut part in the
French Revolution, and was principally composed of deputies frOm the depart-
ment of the Gironde. At first they were ardent lepublicans, but after the
cruelty of Aug. and Sept., 1*792, they labored strenuously to restrain the cru-
elties of the Mountain party, to whom they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot,
Vergmand, and many others were guillotined, Oct. 13, 2793, at the instigation
of Robespieire, Lamartine's eloquent " Histoire des Girondins," published in
184Y, tended to hasten the revolution of 1848.
GLASGOW, Scotland, (p. SSY.) Erected into a burgh, a. d. 1180. Its pros-
perity dates from the union of the kingdoms in 170*7, and was much increased
by American trade. Population in 170*7, about 12,(j00; in 1861, 394,857.
GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 1779, and termed by him the
" sweet principle of fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the " father
of the fatty acids." It is obtained pure by saponifying olive oil or animal fat
with oxide of lead, or litharge. Glycerine is now much employed in medicine
and the arts.
GNOSTICS (from the Greek, gnosis, knowledge). " Heretics," who appeared
from the first rise of Christianity, and who endeavored to combine the simple
principles of the Gospel with the Platonic and the other philosophies. They
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 67
were so called because they pretended to extr.iordinary illuminations and
knowledge. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Tievcs as a heretic, in 384,
for endeavoring to revive Gnosticism.
GOLDMINES, (p 339.) On April 28, 1858, a nugget from Au-^tralia, said to
weigli 146 pounds, was shown to Queen Victoria. In 1858, gold was discov-
ered in what is now termed New Columbia, British America. Said to have
been found in Vermont, 1859. Australia pioduced as follows:
1851. 1852. 1856. 1857.
£907,000 £9.735,000 £12,740,000 £11,764,000
GOLD AND SILVER, (p. 339.) Chevalier estimated the total amount of gold
and silver existing in various forms in 1848, at 8,500 millions of dollars, of
which one-third was supposed to be gold. The annual gold product from
18C0 to 1850, was 16 millions of dollars. The U. S. Mint received 41 millions
in 1858, all but $400,000 being from California. The exports of gold from
the U. S. iu recent years were as follows (stated in millions of dollars).
1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866.
n. 29*. 42|. 27i. 41. 56. 45. 69. 53. 64. 66|. 28. 36. 63. 69. 64. 86.
GORGET. The ancient breastplate, or gorget, was very large, and extended to
the body and limbs of the warrior or knight, as armor ; but its size and weight
varied at different periods. The piesent modern diminutive breastplate was
in use at the period of the Restoration, 1660, or shortly after.
GORILLA. A large ape of West Africa, in anatomical structure the nearest ap-
proach to man of any known animal. It is a match for the lion, and attacUs
the elephant with a club. It is considered to be identical with the hairy peo-
ple called Gorullai, by the navigator Hanno, in his Periplus, about b. c. 400 or
500. Preserved specimens have been recently brought to Europe, and a li\ ing
one died on its voyage to France. In 1859, Prof. Owen discoursed on Goril-
las. The Gorilla was not known to Cuvier. Du Chaillu in his African adven-
tures, 1860-1, killed 21 of them, and exhibited some of their skulls in London
and the U. S.
GRANADA. A renowned city of Spain ; was subdued by the Moors in the 10th
century, and formed at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. I"i36, Mohammed-
al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which was highly
prosiierous till its subjugation by the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova, in
I4y2. In 1609-10, the uselul and industrious Moors were expelled from
Spain by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his country. Granada
was taken by Marshal Soult in iSlO, and held till 1812.
GREECE, (p. 343.)
Harb<ir of Piraeus blockaded by
British fleet under Admiral
Paiker, to enforce some mer-
cantile claim? Jan. 18, 1850
The dispute settled April 19, 1850
Bupture between Greece and
Turkey March 18,1854
Olvnipic games ]. reposed to be
revived Oct. 1858
The national assembly elects M.
Balbis I'resident, Jan. 29: and
declares l-ni ( c Alfred of Eng-
land elected Kine of Greece,
by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes.
Feb. 3, 1863
Military revolt of Lieut. Canaris
against Bulgaria and otliers,
who resign, Peb. 20 ; the as-
sembly appoint a new ministry
under Bulbis Feb. 23, 1863
The assembly decides to offer the
crown to Prince 'William of
Schleswig-Holstein, March 18,
and proclaim him as Kinsr
George! March £0,1863
Military revolt at Athens, snp-
p^e^sed. Jui e 30, Jnly 9, 1863
The King arrives at Athens, Oct.
30 ; takes the oath to the con-
stiiution Oct. 31, 1863
" GREENBACKS," U. S. A term given to legal-tender notes issued by the U.
S. Treasury, in 18()2. So called on account of the green print on their backs.
All national bank notes are known by this name. The merit of the green tint
58 THE world's progeess.
is that it cannot be photo Gjraphed or in any way counterfeited. It V7as first dis-
covered by a Canadian. The " American Bank Note Company" prhit the notes.
GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, near London, built in reign of Charles II.
The "Astronomers Royal," who have superintended astronomical observations
here, were Flamsteed, 1675; Halley, 1719;, Bradley, 1742; Maskelyne, 1764:;
John Pond, 1811 ; Geo. B. Airy (the present A. R.'), 1885.
GUANO, OR HUANO. (The Peruvian term for manure.) The excrement of sea-
birds that nestle in prodigious swarms along the Peruvian shores. This sub-
stance is found chiefly on certain small islands, called the Lobos, lying off the
coasts of Peru and Bolivia. Humboldt was one of the first by whom it wag
carried to Europe, on ascertaining its value in agriculture. — McCulloch. It
is also found on Jarvis's, Baker's, and Howland's islands, on the Pacific coast,
from which it is brought by the American Guano Co., of New York, who im-
ported in 1858, 15,000 tons, and exported in 1860, no less than 100,000 tons. In
1857, the U. S. imported 213,000 tons, and Great Britain, 205,000 tons.
In 1864, 4,131,358 tons.
GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America; declared independent 1821
President (1859), General Carrera, elected 1851. It is the most populous of
five states of Cent. Amer., having 971,450 in 1851.
GUIANA (N. E. coast of South America), was visited by the Spaniards in the 16th,
century ; explored by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The French set-
tlements here were formed in 1626-43 ; and the Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara
and Essequibo were ceded to Great Britain in 1814.
GUN-COTTON, A highly inflammable and explosive substance, discovered by
Professor Schbnbein, of Basil, and made known by him in 1846. It is, to all ap-
pearance, common cotton wool, and is purified cotton steeped in a mixture
composed of equal parts of nitric and suphuric acid and afterwards dried. Dr.
Boettenger and others also lay claim to the discovery.
GUNTER'S SCALE. Invented by Edmund Gunter, an English mathematician,
who died 1626.
GUTTA PERCHA, is procured from the sap of the Isonandra Gutta, a large
forest tree, growing in the Malayan Peninsula, and on the islands near it.
Pievious to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was unknown to European
commerce. In that year two cwt. were shipped experimentally from Singa-
pore. The exportation of gutta percha from tliat port rose in 1845 to 169
piculs (the picul is 1,330 lbs.); in 1846, to 5,364 ; in 1847, to 9,292 ; and in
the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the first four and a half years
of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at $274,190, were shipped
at Singapore, the whole of which was sent to England, with the exception of
15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of Europe, and 922 to the United
States. The great variety of articles for domestic use, the ornanR'ntal arts,
&c., to which this material has been applied, has given employment to thou-
sands, not only in the factories of our own and other countries, but also to the
gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, with whom it at present constitutes one of
their most profitable articles of export. In 1848, S. T. Armstrong, of Brook-
]yn, K Y., first applied it for coating telegraph wires. J. J. Craven, of
Newark, N. J., claims to have applied it thus at the* same time or before.
Chailes Goodyear used it, in connection with caoutchouc, for various articles
of common use ; a large boat made of gutta percha was exhibited in New York,
1858.
GYROSCOPE. (From gyrare^ to revolve.) The name of a new, popular, rotatorj
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 59
apparatus, invented by Fessel, of Cologne (1853), since improved by Professor
Wheitstone, and Mr. Foucault, of Paris. It is similiar in appearance to the
rotatory apparatus of Bohnenberger, of Tiibingeu (born 1765, died 1831). The
gyroscope exhibits the combined effects of the centrifugal and centript_-cal
forces, and the remarkable results of the cessation of either. It thus illustrates
the great law of gravitation.
H.
HAARLEM. An ancient town, once the residence of the counts of Holland ; was
taken by the duke of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven mouths, lie
violated the capitulation by butchering half the inhabitants. The lake was
drained in 1819-51.
HABEAS CORPUS. The constitution of the U. S. provides that this law (adopt-
od from that of England) " shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebel-
lion or- invasion the public safety may require it," 1787. President Lincoln
authorized Gen. Scott to suspend the privilege if it became necessary, April
27, 1861. In Sept. 1862, it was not allowed to relieve persons arrested by
miUtary authority for disloyal practices. The President (authorized by express
Act of Congress) proclaimed a general suspension of the privilege of habeas
corpus, to " continue throughout the duration of the rebellion," Sept. 15, 1863.
C. L. Vallandigham, ex-member of Congress, being arrested for disloyal ut-
terances, was refused the privilege of the writ, and sent into the rebel lines,
May, 1863. Great excitement among his friends and sympathizers in the
country.
HAXOVER. Population in 1864, 1,923,492, of whom 1,584,700 belonged to the
Lutheran church, and 226,000 to the Catholic. The army numbered 26,900
men. 3,618 vessels of all kinds composed the merchant navy. This state
was annexed to Prussia, Aug., 1866, against its will.
HARPER'S FERRY, Va. A village at the junction of the Potomac and Shen-
andoah. Population in 1860, about 5,000. The scene of " John Brown's raid."
On Oct. l7, 1859, he with 16 white and five colored men seized the TJ. S.
arsenal at this point, took 60 citizens prisioners, and gave out as his object
"to free the slaves." The insurgents were overcome on the morning of the
18th. Those who did not escape or were not killed, were executed. This af-
fair created intense excitement throughout the country. At the breaking out
of the rebeUion, Lieut. Jones evacuated and blew up the arsenal, April 18, 1861.
Sept. 16, 1862, Col. Miles and 11,000 U.S. troops surrender to " Stonewall
Jackson," at Harper's Ferry. In 1867 it was decided not to re-establish the
arsenal there.
HARVARD COLLEGE, U. S. Established 1638, at Cambridge, Mass. Denom-
ination, Unitarian. In 1863, it had 44 iiistructois ; 814 students in all depart-
ments; 7,440 alumni, of whom 2,679 were living. Value of its buildings and
endowments, over $2,000,0;)0. Annual expenses of the University, .$13;\000,
Its commencement occurs the third Wednesday of July. President : Rev.
Thomas Hill, D. D.
HAYTL (p. 250.) Eaustin I, deposed Dec. 25, 1858, and Gen. Geffrard made
President of the Repubhc of Hayti.
HEALTH, Board of, N. Y. Act passed by the Legislature of New York, Feb.
26, 1866, establishing a " Board of Health and Sanitary District for the preser-
vation of life and health, and to prevent the spread of disease." It was organ-
ized March 5, 1866 ; Dr. E. B. Dalton, Superintendent. The district includes
the counties of New York, Kings, Westchester, Richmond aud part of Queens.
60
First animal report Nov. 1, 1866. It issued 22,592 orders requiring nuisances
to be removed. Death rate in New York city, 1 in 33.33 ; in London, 1 in 45.
HELLENES. The Greek race which supplanted the Pelasgians from the 15th to
11th cent. B.C., derived their name from Hellen, king of Phthiotis, about b.c
1600. From them came the Dorians, Cohans, lonians, and Achaeans.
HELVETn. A Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Swit-
zerland. The " Helvetian Kepublic " was established iu Switzerland, in 1798.
HERCULANEUM. (p. 352.) The Antichita di Ercolano. 8 vols, folio, publish-
ed by NeapoHtan government, 1757-92.
HESSL\N FLY. This plague to •agriculturists was introduced in this country by
the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in the
forage of their horses.
HIPPOPOTAMUS (p. 327) (Greek, river home). A native of Africa, known to,
but incorrectly described by ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at
Rome by Comniodus, and others, about a. d. 138. The first in England, in
1850, is now in the Zoological Gardens, London ; another, (a female, four
months old), was placed there in 1854. Two young ones, born at Paris, in
May, 1858, and June, 1859, wcie killed by their mother.
HISTORICAL SOCIETIES, U. S. The one in New York City was organized
Dec. 10, 1804, and incorporated Feb. 10, 1809. It now numbers nearly
2,000 members. After occupying rooms many years iu the New York Uni-
versity Buildings, it was removed in 1857 to a new fire-proof building on 2d
avenue, corner of 11th street, which was dedicated, Nov. 17, of that year.
The society possesses a library of over 30,000 volumes, particularly rich in
historical works and manusciipts, a choice gallery of paintings, and a collection
of antiquities, coins, medals and charts. Among its collections are a series of
large tablets of Assyrian sculpture, the gift of James Lenox, Esq. The
Masssachusetts Historical Society, founded 1791, is limited to fifty members.
This society has a valuable library, including a very choice collection of books
in English literature, bequeathed to it by the late Thomas Dowse, of Cam-
bridgeport, a leather-dresser, whose library was one of the best of its kind in
the country. The Massachusetts Historical Society has published about 30
vols, of transactions and historical collections. There are historical societies
also in nearly every state in the Union, several of which have valuable col-
lections, and have published transactions.
HOMCEOPATHY. This science — the essential characteristic of which consists in
the use of such remedies against any disease as, in a healthy person, would
produce a similar but not precisely the same disease, its fundamental prin-
ciple being similia similibns curayilxir — was introduced by Samuel Hahnemann,
a native of Meissen, in Saxony (born April 10, 1755, died at Paris, 1843). The
first periodical organ of the system was established 1822. Although violently
attacked and ridiculed by " allopathic " practitioners the system was practised
in 1860 by about 1,200 physicians in Europe, and 2,500 in the United States.
It has 3 hospitals, 3 colleges, and 3 journals, and about 30 societies in the U. S.,
and all these are numerous in England, France, and Germany. (1861.) An
attempt to establish a State Homoeopathic Hospital, in Connecticut, was stren-
uously opposed (1866). The matter was compromised, the Legislature allow-
ing the Homoeopathists certain rights in the hospitals.
H01>DURAS. One of the republics of Central America {which see). Great Britain
ceded the Bay Islands to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. Its present president,
general J. M. Medina, was elected for four years, Feb. 1, 1864. Population,
Abyssinian 3,000,000
Papuan 3 000,000
Negrillo 3,000,000
Australian 500,000
Hottentot 500,000
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 61
about 350,000 (1860). British Honduras, Central ximerica, was settled b^
English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with Spain in 1667. They weie
often disturbed by the Spaniards and sometimes expelled, till 1783. Balize
or Belize, the capital is the great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1861, the
population was 25,635, and the revenue £35,757.
HOXG-KONG. An island off the coast of China. The British under Capt.
Elliott took possession of it in 1839; founded the chief town, Victoria, in
1842; made it a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring was governor from
1854 to 1859.
HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY of London. Founded 1804, Publishes annual
volumes of transactions ; has had annual exhibitions since 1831.
HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which the
names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be 900,000,000, are
as follows :
White 350,000,000
Mongolian 300 000,000
Malayan 120,00i ',000
Telingan 60,000,000
Negro i 55,000,000
Ethiopian 5,000,000
HUNGARY. (See p. 359.)
Kossuth, Bern, &c.. escape to the
Turkish frontiers, niid are
placed under the protection of
Turkey, at New Orsovu, (Sea
^ Turkey^ Aug. 21, 1849
Komorn surrenders to the Aus-
triai'.s ; close of the war.. Sep 27 1849
Batthyani tried at Pesth, and
shot ; many other insurgent
chiefs put to death Oct. 6, 1849
Amnesty granted to the Hun-
garian insurgents, who return
home Oct. 16, 1849
HYDROGEN (from hydor, water), under the name of combustible air was ob-
tained by Paracelsus in the 16Lh century, In 1766, Cavendish described i's
properties ; and, in 1781, he and Watt first showed that in the combination
of this gas with oxygen, which takes place when it is burnt, water is produced ;
subsequently Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements. One volume of
oxygen combines with two volumes of hydrogen, and forms water. Hydrogen
is never found in the free state. Gmelin.
HYDROPATHY. A term applied to a treatment of diseases by water, commonly
called the cold water cure. The system was suggested in 1828 by Vincenz
Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia; and though he is considered
as its founder, the rational part of the doctrine was understood and maintained
by the eminent Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priessnitz died Nov. 26, 1851.
Brayide. Hydropathic Society formed in London, 1842. First Hydro, estab-
lishment in tl. S., at 63 Barclay St., N. Y., 1844. Those at New Lebanon,
N. Y., and Brattleboro, Vt., opened 1845.
Bern dies at Aleppo, ....Dec. 10, 1850
The country remains in an un-
settled state , many executions 1853-5
Crown of St. Stephen and royal
ins'gnia discovered and sent to
Vienna Sept. 8, 1853
Amnesty for polit.cul oftenders
of 1S48-9 July 12, 1856
The Emperor of Austria crowned
king of Hungary, with great
pomp June, 1867
Kossuth elected to Hungarian
Parliament July,1867
ICE TRADE, THE, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of
Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to
Calcutta, in 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are
capable of containing 141,332 tons. In 1854, Boston shipped 15f ,540 tons.
62 THE world's pkogeess.
In New York in 1855, 305,000 tons were stored up. The exports of Ice from
1860 to 18*36, averaged about 48,0()0 tons. During the four years ending June
30, 1861, $712,000 worth was exported from the U. S. In 1856, $8,0u0,(<0o
were invested in tlie ice trade, giving enipluyment to 8," 00 or 10,000 men.
Ice is not subject to duty iu tlie U. S. 6u0,u00 tons were provided for the
consumption of N. Y. city in 1867.
ICHTHYOLOGY. The science of fish. Eminent writers are Wiilonghby, Ray,
Valenciennes, Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, &c. YarreU's ''British Fishes" (1836-
69), is a classical work.
ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The controversy respecting images (which
had been introduced into churches for popular instruction about 300), was
begun about 726, and occasioned many insurrections in the Eastern Em-
pire. Leo Isauricas published two edicts for demolishing images in churches
in that year, and enforced them with great rigor in 736. The defenders of
images were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Constantine forbade his
subjects becoming monks. The worship of images was restored by Irene in
780. This schism was the occasion of the second council of Nice, 787. Tiie-
ophilus banished all the j)ainters and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832.
The Iconoclasts were finally excommunicated in 869. This controversy hjd to
the sepai-ation of the Greek and Latin churches. In the contests between the
Iconoclasts and their opponents, thousands perished. Many images in churches
were destroyed in England and Scotland during the Keformation and the
civil war, 1641-8.
IDAHO, U. S. Organized as a territory March 3, 1863. Area, 326,373 square
miles. Population in 1864 about 24,(j00. This territory has been settled
lapidly by adventurers and gold seekers, within the past few years (1867).
Boise City is the capital. Estimated product of gold and silver in 1865,
$7,000,000.
IDES. In the Roman calendar, the thirteenth day of each month, except in
March, May, July, and October, in which it was the fifteenth day; in these
ibur, it was six days before the nones, and in the other months, four days.
Tlic Ide of March was the day on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the
senate house by Brutus, Cassius, Casca, and other conspirators, 44 b. c.
IDIOTS, Education of. The first efforts for the education of idiots in America,
were in 1839. In that year, the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb in New
York received a mute boy, who was instructed for three years, by Professor
Morris, with favorable results. The same year, Dr. Howe of Boston treated
and greatly improved a blind idiotic child, and afterwards two others. Two
or three children were also under instruction at the American Asylum at Hart-
ford before 1848.
ILLINOIS, U. S. Population in 1850, 851,470; in 1860, 1,691,233. Increase
1840-50, 80 per cent. ; 1850-60, 99 per cent. Population iu 1865, 2,151,007 ;
gain since 1860 of 459,774. Assessed valuation of property in 1865, $391,
683,284. From April 1861 to Jan. 1863, the State placed in the field 119,400
men. Amount expended for school purposes in 1861, $2,007,000. Number
of schools 9,811. There are in the State, 1 institution for deaf mutes, 1 for
the insane, 1 for the blind.
IMPORTS, U. S. The value of imports during the war greatly decreased. In
1860 they amounted to $362,000,000; in 1862 $2i 15,000,000 ; in 1865 $234,
000,000 ;" in 1866, $437,000,000. See Exports. Into Great Britain, from all
parts of the world:
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
63
In 1710 £4,753,777
1800 30,570.605
1810 41,1S6,135
1820 o6,514,564
1840 6iJ,0U4,0tJC
1111850 £95,252,054
1857 187,844 ,441
lN=)9 179.182.353
1861 2 n. 485,024
1804 274.563,924
lc65 271,134,909
INCOME TAX, British (p 304), was doubled during the Ciiruean war (1S54).
It produced in 1855, £13,718,185. In 1856, £lo,7l7,l65. In 1858, £1I,39G,
435; in 1861, £10,y23,186; 'in 1865, £7,958,000. United Statls. Levied
by act of Congress July 1, 1862. Tax on incomes from $600, to |^10,00ii, 3
per cent. ; over $10,(^00, 5 per cent. Receipts from this source in 1863,
$455,741; in 1864, $14,919,280; in 1865, the rate being 10 per cent, over
$5,000, $20,740,451 ; in 1866, $61,071,932. In 1866 a sii'gle merchant of
New York paid the sum of $407,125 as a I'ax on his income for 1865, the in-
come being stated b}' liimself, as amounting to $4,07 1,250 ; probably the largest
personal tax of the kind ever paid. The law of 1866 taxed all income over
$1,000, 5 per cent.
INDEPENDENTS, (p. 305.) In 1851, they had 3,244 chapels in England and
Wales.
INDIA, (p. 366.) Mutiny and war against the British, 1857.
Havelock dies of dj'sentery at
Alambagli Nov. 25, 1857
Trial of king of Delhi; eeiiteiiced
Begun at EariacUpore....Marcli, 1857
Mutiny at Meerut near Delhi.
Mav 10, 1857
Mflrtial law proclaimed May, 1857
Mutiny at Lucknow May 30, 1857
Cawnpore surrenders to Nana
Sahib, who kills the garrison,
&c., June 28 ; he is dele:ited by
General Havelock, July 16,
who recaptures Cawnpore.
July 17, 1857
Assault of Delhi begins. Sept, 14 ;
the city taken, Sept. 20 ; the
king captured Sept. 21 ; and his
sun and grandtoii slain by Col-
onel Hudson Sipt. 22, 1857
Havelock marches to Lucknow
and relieves the besieged resi-
dency ; retiri's and leaves Out-
ram in comma, id ; Neill killed.
Sept. 25, 26, 1857
Sir Colin Campbe'l (since Lord
Clyde), appointed conimmJer-
iii-chief. July 11 ; arilves at
Cawnpore Nov. 3, 1857
to traiisportat'oii
Jan. 27 to March 9, 1858
Sir C Campbell marches to Luck-
now, Feu. 11; the siege com-
mences March 8, taken by
successive assaults ; the enemy
retreat; Hudson killed.
March 14-19, 1858
The government of the East In-
dia Company ceases Sept. 1, 1858
The ex-kinr of Delhi snils for the
Ciipe of Good Huve, Dec. 4-11 ;
the colonists refuse to receive
him ; he is sent to Eangdon 1858
Defeat of tlie Begum of Oude and
Nana Sahib by General Hors-
ford Feb. 10, 1859
Thanksgiving in England for
pacification of India May 1, 1859
INDIANA, (p. 366.) One of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes
by the French; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement
m'ade by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Teriitory in 1801. Suf-
fered much during the war of 1812. Population in 1860, 1,350,428. Number
of public schools 6,098 in 1862. Common scliool luiid $4,991,202. The State
sent 195,147 men to the war. In 1865, the Legislature voted that negroes
could be competent witnesses in courts. The "fillibuster" General Morgan
invaded the State, July 9, 1863. In 24 hours 60,000 men offered their ser-
vices to drive him out. He effected no damage and retreated rapidly.
INDIANS, U. S. According to the best data in the possession of the Indian De-
partment, at Washington, there are now (1867), between 320,000 and 350,000
Indians within the hmits of the U. S., comprised in about seventy-five tribes,
and occupying about one hundred localities.
INDIAN WARS, U. S. In the war of the rebellion, the Choctaws, Chickasawa
64 THE world's progkess.
and Cherokees, took sides with the Confederates. They furnished three
regiments. The war upon the plains commenced in April, 1864, in Colorado.
It was inaugurated by apparently too hasty action of the U. S. troops towards
the Cheyennes. An Indian village was soon destroyed and 40 warriors killed.
Fearful massacre of Indians near Fort Lyon, Nov. 28., 1864, by forces under
command of Col. Chiviugton. After this several Indian tribes formed an alli-
ance, and commitied murders and depredations on the lines of ti'avel. On
Dec. 21, 1865, the Sioux massacred a company of soldiers at Fort Kearny. A
general Indian War fairly begun in May, 1867. Gen. Sherman takes the man-
agement of it into his hands. Gen. Meagher declares war against the Indians
of Montana Territory, April 24, 1867.
INDIA RUBBER, (p. 366.) See Caoutchouc.
INFANTICIDE, Female, was very prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Ma-
cai'tney stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually ; it is now gradually
decreasing in India. On Nov. 12, 1851, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohau chiefs
to agree to resolutions against it, and a great meeting iu the Punjab was held
for the same purpose, Nov. 14, 1853.
INKERMANN, Battle of, Crimean war, Nov. 5, 1854. See Battles.
INQUISITION, (p. 369.) Restored by Ferdinand VII., July 21, 1814; Finally
abolished by the Cortes, 1820. (Llorente states that in 236 years the total
number in Spain of persons put to death by the Inquisition, was about 32,000;
291,000 were subjected to other punishments. The last person burnt was at
Seville, Nov. 7, 1781, being a woman accused of making a contract with the
devil.)
INSOLVENCY IN the U. S. In May, 1837, a "commercial crisis'* was at its
height. The heavy failures in two months, in New York alone, amounted to
260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount
of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures iVora Nov. 1, 1836, to May
12, 1837. New York city banks all suspended specie payments May 10, 1837.
The New England banks generally, immediately after. See Bankruptcy.
INSTITUTE OF FRANCE. In 1793, the Academies of Inscriptions and Belles
Lettres and of the Sciences, were combined in one body under the above
title.
INSURANCE. The marine risks assumed by the Insurance companies of New-
York alone, in 1860, amounted to $80,379,892 ; in 1866, thev were |37S,880,-
003. The fire risks in 1860, were $1,049,551,594; in 1866', $2,753,793,107.
The losses paid in 1866, were $15,312,750.
INSURRECTIONS in the United States. Shays's Insurrection in Massachusetts,
(caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insurrection in
Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794 See the accounts of Conspi-
racies, Ifassacres, jRebellions, Riots, &c.
INTEREST OF MONEY in the United States. The rates vary in different States,
viz. : In La., five per cent., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R.,I., Conn., N. J., Pa.,
Del., Md., Va., N. C, Tenn., Ky., lud.. 111., Mo., Ark., and the United States gov-
ernment claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y., S. C, Mich., and Wis., seven
per cent. In Geo., Ala., Miss., and Fin., eight joer cent. Laws ngainst usury, with
penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Maine. Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del.
Forfeit of the usury and double, or tiehle the usury in 14 other States. Usurious
contracts void in Md., N. C, Ga,, Tenn., Ohio, Ark.
INUNDATIONS, (p. 371.) Disastrous one in the centre and south-west of
France, on the Loire, &c., damage over £4,000,000 sterling, Oct., 1846. In
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
65
south of France with immense damage, May and June, 1856. At Ham-
burg, the city half flooded, Jan. 1, 1855.
IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). The Republic of the Seven Islands,
Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, St. M;ana, Cerigo, and Paxo, which were
colonized by the lones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greelc people ;
were subject to Naples in the 13th century, and in the 14th to Venice, which
ceded them to France, in 1797, by the treaty of Canipo-Formio. Tiiey were
seized by the Russians and Turks in 1800 ; and formed into a Republic.
They were restored to the French in 1807, but retaken by the English in
1809. A new and very liberal constitution was granted in 1845. They are
now among the free states of Europe ; Corfu is the seat of government.
Population in 1856, 49,663.
IOWA. One of the U, S. (territory 1838), admitted into the Union as a state,
Dec. 28, 1846. Population in 1840, 42,924; in 1850, 191,881 ; ia 1856, 519,-
148, and 271 colored ; in 1860, 682,000. In 1863 she had 800 miles of rail-
road completed. Value of the exports from her river ports in 1862, $8,2uO,-
000. Population in 1865, 754,732, of whom 3,607 were black. The State
furnished 72,300 men for the war. In 1865 the women of Iowa made 14,538,-
216 pounds of butter, and 1,000,738 of cheese. There are institutions for the
insane and blind in the State.
IRON. The value of the annual product of the U. S. in 1860, was about
$7,000,000, or about 1,200,000 tons. The quantity of pig iron produced in
the U. S. in 1866, was 939,956 tons. 339,764 tons were manufactured into
new and re-rolled rails; 129,858 in nails; 946,613 in castings over 10 pounds
weight. The mountains of Missouri, it is computed, would yield 1,000,000
tons of wrought iron yearly for 400 vears.
ITALY (p. 374).
'Napoleon III. et Tltalle," published
Feb., 1859
The Austrian ultimatum rejected by
Sardi liia April 26, 1859
The Austi-iuns cross the Ticino, April
27 ; and the Fre.ch enter Genoa,
May 3, 1859
Peaceful revolutions at Florence,
April 27 ; Parma, May 3 ; Modena,
June 15, 1859
The Anstrians defeated at Montebel-
lo, May 20; Palestro, May 30 31;
Magenta, June 4 ; Mariguano, June
8; Solferino June 24, 1859
Provisional governments established
at Florence, April 27 ; Parma, May ;
and Modena. (The sovereigns re-
tire.) June 15, 1859
Insurreciions in the Papal States : Bo-
lOgnn, Ferrara, &c June 13-15, 1859
Massacre of the insurgents at Peru-
gia by the Swiss troops June 20, 1859
Armistice between Austria and
France July 6, 1859
Preliminaries of peace signed at Vil-
lafranca ; Lorabardy surrendered to
Sardinia July 12, 1859
Italy dismayed at first at the peace ;
great :igitation at Milan, Florence,
Modena, Parma, &c July, 1859
Grand Duke of Tuscai y abdicates
about July 28, 1859
The Pope appeals to Europe ai/ainst
the King of Sardinia July 12, 1859
Garibaldi becomes commander of the
Italian array, and exhorts the Ital-
ians to arm July 19, 1859
Constitutional assemblies meet at
Florence, Aug. 11, and at Modena,
Aug. 16, 1859
Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the
Rom;igna declare for annexation to
Piedmont Sept. 3-7, 1859
Gaiibaldi appeals to the i!?eapoliiaus ;
subscriptions in Itnlyand elsewhere
to supply arms for the Italians.. Oct., 1859
Garibaldi, with a force of about 1,200
men, in two small steamers, em-
barks from near Genoa for Sicily,
May 6, 1860
Garibaldi lands at Marsala, May 10 ;
and after several victories takes
])Ossession of Palermo, May 27 ; and
establishes a provisional govern-
ment for Sicily, which is entirely
evacuated by Neapolitan troops,
June 8, 1860
Garibaldi victorious at Melazzo,
July 20-1, 1860
Garibaldi lands In Calabria, Aug. 8;
enters Salerno, Aug. ; enters'^Na-
ples Aug., 1860
Francis II., King of Naples, retires
to Gaeta, Aujr. ; siege of Gaeta
commenced by Victor Emanuel,
Oct., 1860
Gaeta capitulates Feb. 14, 1861
60 THE WORLD'S PHOGEESS.
IRVIN^GITES, or the followers of the Rev, Edward Irving, in England, who no^v
call themselves the "Holy Catliolic Apostolic Church." They use a liturgv
(franied in 1842, and enlarged in 1853), and have church officers named apos-
tles, aiigels,^ prophets, &c. In 1852, lights on the magnificent altar and
burning of incense during prayers were prescribed. Their Gothic church or
cathedral in Gordon square was solemnly opened Jan. I, 1854. It is said that
all who join the church offer a tenth of their income for its support and exten-
sion. They had 30 chapels iu England in 1851.
JAPAN. IJ. S. exped. under Com. Perry (7 ships of war), entered the Bay ol'
Yeddo, Feb., 1854, to demand protection for American seamen and ships
wrecked on the coas;, and to ofl'cct a treaty of commerce, which was agreed
upon, March 31. A British squadron for the same purpose reached Nagasaki,
Sept., 1854, and effected a treaty. The Russians followed; and the Dutch
made a new treaty, Nov. 9, 1855. Mr. Townsend Harris, consul-general for
the U. S., made a new treaty, June 17, 1857, by which Nagasaki, Simoda,
and Hakodadi were opened to American trade. Harris was received in
Yeddo in 1858, and effected another treaty. Lord Elgin's treaty opening sev-
eral ports to British trade, Aug. 26, 1858. Death of the Tycoon, August,
1858. Japanese embassy to the U. S. (with attendants, "lO persons), reaches
San Francisco, March 28, 1860; Washington, May 14; Philadelphia, June 9;
New York, where tliey were received with a great military display, June 16;
embarked for home in U. S. frigate Niagara, July 1 ; reached Yeddo, Nov. 10,
1860. A tronp of Japanese jugglers arrived in the U. S. in 1866. In the
spring of 1867, their performances in N. Y. city excited much sensation. Their
proprietor is under bonds to return them to Japan in two years. Commission-
ers from Japan again visited Washington in 1867, and made purchases of
large quantities of sch.ool books lor public schools in Yeddo, and also bought
from the government the iron-clad frigate Stonewall, for the sum of |400,0(;0.
Ministers of the U. S., England, France, &c., notified May, 1867, that Yeddo
and other ports would be opened to foreign nations in Jan., 1868.
JEDDO, or Yeddo (p. 376). Severe earthquakes, Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11,
1855; during the latter 67 temples, 100,000 houses, and 30,000 persons were
said to have been destroyed.
JESUITS (p. 377). In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechismo Filoso-
jico^'' or dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for
kings, how far they may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises
made to their people.
JEWS (p. 378). Alderman Salomons, first Jewish Lord Mayor of London, 1855
Seizure of Mortara, a Jewish child, by the Cath. Archbp. of Bologna, June 24
1858. Baron Rothschild takes his seat as M. P. for London (first Hebrew in
Brit. Parliament), July 24, 1858.
JOCKEY CLUBS, U. S. One was organized in N. Y. City in the summer of
1866, by Messrs. Jerome, Belmont, and others. Its object is to improve the
breed of horses, and establish a better system of races. A park and course
have been Liid out at Fordham, near the city, at the expense of Mr Jerome.
The races were inaugurated Sept. 25, 1866. The celebrated horse "Kentuc-
ky" won the 4 mile heat in 7.25.
JUGGERNAUT (p. 380). The state allowance to the temple was suspended by
the Indian government in June, 1851.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 67
KAFFRARIA. An extensive country in South Africa extending from the north
of C;ipe Colony to the sout.h of Guinea. The Kaffirs or Caflfres first invaded
the British colony at the Cape in 1831, and continued a warfare up to Dec.
20, 1852, when they were defeated and sued for peace.
KANSAS. One of the United States (the 34th), organized as a territory, May,
1854, and by the same act the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was declared
"inoperative and void" in both Kansas and Nebraska. Emigrant companies
from Mass. began to arrive in July and founded the town of Lawrence. An
association formed in Missouri, July 29, to " remove all emigrants " coming
" under the auspices of northern emigrant aid societies ; " another formed
Aug. 12 to introduce slavery. A. H. Reeder of Pa., app. governor, arrived
Oct. 6. Election for delegate to Cong., Nov. 29 ; the polls mobbed by armed
bands from Missouri; another election March 20, 1855, similarly controlled;
Reeder superseded July 26 by Wilson Shannon of Ohio ; Topeka (" free State")
Convention promulgates a Constitution Nov. 11; collisions, with bloodshed,
between the "free state" and "pro-slavery" people commenced at this time,
and continued more or less for many months. Topeka Const, accepted by
the people Dec. 15, and under it Charles Robinson chosen governor, Jan. 15,
1856. Armed men from Ga., Alabama, &c., arrived in the territory April,
1856. Report of H. Repres. of U. S. on Kansas affairs, proving fraud and
violence of pro-slavery invaders. Robinson arrested for treason. May 5, and
imprisoned four months for taking office under Topeka Constitution. Raid of
pro-slavery men on the town of Lawrence, May 21. Eight at Potawatamie May
26, and several other coUisions for several months. Free State legislature at
Topeka dispersed by U. S. troops under Col. Sumner, July 4. Shannon re-
moved, and John W. Geary of Pa. appointed in his stead Aug. A party led
by Ex-Senator Atchison of Mo. repulsed in an attack on Osiwatomie Aug. 29.
Free state men driven by Missourians from Leavenworth, Sept. 1. Robinson
and others released on bail Sept. 8, and Geary promising protection to free
state men they gave up their arms. Topeka legislature met Jan. 6, 1857;
the Speaker and others arrested by U. S. Marshal. Pro-slavery legislature at
Lecompton provides for a convention. Geary resigned in consequence of ille-
gal acts of Lecompte, U. S. judge, 1857. Robert J. Walker appointed gov-
ernor, ;ind F. P. Stanton of Tenn., secretary, June. M. J. Parrott elected del-
egate to Cong. Lecompton Constitution promulgated, and caused great ex-
citement Dec, 1857. Walker denounces it as a fraud, and resigns because
the Const, is approved by the President. J. W. Denver of Cal. app. governor
Dec, 1857. Lecompton Const, submitted to the people and repudiated by
10,226 votes. Convention at Wyandot adopts a Const, prohibiting slavery,
July 27, which is ratified by the people (4,000 mnjority), Oct. 4. Under it
Charles Robinson chosen governor Dec. 6. Kansas admitted into the Union
under the Wyandot Constitution Jan. 29, 1861. Population in 1859, 69,950;
in 1860, 143,645. Act establishing an "Agricultural College" passed Jan.,
1863. The state furnished 19,500 men to the war. Efforts to advance the
internal condition of the state are being made by the legislature every year.
Asylums for the deaf, blind, and insane, have been organized.
KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, defended 5 mos. by the Brit, under Gen. Wil-
liams against a Russian siege, June 18 to Nov. 28, 1855.
KENTUCKY. Population in 1850, 771,4-24 and 210,981 slaves. In 1860, 933,707,
and 225,902 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 years 19 per cent., inc. of
68
slaves 7 per cent. There was a slight decrease of the population, caused by
the war, in 1865. The state sent 63,995 white and 20,400 colored soldiera
(Union) to the war. Population in 1865, 1,165,668.
KINDER GARTEN (children's garden). A system of education devised by Fro»
bel, but practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany, in 1849,
ami in England in 1851. The system, founded mainly on self tuition, and en-
livened by toys, games, and singing, is set fortJa in Ronge's "Kinder-Garten,"
published in 1858.
KNOW-NOTHINGS, or the " American party." A political organization in the
U. S., 1853, to insist that the Americans shall rule America.
LACE. (p. 388.) This manufacture has been so advanced by improvements,
that a piece of lace which about 1809 cost £17, may now be had for Is. Ure.
LANGUAGE. Hon. George P. Marsh, in a recent lecture, stated that there
were nearly 100,000 English words found in use by good writers, but that uo
single writer employed more than a very small proportion of the whole. Few
scholars used as many as 10,0(J0 English words, and ordinary people not
more than 3,000. In all Shakespeare there were not 15,000 words, and in
all Milton but 8,000. T^ere were but 800 of the Egyptian hieroglyphics.
LAW. (p. 391.) The numbe.^ of lawyers in the United States, in March, 1851,
was 21,9*79, or about one to Overy fifteen hundred inhabitants. Monthly Law
Magazine. Estimating their average receipts a $1,000 per annum, tht-ir ag-
gregate ii come would reach within a fraction of twenty two millions of dollars.
In 1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers; in l?t'nnsylvania, 1,848; in
Ohio, 2,081 ; in Massachusetts, 1,132; in Kentucky, 1,066 j and in Georgia,
908. LivingstOTi's Law Register.
LEGACY DUTY, Internal Revenue, U. S. By the Revenue laws of 1861-62-
63, Legacies were included on the taxable list. A tax of 75 cents to $5. is
imposed on " every hundred dollars of the clear value of interest in such prop-
erty." In 1863, the revenue from legacies to parent, child, &c., was $25,869,
to nephew, niece, &c., $11,333, to uncle, &c., $921, to corporations, stransrers
&c., $18,470. Total Revenue from legacies and successions in 1864, $310,
836; in 1865, $546,703 ; in 1866, $1,170,979.
LIBEL, Law of, U. S. Action for libel lies against the proprietor of a
newspaper edited by another, though the publication was made without the
knowledge of such proprietor.
LIBERIA. The number of American Africans in 1860, was about 10,000; na-
tives under jurisdiction of the republic about 250,000. In 1856 the sugar cane
was introduced, and in May, 1860, a cargo of sugar was sent to N. Y. Palm
oil reported in 1859, $500,0u0. A college, several schools, 2 newspapers, and
several churches have been established (1859). Population in 1863, 422,000,
of whom 16,000 were born in the U. S., and 6,000 rescued from slave-ships.
The government is republican. Capital Monrovia. Revenue of the Republic
in 1861, $149,550
LIBRARIES. The Astor Library, founded by the late J. J. Astor, who left, bv
will, $400,000 " for the establishment of a public library in New York,"
" which should be open at all reasonable hours, free of expense, to persons re-
sorting thereto." The original building opened to the public Jan. 9, 1854.
Another building of similar style and extent was added by W. B. Astor, 1860.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 69
The whole contained in 1860 about 120,000 volumes, including the most ral*
uable, rare, and costly works purchnsable. The free Public Library in
Boston, opened Sept. 17, 1858, is a noble institution of a similar kind found-
ed at a similar expense by^everal munificent citizens. It is wholly free to the
public, and about 30,000 volumes are provided, which may be taken from the
library by any resident of Boston. It is a remarkable fact that these 30,000
volumes had thus been freely loaned to all comers without loss or damage to
the amount of $100 in 2 years. In 1864 there were 104 libraries in the U. S.
of over 100,(iOO volumes, distributed among 23 of the states and containing 2^-
404,000 books, or about ^ the total number in all the public libraries of the
country. The Church and Sunday-School libraries were estimated to contain
from 5 to 6 million volumes. In the work entitled " Private Libraries of
New York " (Dr. Wynne) are found notices of over 40 collections of 4,00i) and
12 with 10,000 volumes (1864). In 1859 the following statistics were com-
piled : Numl)er of Libraries in the U. S. with volumes reported, 1,297, es-
timated, 1,593 ; libraries of common schools, 18,000; Sunday-Schools, 30,000;
total, 50,890 libraries, number of volumes, 12,720,686.
LICENSE TAX, U. S. Levied by act of Congress, Julv 1, 1862. Total receipts
from this source in 1863, $6,824,178; in 1864, $7, 145,389 ; in 1865, $12,613,-
478; in 18G6, $18,038,098. In 1865, the largest amount was reci'ived from
wholesale dealers, $5,428,345. Retail dealers in liquors paid $2,807,225. Re-
ceipts from bowling alleys were the smallest, $19,749.
LIGHTHOUSES. In 1859, there were 491 light stations on the coasts of the
U. S., including the Pacific and the lakes, the annual cost to govt, being $032,-
000. The No. of buoys and beacons was about 5,000. A large number of the
lighthouses from Cape Henry to the Rio Grande, were destroyed by the Con-
federates in the late war.
LOANS, U. S. The following are the principal loans of the Government in
support of the war against the Rebellion.
Name of Loan. Length of Loan. Amount Tsuued^
Loan of Fel) 8, 18G1 20 years $18,415,000
7.30 notes 3 " 139,9L!9,750
■Five-Tweniiee 5 or 20 years 514,780,000
Ten-Forties 10or40 '' 172,770,100
Five-Twenties 5 or 20 " • 91,789.000
Trensu ry Notes 3 ye;irs 178,756.000
7.30 Notes " « 234,400,000
"" " " " 437,210,400
See Appletoji's Annual CyclopcBdia^ 1865. Finances-
LONDON, (p. 402.) The population of London in 1861 was 2,803,034.
LONGEVITY, IN THE U. S. In 1860 there were 2,960 persons over 100 years
of age. In the State of N. Y. (1865) there were 108.
LOTTERIES. In N. Y. and Pa. Lotteries have been declared by law to be
*' public nuisances," and to be indictable as such. The Am. Art Union was pro-
nounced Illegal, as a lottery, 1851. About 1820 there was a lottery at Natchez
for building a Presbyterian church. At other times colleges, roads, ferries,
hospitals, &c. have been aided by lotteries. They were still tolerated in
Maryland, Georgia, and perhaps other States (1861). The "Crosby Opera
House" Association, in 1866, was a lottery, in which the "opera house" at
Chicago, was the principal prize. All who invested received a prize equivalent
to their amount immediately on payment. The proprietors made large
profits, as subscriptions came in from all parts of the country.
LOUISIANA, (p. 404.) Population in 1850, 61 7, 762. In 1856, by state census,
70 THE woeld's progress.
68'7,'7'74, including 244,000 slaves. In 1860, 666,413, including 312,1 86 slaves.
Ordinance of secession iVom the U. S. passed by Convention, Jan. 26, 1861
Motion to submit the question to the people was defeated by a large nia-
jority. The principal portion of the state came under the authority of the
Government before the close of the war. Number of men furnished to the
Union army, mostly blacks, 40,000. Debt of the State in 1867, $13,358,0 )0.
LOUTRE. (p. 404.) The magnificent buildings of the New Louvre begun by
Napoleon I., and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated by the latter
in great state, Aug. 14, 1857.
LYNCH LAW. Punishment inflicted by private individuals, independently of the
legal authorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who ex-
ercised it upon the fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the " dismal
swamp," North Carolina, when they committed outrages upon persons and
property which the colonial law could not promptly redress. This mode of ad-
ministering justice began about the end of the 17th century, and lias prevailed
more or less in recftnt years in the western border of southern states.
Lynch Law, "A common phrase used to express the vengeance of a mob,
inflicting an injury, and committing an outrage upon a person suspected of
some offence. In Endand this is called Lidford Law." — Bouoier.
MACADAMIZING. The inventor of this system of repairing roads (Mr. John
ilacadam), received a grant from Parliament in 1825 as a reward.
MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during
the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, b. c. 167, when I\Iattathias, a priest,
resisted the tyranny of the governor. His son Judas Maccabeus defeated the
Syrians in three battles, b. c. 166, 165 ; but fell in an ambush, b. c. 161.
His brother Jonathan made a league with the Romans and Lacedaemonians,
and after an able administration, was treacherously killed at Ptolemais by
Tryphon, b. c. 143. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered,
B. c. 135. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called
also Aristobulus, took the title of king, n. c, 107. The history of the Macca-
bees is contained in five books of that name, two of which are included in
our Apocrypha, and are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic Church,
but not by Protestant communions.
MADAGASCAR, (p. 411.) The French were defeated in an attack on this
island, Oct. 19, 1855. The native Christians have suffered much persecution,
although the prince, the son of the reigning queen, embraced Christianity in
1846. The Rev. W. Ellis in 1858 published an interesting account of his
three visits to the island, on behalf of the London Missionary Society in
1854-5-6.
MADEIRA, (p. 408.) Since 1852, the vintages here have been totally ruined
by the vine-dizease.
MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorable for the victory of the French
and Sardinian army over the Austrians, June 4, 1859. The emperor Loui:^
Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of Sardinia were in the thickest
of the fight. It is said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Aus-
trians were engaged. The former are asserted to have lost 4,000 killed and
wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7,000 prisoners ; these number:?
are still doubtful. The Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded.
The emperor and king entered Milan on June 8 following. MacMahon and
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 71
Rej^nault d'Angely were created marshals of France for gallantry in the
action.
MAGNETISM. In 1831 electricity was produced from a magnet by Professoi
Faraday, who has since published his researches on the action of the magnet
on light, on the magnetic properties of flame, air, and gases (1846), on dia-
magnetism (1845), on magne-crystallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnet-
ism (1850), and on the magnetic force (1851-52). In the present century
our knowledge of the phenomena of magnetism has been greatly incre;ised
by the labors of Arago, Ampere, Hausteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggeudorfif,
Sabine, Lamont, Tyndall, Du Moncel, &c.
MAINE, (p. 410.) Population in 1850, 583,169 ; increase in 10 years, 16 per
cent. Population in 1860, 619,958 ; increase in 10 years 6-^ per cent. No.
men furnished to the army and navy 1861-5, 71,558.
MALAKHOFF, a bilinear Sebastopol on which was situated an old tower, which
the Russians strongly fortified during the siege in 1854-5. The allied French
and English attacked it on June 17 and 18, 1855, and after a conflict of 48
hours were repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed
and 1,126 wounded ; that of the French 3,338 killed and wounded. On Sept.
8, the French agiiin attacked the Malakhoff; at 8 o'clock the first mine was
sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered redoubt la
the ILilakhoff and Redan were found 3,000 pieces of cannon of every calibre,
and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder.
MA-NASSAS JUNCTION, Virginia, an important military position, where the
Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near a creek named Bull Run.
It was held by the rebels under Beauregard in 1861, when they were attacked
by General McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and
gained some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On the 21st was fought the
firat battle of Bull Run. McDowell had the advantage till about three o'clock,
p. M., when the I'ebel Gen. Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first
were taken for Union troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized
with sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in dis-
graceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage.
The Federalarmy is said to have had 481 killed, 1,011 wounded, 1,216 missing.
The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1,500. In March, 1862,
when the army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, marched into Vir-
ginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at
Manassas. On Aug. 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle
between the northern and southern armies. In August, General " Stonewall "
Jackson, after compelling Gen. Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar moun-
tain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas, repulsed
his attacks on the 29th. On the 30rh General R. E. Lee (who had defeated
McClellan before Richinond, 'June 26 to July 1), joined Jackson with his
army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate con-
flict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, com-
pelling the Union army to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were
once more routed, Sept. 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the
lines of Washington on Sept. 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan
resumed the command, to march against the Confederates, who had crossed
the Potomac and entered Maryland. See United States.
MARONITES. A body of Christians in Asiatic Turkey, who recognize the
authority of the pope. They live near Mt, Lebanon, and in Aleppo, Damas.
72
cnSj and other places. Tbey suffered severely in the massacre by the Diuses
in 1860, and some accounts make the Marouites the original aggrcsjors.
MAROO^'S. A name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island
was conquered from the Spaniards a number of the negroes, abandoned by
their former masters, fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the
colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons capitu-
lated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In
1*795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and transported to
Nova Scotia. Brande. They were also sent to Sierra Leone; and many of
them are among the Dutch of Surinam.
MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia), were discovered in 1595 by Mendana,
who named them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoca. They
were visited by Cook in 1774, and were taken possession of by the French
admiral Dupetit Thouars, May 1, 1842.
MARRIAGE, (p. 414.) The number of marriages in England and Wales in
1750 was 40,300 1820 was 96.883 1850 was 152,744
1800 " 73,228 1840 " 121,083 1858 " 156,207
Of these marriages, in 1850, it is stated, in the registrars' returns, that
4V,57Q men and 70,601 women could not write, and that they signed the
marriage n gister with their marks.* See Divorce. It has frequently been
attempted to legalize a marriage with a deceased wife's sister, without success.
A bill for this purpose passed the Commons, July 2, 1858, but was rejected
by the Lords, July 2d following.
MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and music of this hymn are ascribed to
Rouget de Lille, a French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of
Marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to cheer the spirits of the conscripts of the army
then at Strasburg. The hymn derived its name from the circumstance of
some troops from Marseilles marching into Paris to the tune at a time when
it was little known there, in 1792. Brande.
MARYLAND, (p. 415.) Population in 1850, 583,034, including '74,723 free
colored, and 90,368 slaves. Increase in ten years, 24 per cent. In 1860, the
population was 646,183, and 85,382 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10
years, 11 per cent.; decrease oi slaves, 6 per cent. In 1861 desperate at-
tem-pts were made by the Secessionists of the State to carry it into the *' Con-
federacy" and to betray the National cause — but they were defeated by the
predominant Union sentiment. See Baltimore. In 1865, the Legislature dis-
fanchrised all Marylanders who had fought against the Union. Union troops
furnished for the war . Disbursements for Union troops, $4,212,479.
MASSACHUSETTS. Population in 1850, 994,514; increase in 10 years, 34 per
cent. In 1855 (state census), 1,132,369, increase in 5 years, 16 per cent.
These returns placed Mass. the 6th in the Union in population, In 1860 the
population was 1,231,494. Increase in 10 years 24 per cent. Total industrial
production in 1855, 295 millions of dollars. Exports, 1859, 18 millions. Rail-
roads, 1,602 miles, which cost 63 millions. Number of troops sent to the war
in 1861-5, 159,165, of whom about 6,500 were blacks. Population in 1865,
1,267,329.
MATCHES, U. S. The tax on matches imposed Aug. 1864, is one cent per hun-
dred. The revenue from this source in 1865, was about $1,000,000.
• In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820 ; 243,fi74 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As
respects Paris, the statistics of that city, which are very minute and curious, furnish the
following classes as occurring in 7,754 marriages : — Bachelors and maids, 6,456; bachelora
&v.d widows, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; "widowers and widows, 222.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 73
MEDICAL COLLEGES, U. S. There were 54 medical schools and colleges iu the
U. S. in 1862. The oldest is the University of Penn. at Phila., 1765.
MEDICI FAMILY. Illustrious as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in
Italy ; were chiefs or signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in which
year Cosmo de' Medici, who had been banished from the republic, was re-
called, and made its chief, presiding over it for thirty years. Lorenzo de'
Medici, styled "the Magnificent," and the "Father of Letters," ruled Florence
from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (Pope Leo X.), was the son of Lorenzo.
Roscoe. From 1569 to 173'7, the Medici family were hereditary grand dukes of
Tuscany.
MEMPHIS. An ancient city of Egypt, (" of which the very ruins are stupendous ;")
is said to have been built by Menes, 3890 b. c. ; or by Misraim, 2188 b. c. It
was erected by Alexander, 332 b. c. ; and restored by Septimus Severus, a. d.
202. The invasion of Cambyses, 526 b. c, began, and the founding of Alex-
andria, 332, completed the ruin of Memphis.
MENDICANT FKIARS. Several rehgious orders commenced alms-begging in
the 13th century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe
and embraced many communities ; but at length by a general council, held by
Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, were confined to four orders — Dominicans,
Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and others branched
off.
MENU, Institutes of. The very ancient code of India. Sir W. Jones, who trans-
lated them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between
Homer (about 962 b. c.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 b. c).
Haughton's translation appeared in 1825.
MEROVINGIANS. The first race of French kings, 418-752.
MESMERISM. So caUed from Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician,
of Mersburg. He first made his doctrine known to the world in 1766; con-
tending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies diffused
through the universe, a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of ani-
mated beings. Quitting Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous pro-
selytes to his system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000
livres. The government at length appointed a committee of physicians and
members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate his pretensions. Among
these were Franklin and Dr. Bailly, and the result of their inquiries appeared
in an admirable paper drawn up by the latter, exposing the futility of animal
magnetism, as the delusion was then termed, and the quackery of Mesruer.
Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau
and others announced their belief in it.*
METEOR. Remarkable instances of the phenomenon are recorded by the Chi-
nese as early as 644 b. c. ; bv Greeks and Romans (a few only) ; by Kepler
(1623), Halley, Humboldt, Cavallo, Bowditch, and others, 1676, 17i9, 1783,
1819. A meteor passed over N. Y., Conn., R. I., Delaware, &c., July 20, 1 860.
Extraordinary meteoric display in Nov. 1833, partially recurring every Nov. till
1839, and again in 1841 and 1846. These were described by Prof. Olmstead
of New Haven.
METHODISTS, ^p. 422.) The first Methodist organization in the U. S. was at
Baltimore, 1784, Wesley sanctioning it as the "Meth. Episcopal Church of
America." Introduced in S. Carolina and Georgia, 1 785. Secession of Anti-
• In 1859 the Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, Archbishop "Whately
being president, and the Earl of Carlisle and Mr. Monckton Milnes among the vice
presidents.
74
Episcopal branch, 1830. Secession (on account of the slavery question) of the
"Methodist Episcopal Church South," 1844, The northern branch had in
1860, 956,655 members, and 13,000 preachers, under 51 "annual conferences,"
24 colleges, 2 biblical institutes, and 120 seminaries. The "M. E. Church
South" in 1845, had 6 bishops, 24 conferences, 330,710 white members, 124,
811 colored members, 2,978 Indians. In 1859 the total membership waa
721,023, with 21 colleges for males, 28 colleges and 27 high schools for females ;
and a publishing house at Nashville which issued 6u0 million pages in 5 years.
The Meth. Prot. Church in 1858, had 90,000 members and 2,000 ministers.
No. of Methodists in U. S. in 1863, 1,650,000; number of churches, 11,638;
ministers, 10,911.
MEXICO, (p. 423.) Herrera, president, 1848; succeeded by Gen. Arista, Jan. 15,
1851 ; who was compelled by revolution to resign, 1853, and Santa Anna was
recalled and made president with unlimited powers. Insurrection of Alvarez,
Jan. 1854 ; flight of Santa Anna, Aug. 1855, and elevation of Carrera for 27
days. Alvarez made president by a Junta, but after a few weeks resigned in
favor of Comonfort, who confiscated Church property, March, 1856. New-
constitution promulgated by Congress, March, 1857, opposed by the army, and
a new revolution (Jan. 1858), suppressed Comonfort, and elevated Zilloaga to
the presidency. Juarez (chief-justice), claims this post, and retires to Yera
Cruz, May 4, 1860, assuming there to be the "Constitutional president." Zu-
loaga deposed, and Gen. Miramon as chief of the Conservatives or Church
party leads a war against Juarez, which ends in the triumph of Juarez, Jan.
1861. In July, 1863, an assembly of notables in the City of Mexico, declared
Mexico a moderated monarchy, and offered the crown to Maxmilian arch-duke
of Austria, who accepted it; entered the city of Mexico June, 1864; defeated
the liberals in several engagements. In the spring of 1867, the French troops
who had been sent in 1861, to enforce certain claims made by France, and by
w^hose assistance Maximilian had established himself in Mexico, were with-
drawn. The liberals after this regained their lost ground, besieged Maximihan
in Queretaro, and compelled his surrender. The Juarez government declared
him a usurper, and sentenced him to be shot. His execution took place,
against the protest of all foreign ministers, June 19, 1867. Miramon and
Mejia executed as traitors at the same time. A state of anarchy has existed
in Mexico for years, and Maixmilian's object was to reduce the country to order
under a monarchy. The contest was waged with great bitterness and cruelty.
City of Mexico surrendered to the Republicans, June, 1867.
MICHAELMAS. The feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman
Cathohc Church, under the title of " St. Michael and all Angels." St. Michael
is supposed by the Roman Catholics to be the head of the heavenly host. This
feast is celebrated on the 29th of September, and the institution of it, accord-
ing to Butler, was a. d. 487.
MICHIGAN, (p. 423.) Population 1850, 399,654; in 1860, 754,291. Increase in
1840-50, 87 per cent.; 1850-60, 89 per cent.; in 1864, 803,745. In 1864,
600,000,000 feet of lumber was sawed in this State. Number of men sent to
the army in 1861-5, 90,119.
MILITIA, (p. 424.) In England a volunteer militia was raised during the Cri.
mean war, 1854, and again during the Indian mutiny, 1857. U. S. The mili-
tia force of the United States in 1860, as near as can be ascertained from
official reports, consisted of 53,589 commissioned officers, and 2,036,520 non-
commissioned officers, musicians, artificers, and privates ; a total of 2,090,109
men. Since the late war, most of the states have organized their militia into
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 75
a more efficient system than formerly. Volunteers in the tvar are exempt from
duty for a certain peiiod ; in Conn, for 3 years.
MINCIO. A river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French
under Brune, Dec. 26, 1800; and by Eugene Beauharuais, Feb. 8," 1814. The
provinces of Verona and Mantua are watered by the Mineio,
MINES, (p. 425.) The deepest coal pit in England was opened about 1860, after
nearly 12 years' labor. The shaft is 686-^ yards deep, and its sinking cost
eome f;50d,000. The seam of coal is 4 ft. 8| in. thick, and is calculated to
yield 500 tons a day for 30 years. The shaft is 12-^ feet in diameter, and near
the bottom 19 feet. Here it meets an "incline" nearly half a mile long. U.
S. The famous Hayward gold mine, in Aaiadon county, California, extends
1,200 feet below the surface of the earth. In thirteen years, $7,000,000 have
been produced from it. The greatest silver mine is known as the " Comstock
lode," in Nevada, discovered in 1860. It is owned by about 100 different
companies. The length of mining shafts in the West varies from 500 to 1,000
feet. The annual yield of gold and silver mines in the U. S., is nearly
$150,000,000.
MINIE RIFLE. Invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (born about
1800). From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d'
escadron. His rifle is considered to surpass all made previous to it, for ac-
curacy of direction and extent of range. It is adopted by the French, and
with various modifications by the British army in 1852.
MINNESOTA, U. S. Made a territory, 1849 ; admitted into the Union as a State,
1857. Population, 1850, 6,077 ; 1860, 176,535 ; 1865, 248,848. A terrible
Indian massacre occurred m this State in August, 1862. The Sioux rose in a
body, and commenced a series of fiendish outrages. 500 whites were mur-
dered in cold blood, and millions worth of property destroyed. Their depre-
dations extended over an area of 20,000 square miles in the western part of
the State. Gen. Sibley finally checked and del'eated them ; 2,000 prisoners
were taken, of whom 38 were hung as murderers. In Sept. 1862, over 8,000
fugitive whites were receiving aid in Eastern Minnesota.
MINT. (p. 426.) In England, first regulated by Athelstan, about a. d. 928. See
Coinage.
MIRRORS, (p. 427.) In 1851 Mr. Pettigrew made known a mode of silvering
glass by a solution of silver, thus avoiding the deleterious use of mercuiy,
MISSIONS, Protestant. The number of Protestant missionaries in the world
in 1860, was 1,369, who are distributed as follows : North America, 125 ;
South America, 11 ; the Antilles and Guiana, 218 ; Northern Africa, 6 ;
West Africa, 107 ; South Africa, 152 ; Western Asia, 74 ; India and Ceylon,
419 ; Burmah and Siam, 39 ; China, 72 ; Oceanica, 146. To the above
must be added 934 assistant missionaries, and 2,737 native helpers (1860).
Modern missionary effort has given to 20 millions of people the benefits of a
written language. 20 dinlects of Africa have been thus supplied, and 500,000
persons enjoy oral teaching. See Benevolent Societies. Roman Catholic.
The receipts of the great Romish missionary society, the Society for the
Propagation of the Faith, for 1857, from all parts of the globe, amounted to
$838,000. Their expenditures in Europe were about $159,000 ; in Asia,
$284,000 ; in Africa, $54,000 ; in America, $177,000 ; in the South seas,
$73,000. The whole amount contributed on this continent v^as about $32,-
000. It is stated that Protpstants in the U. S. alone, give more for
foreign missions than the one hundred and fifty millions of CathoUcs in all parts
of tne world.
76
MISSISSIPPI, (p. 426.) This State repudiated $5,000,000 of its bonds, in 1839 (?)
Population 1850,606,326; 1860, 836,658; increase from 1840 to 1850,61
per cent. The literal translation of the aboriguial name is Great River ; the
Indian title is written variously by the early journalists ; Marquette spells it
"J/?ssomip/)y /" Hennepin '■'■ Meschasipi.'''' Sape is river, running water ; the
pretix means '■' ffreat,^^ '■^ big.''^ "Ordinance of Secession " from the XJ. S.
passed Jan. 9, 1861. Wm. D. Sharkey appointed Provisional Governor,
June 13, 1865. The delegates of the State Convention petition for the
pardon of Jefferson DaviSj Aug., 1865.
MISSOURI. Population in 1850, 682,044, including 87,422 slaves. In 1856
911,001, including 101,605 slaves. Increase in 10 years, 77 per cent. From 1830
to 1840, it was 133 per cent. Pop. 1860, 1 201,214, including 115,619 slaves.
Desperate attempts were made by rebels in this State to effect secession, but
they were defeated. This State was the scene of numerous minor conflicts
and some important battles, during the slaveholder's war 1861-5. See United
States and Battles. War debt, $7,546,575 ; Common School fund in 1865,
$678,660.
MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring
the men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were
offered by royal proclamation, in 1712, for apprehending any one of them.
Northouck.
MOLUCCAS, an archipelago (the chief of Amboyna) in the Indian Ocean, dis-
covered by the Portuguese about 1511, who held them secretly till the arrival
of the Spaniards, who claimed them till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to
John III. for a large sum of money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and
have held them ever since — except from 1810 till 1814, when they were sub-
ject to the English.
MONACHISM (from the Greek, monos, alone). Catholic writers refer to the
prophet Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early ex-
amples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish
sect of the Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising celibacy, &c.
About the time of Constantino (a. d. 306-322) numbers of these ascetics
withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anchorets ; of
whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the
founder of the Stylitae (or pillar saints), died a. d. 456. He is said to have
lived on a pillar 30 years. St. Benedict, the great reformer of monachism,
published his rules and established his monastery at Monte Cassino, abo'JtA. d.
529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c., are so many varieties of Bene-
dictines.
MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James
Monroe, president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European
power to interfere in restraining the progress of liberty in North or South
America. Upon this doctrine the U- S. protested against the establishment of
French troops in Mexico in 1861-6. Tliey were finally withdrawn in 1867.
MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians
June 9, 1800, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello ; and where (May
20, 1859), after a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the
Austrians, who lost about 2000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The
French lost about 700, including general Beuret.
MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was con-
quered by Solyman II. in 1526. It rebelled in the last century, and establish
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 11
ed an hereditary hierarchical government in theftinciily of Petrovitsch Njegosch,
endured, but not recognized by the Porte.
MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict
with the Mexicans, Sept. 21-3, 1846.
MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges,
were first established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities,
1462 et seq. The Franciscans, in 1493, first began to receive interest, which
was permitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Piete were not established in
France till 1*777. They were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored,
1804 ; regulated by law, 1851-2. See FawnhroTcer, p. 464.
MONUMENT of LONDON, begun in a. d. 1671, and finished in 1677. The
pedestal is ibrty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the
distance of its base from the spot where the fire which it commemorates com-
menced. It is the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its erection cost
about £14,500.
MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Himgary was completely de-
feated by the Swiss, June 20, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones
of the vanquished, was destroyed by the French in 1*798, who erected a stone
column in its place.
MORAVIANS, U. S. In 1863 they numbered 32 ministers, 46 churches, and
5,760 members.
MORMONS. In Utah, their chief settlement, Brigham Young, their leader, was
made Governor by Pres. Fillmore in 1850. The U. S. chief justice being repu-
diated by Young, and the U. S. laws disowned. Col. Steptoe, U. S. A. was ap-
pointed governor in place of Young, and sent with a battalion to enforce the
U. S. authority, Aug., 1854. His authority being defied, he resigned. Alfred
Cummings appointed gov. by Pres. Buchanan, and arrived with 2,500 U. S.
troops, Oct. 5. His trains were attacked and open rebellion proclaimed ; but
in March, 1858, the Mormon leaders submitted and order was restored. Army
withdrawn May, 1860. In April, 1851, their elders and preachers were gath-
ering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, and especially
among the Waldenses ; also in Paris. Their celebrated " Bible," professed to
have been delivered to Joe Smith, was really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding,
about 1812, as a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula Co.,
Ohio. The MS. is said to have been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who
copied it, and subsequently printed it. In Europe the number of Mormons
has been estimated as high as 100,000 ; and some are reported in Asia, Africa,
and Polynesia. Their number in Utah was estimated at 50,000, in 1862, and
composed the greater part of the white population. They denominate them-
selves the " Church of Jesus of the Latter Day Saints." Their church organ-
ization is composed of a series of hierarchies, the highest being the First Pres-
idency, consisting of their chief prophet Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball,
and Daniel H. Wells; next the Twelve Apostles; then the quorums of Seven-
ties, of which there are said to be 62 organized in the territories, each having
seven presidents and 63 members; then follow quorums of High-Priests, Elders,
Priests, Teachers, and Deacons. A somewhat anomalous office is that of pa,-
triiirch, which has been conferred on John Smith (s^on of Hyrum and nephew of
their fiist prophet Joseph Smith) and on a few others. There is also in each
settlement a High-Council, composed of 12 members, and a bishop for each
ward, the wards containing from 500 to 1,000 persons. {National Almanac.)
Reported schism among the Mormons, 1867.
MORTALITY IN WAR. The Provost-Marshal-General has compiled a com
78
plete list of all the deaths in battle and from wounds and disease, of every reg'
iment from all the Northern States during the war. This record shows that
280,'751 officers and men lost their lives in the service; of whom 5,221 com-
missioned officers and 90,886 enlisted men were killed in action or died of
wounds, and 2,321 commissioned officers and 182,329 men died of disease.
MOSQUITO COAST (in Central America). The ludiiins inhabiting this coast
have been long under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a
group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the United States
has long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, the two governments cove-
nanted not to " occupy or fortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise any do-
minion over any part of Central America."
MOUNT VERNON. The home of Washington, on the Potomac ; purchased
for the nation for the sum of $200,000, raised by ladies' associations, origi-
nated by Miss Pamela Cunningham of South Carolina, 1858-60. During the
war of secession this place was caieCully protected by the government.
MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, and one of the most beautiful sites in Germany,
was founded, it is said, a. d. 962. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden, in 1632 ; by the Austrians in 1^704, 1741, and 1743 ; and by the
French, under Moreau, July 2, ISOO. Munich abounds in schools, institu-
tions and manufactories. The University was founded bv king Louis in
1826.
MURFREESBORO, (Tennessee). Near here severe conflicts took place between
the U. S. troops under Rosencrans and the Rebels under Bragg, l)ec. 30, 1862,
and Jan. 2, 1863. The rebels were defeated.
MUSIC, U. S. Music seems to have engaged public attention first through the
theatre. There was one established at the Capital during Washington's ad-
ministration ; also afterwards at New Orleans. About 1825 an opera troupe
appeared in New York, under Signer Garcia, a fine artist. Madame Malibran,
his daughter, met with gieat success as an opera singer. Other Italian troupes
followed. Large Opera Houses are at Boston, Brooklyn, New York, New
Orleans, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. Miss Kellogg, the Amer-
ican Prima Donna, first appeared on the stage early in 1861. Her success
has been complete. Philharmonic and musical societies are to be found in
all laige towns of the U. S., and musical concerts are greatly encouraged.
The excellence of American Pianos is acknowledged. Among eminent players
are Gottschalk, Mason, Mills. About $15,000,000 worth of Pianos are man-
ufactured yearly. See JPianos.
I
IfAPLES (p. 434).
A martial anareliy prevails Dec, 1849
The chiefs of the Liberal Party arrest-
ed in 1849
Bettembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and
others, after a mock trial, are con-
denmed, and consigned to horrible
dungeons for life Jnue, 1850
After remonstrances with the king on
Italian refugees, under Count Pisac-
caiie, landing in Calabria, are defeat-
ed, and their leader killed, June 27-
July 2, 1857
Death of Ferdinand II., afier dreadful
sufierings May 22, 1859
Accession of Francis II
The city of JN"aj)les sunendeis to Gari-
baldi without a struggle, and the
king retires to Gaeta Sept., 1860
Gaeta surrenders to the Sardinians,
and the king takes refuge in a Frer.ch
vessel Feb. 1 3, 1861
See Italy and iSicUy.
KASHVILLE, U. S. The capital of Tenn., occupied by the Union forces, Feb.
23, 1862. Great battle fought here Dec. 15, 1864, between the forces of
his tyrannical government (May),
the English and French ambas-u-
d:rs are withdrawn Oct 28, 1856
Attempted assassination of the king
by Milans Dec, 1856
The Cagliari se.zed June, 1857
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
19
Gen. Thomas (Union) and Hood (Confederate). The former had been be«
sieged for several days when he marched out and attacked Hood, taking 16
guns. On the 16th lie completely routed him, taking 20 guns. This was the
last campaigu of the Southern army of the West.
NASSAU, a Germnu duchy, was made a county by the Emperor Frederic I.,
about 1180, for Wolram, a descendant of Courad I. of Germany; from whom
are descended the royal house of Orange now reigning in Holland and the
present DuWe of Nassau. Population of the duchy in 1857, 434,064. Wies-
baden was made the capital in 1839. In 1866, after the war, this duchy was
annexed to Prussia.
NATIONAL ACADEMY op Design (at New York), founded 1826. The first
President was Samuel F. B. Morse, who was succeeded by A. B. Durand in
1845, and he by D. Huntington in 1862. Corner stone of new Academy
building laid Oct. 21, 1863. Building opened and inaugurated April 1*7, 1865.
See Dedg?i, Paintings.
NATIONAL DEBT of England. The annual interest in 1850 was £23,862,257;
and the total interest, including annuities, amounted to £27,699,740. On
Jan. 1, 1851, the total unredeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland was
£769,272,562 ; the charge on which for interest and management was
£27,620,449. On Jan. 1, 1852, it was £765,126,582; the charge, £27,501,783.
Mr. Gladstone's Estimate :
Enscland $3,995,000,000, or $125 per head.
United States 3,000,000,000, or 100 "
Fnuice 2,400,000,000, or 63 "
Austria 1,580,000,000, or 45 **
Russia l,3!>5,00ii,0i)0, or 43 '«
Italy 76U,000,000, or 34 *'
Spain $725,000,000, or $46 per head.
Holland 425,000,00ii, or 121 "
Turkey 255,000.000, or 115 «♦
Frussia 215,000,000, or 12 •*
Poituaal..... 175,000,000, or 40 «•
Great Brit liu's revenue has never exceeded £70,000,000 per year; but the
United States Government are now raising $540,000,000 per year. United
States. At diffe ten t times : See Loans.
In 1791 the debt was $75,463,476
In 1830 the debt was $48,565,406
Inl835 " " 37,733
In 1845 « « 16,801,647
In 1848 " " 65,804,450
Aug. 31 , 1865 it was 2,757.689,571
(It reached its highest figure at this date.)
Jan. 1,1866 it was ". 2,716,581,536
Nov. 1,1866 " 2,551,31<i,005
May 1,1867 " 2,520,786,096
Sept. 1867 " 2.500.000,000
In 1800 " " 82,976,294
In 1810 " » 53,17.3,217
In 1816 " " 127,334,934
In 1820 " " 9-^,015,566
Jan. 1 , ] 865. it was 66,243,721
Dec. 1, 1861 " 267,654,153
Jan. ], 1863 « 764,535,854
Dec. 1, 18G3 " 1,293,243,544
Feb. 13, 1865 « 2,279.552,484
NATURALIZATION Laws, U. S. By the Constitution, Congress has power to
estabUsh " one uniform rule of naturalization." Over fifteen different acts
have been passed since 1787 on the subject. In 1860, the law required a re-
sidence of five years in the country to entitle any one to citizenship. In the
city of New York between 1850 and 1860, about 60,000 persons were natu-
ralized.
NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as
plants, mosses, feathers, &c., into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it
wore, to engrave themselves; and afterwards taking casts or copies tit for
printing from. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants; and
in the same year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to
the impressions. In 1849, Professor Leydolt of Vienna obtained impressions
of agates a"d fossils. The first practical application of this process in England
was in "The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley.
80
THE world's PEOGEESS.
NAVAL ACADEMY (U. S.) at Annapolis, Md., founded during the Presidency
of Mr. Polk, chiefly at the instance of Mr. George Bancroft, Secretary of the
Navy. During the war it was removed to Newport, R. I. It has since been
re-established at Annapolis.
Secession :
Fort Sumter, S. C, five disabled,
the fort receiving no great injury.
April 7, 1863
The Confed. ram Albemarle at-
tacks U. S. gunboats at Plymouth,
N. C, sinks one, and disperses
the rest April 19, 1864
Brilliant engagement off Cher-
bourg, France, between U. 8.
gunboat "Kearsarge," and Con-
i'ed. privateer "Alabama." The
latter sunk in two hours June 19, 1864
Admiral Farragut, with 32 vessels
and 231 guns, enters Mobile Bay,
silencing the forts, and capturing
two heavy ironclads. One U. 8.
Monitor sunk by a torpedo. . . .Aug. 5, 1864
Gunboat fight near Memphis,
Tenn. The Union fleet com- ■
pletely routed the enemy's, cap-
turing 3 and disabling 4 of their
vessels June 6, 1864
Formidable fleet of ironclads and
frigates with 300 guns, under
Admiral Porter, attack Fort
Fisher, N. C. Under cover of
the terrible fire, laud forces
storm and capture the fort.... Jan. 15, 1865
For list of minor engagements, see
Greeley's '■'■ Amer. Confliot,^'' Vol IL
NAVAL BATTLES, U. S, in the war of
"J'he Confederate forts at Hatteras
Inlet, N. C, bombarded by fleet
of Com. Stringham, and taken by
land forces of Gen. Butler.Aug. 28, 29, 1861
Fort Henry, Tenn., taken by Com.
Foote Feb. 6, 1862
Great naval action in Hampton
Boads, Va., March 8, 9, 1862. The
Confed. ram Merrimac from Nor-
folk, attacks the U. S. frigates
"Cumberland" and " Congress,'*
and sinks them. On the follow-
ing day the U. S. "Monitor"
(battery of 2 guns), arrived in
time to save the frigate Minneso-
ta, and finally forced the Merri-
mac to withdraw in a disabled
condition.
Com. Farragut, with a fleet of 50
vessels and 286 guns, passes forts
Jackson and Philipi?, destroys the
enemy's rams, and takes New Or-
leans April 18, 26, 1862
Grand military and naval expedi-
tion, under Dupont, captures
forts at Hilton Head, 8. C Nov. 7, 1861
Fierce action at Port Hudson, Miss.
Admiral Farragut, in attempting
to pass the batteries, loses his
flagship "Mississippi," March 14, 1863
Combined attack of ii-onclads upon
NAVY OF ENGLAND (p. 440). In July, 1856, it consisted of 271 sailing ves-
sels, carrying 9,594 guns; and 258 steam vessels, carrying 6,582 guns; also
155 gunboats, and 111 vessels on harbor service.
NAVY OF FRANCE (p. 440) has been greatly increased by the present empe-
ror. In 1859 it consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 saihng vessels and 37
steamers), and 898 other vessels, in all 449.
NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES (p. 439). In 1860 consisted of 10 ships of
the line, 10 frigates, 21 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 8 steamers, first class, 6 screw
do., second class, 15 do., third class, 9 side-wheel steamers, 3 storeships, 6 re-
ceiving ships — total, 91 vessels. At the opening of the war in 1861, there
were 58 serviceable vessels, with 1,110 guns. The home squadron consisted
of but 12 ships, with 187 guns. In 1862 there were 427 vessels and 3,268
guns; in 1863, 588 vessels, 4,443 guns; in 1864, 671 vessels, 4,610 guns. At
the close of 1864 there were 62 ironclads completed or on the docks. Total
number of seamen in 1861, 7,600; in 1865, 51,500. Since 1861, 208 vessels
were commenced, and 418 bought, of which 313 were steamers, costing
$18,366,681. Total expenses of Navy Department from March 4, 1861, to
June 30, 1865, $314,170,960. The first ironclad was the Monitor, built by
Capt. Ericsson at N. Y. in 100 days, completed March 5, 1862. In 1866, the
navy was reduced to 278 vessels, 2,351 guns. In commission, 115 vessels, 1,029
guns. Number of seamen in the naval and coast survey service in 1866,
13,600.
NEBRASKA, U. S. Organized as a territory, 1854. Capital, Omaha City. Area
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 81
about 100,000 square miles. Population in 1860, 28,841 ; also 5,000 Indians.
Admitted into the Union, March 1st, IBS'/.
NEVADA, U. S. Organized as a territory, March 2, 1861. Capital, Carson
City. Area, about 80,000 square miles. Population, I860, 50,568, of whom
16,260 were Indians on reservations, and 7,550 tribal Indians. Admitted aa
a State, Oct. 31, 1864. It is one of the richest mineral States in the Union.
NEW GRENADA (South America), visited by Columbus, and in 1536 conquer-
ed and settled by the Spaniards. It formed part of the new repubhc of Bo-
gota, established in 1811 ; and, combined with Caraccas, formed the republic
of Colombia in 1819. After several reunions and dissolutions, the republic of
New Grenada, in June, 1858, merged into the Grenadine Confederation, which
includes Bolivar, Antioguia, Panama, and other small States,
NEW HAMPSHIRE (p. 441). Population in 1850, 31'7,9'76; increase in ten
years, 11 per cent. In 1860, 326,0Y2; increase, 3 per cent. Number of
troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 33,427.
NEW JERSEY (p. 442). Population in 1850, 488,552, including 22,269 colored
persons. In 1860, 676,084. Increase in 10 rears, 35 per cent. Number of
troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 79,348. Population,
1865, 773,700.
NEWSPAPERS (p. 445). Some of the chief dailies :
N. Y. Herald founded 1835 | Times 1850 | Evenins Post 1801
Tribune 1841 1 Sun 1833 | Commercial Advertiser.1797
Washington Intelligencer. . , 1801
In 1860 there were 3,364 newspapers published in U. S., of which 613 were
in New York ; 419 in Pennsylvania ; 382 in Ohio ; 221 in Illinois ; and 219
in Mass. In England and Wales there were 272 ; in France, about 600 ; in
Germanv, 1,500 ; in Russia, 100. In 1866, the number of newspapers in
U. S. about 4,000 ; circulation, 928,000,000 copies. In 1865, number in State
of New York, 623; circulation 412,591,900. Great Britain (p. 445). In
1855 the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished, except for postal purposes.
In 1857, 71,000,000 newspapers passed through the London post-office.
ESTABLISHMENT OP THE PB.ESENT PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS.
Daily.
PuWic Ledger 1759 I Times 1788 I Standard 1827
Morning Chronicle 1770 Sun 1792 Daily News 1846
Morning P<iit 1772 1 Morning Adverti-eT. .1803 \ Daily Telegraph 1855
Morning Htrald 1781 | Globe 1803 | Morning iStar 1S5Q
WeeP.y.
01)server 1792
Bell's Mc'Ssenger 1796
Weekly Dispatch 1801
Examiner 1808
Literary Gazette 1817
John Bull 1820
Bell's Lif'> in London. 1820
Sunday Times .... 1822
Atlas 1826
Athena3um 1828
Spectator 1828
lUustr'd London Ne wsl812
Lloyd's Weeklv Pnper.l8i2
News of the World 1843
Economist 18 j3
Leader 1 850
Press 1853
Saturday Review ISo-
NEW MEXICO, U. S. Ceded to the U. S. in 1848. Organized as a territory,
1850. Capital, Santa Fe. Population in 1860, 83,000 ; besides 55,100 tribal
Indians.
NEW ORLEANS, U. S. (p. 444.) The chief city of Louisiana, called the
" Crescent City " on account of the cii'cular bend of the river on which it
stands. Founded bv the French in 1718. Ceded to the U. S. in 1803.
Population then, 8,000 ; in 1840, 102,000 ; in 1860, 168,800, of whom 13,.
800 were slaves. In the war for the Union, New Orleans surrendered to the
6
82
U. S. forces, — the naval commanded by Admiral Farragut, and the land forces
commanded by Gen. B. F. Butler, April 26, 1862. The misrepresentations as
to Butler's " brutal tyranny, especially towards females, " as recorded by
Haydn (p. 513), and believed in England, have been long since exploded.
Butler superseded in the command of the city and the Department of the
Gulf by Gen. N. P. Banks, 1863. Gen. Canby appointed to the post, 1864.
Rebel riots against the negroes and their friends, in the "Radical Conven-
tion," July, 1866.
NEWPORT, R. I, One of the principal places of summer resort in the U. S.
In 1861 the Naval Academy was removed from Annapolis to this place. In
1865 it was re-established at Annapolis.
NEW YORK, State of. Population in 1860, 3,851,563 ; increase in ten yenrs,
24 per cent. No. of school districts, 11,621. Pupils in public schools, 851,-
533. Volumes in school libraries, 1,360,507 (1860). Population in 1865,
3,831,777 ; decrease of 2 per cent. No. of voters in 1865, 823,484, of whom
583,611 were natives. The number of widows iu the State — principally a re-
sult of the war — was 137,980. It sent 473,443 troops to the war. Number
of convicts in State Prisons in 1865, 1,873. City of. Population in 1850,
514,547 ; in 1860, 805,651 ; in 2865, 726,386. The density of the popula-
tion is about 32,000 to the square mile, including 1,100 acres of
parks. Debt of the city in 1867, $51,000,000. Value of real and
personal property in 1865, $608,784,355. On the eleven street railroads
in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30,
1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the
previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same
period were $4,623,583, and the expenses $2,821,625.
NICARAGUA, a State in Central America, which see. In 1855 Walker, the fili-
buster, became sole dictator of the State. By the united eflbrts of the con-
federated States the filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857.
NICOLAITANES. This sect (mentioned Rev. ii. 6, 15) is said to have sprung
from Nicolas, one of the first seven deacons. Nicolas is said to have made a
vow of continence, and in order to convince his followers of his resolve to
keep it, he gave his wife (who was remarkable for her beauty) leave to m,arry
any other man she desired. His followers are said afterwards to have main-
tained the legality of a community of wives, as well as holding all other things
in common, and are accused of denying the divinity of Christ.
NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left Eng-
land with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, Nov. 5 ; they
rendered invaluable services to the army in the Crimean war: a fund was raised
in England to commemorate her services by founding an institution for the
training of nurses. The subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to
£44,039. The queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel.
NINEVEH. The capital of the Assyrian Empire (see As.Hyria), founded by
Ashur, who called it after himself, about 2,245 b. o. Ninus reigned in Assyria,
and called this city also after himself, Nineveh, 2069 B. c. Abbe Lenglet.
Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 862 b. c), which was taken by
Nebuchadnezzar, 606 b. c. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and others in the
neighborhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839,
have in a manner disinterred and repeopled a city which four centuries hai?
not only ceased to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had
long been blotted out of the map of the earth. The forms, features, costume,
religion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants, stand
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 83
before us distinct as those of a living people ; the most interesting of the
sculptures brought to England and now with Br, Museum is the bas-relief of
the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a representation of the Assy-
rian god Nisroch (from JVisr, an eagle or hawk\ whom Sennacherib was in the
act of worshipping when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 b. c.
"i. Kings xix. 37. In 1848 Mr, Layard pubhshed his " Nineveh and its Remains,"
and in 1853 an accoimt of his second visit in 1849-50, A collection of bas-
reUefs from Nineveh was purchased by Mr. Jas. Lenox, of New York, and
presented to the Hist. Soc. 1859 (?)
NITROGEN OR Azote (from the Greek a no, and zoo, I live,) an irrespirable ele-
mentary gas. Before 1'7'7'7 Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the
nitrogen, and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that the
atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydro-
gen forms the volatile alkali ammonia so freely given off" by decomposing
animal and vegetable bodies.
NORTH CAROLINA. One of the United States. Population in 1860, whites,
679,965, slaves, 328,377, total 1,008,342. Ordinance of "secession" passed
May 21, 1861. Loss by the State in the war, $250,000,000. Gen. Sherman
marched across the State in the spring of 1865. May 29, W. W. Holden was
appointed provisional governor. Legislature declared the ordinance of seces-
sion " null and void" Oct. 7, 1865.
NORTHWEST PASSAGE, (p. 448.) The honor of actually effecting the north-
west passage was achieved by Capt. McCIure, in the British ship Investigator,
which sailed with the Enterprize, Capt. Collinson, Jan. 20, 1850. Admiralty
chart showing the discovery published 1853.
NO VARA (Sardinia), Battle of, March 23, 1849, when the Austrian marshal
Radetzky totally defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army.
The contest began at 10 a. m. and lasted till late in the evening ; the Austrians
lost 396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded ; the Sardinians lost between
8,000 and 4,000 men, 27 cannons, and 3,000 prisoners. The king of Sardinia
soon after abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, the present king
(1867).
NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which
began 111 b. c, and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last
king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 b. c,
when Numidia became a Roman province.
NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the
study of history. In England Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton
(1789), published works on medals. Ruding's Annals is the great work on
British coinage (new edition, 1840). The Numismatic Society in London w^as
founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes Numismatic Chronicle. Mr.
Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840), is a useful introduction to the
science. Other foreign works are numerous. Eckfeldt and Dubois, work on
the coins of the U. S. pub. 1842, with later editions. Works by Bushnell,
Prime, and others, published at N. York, and by Snowden at Philad.
0
OBSERVATORIES, U. S. The first one was established in the country in 1834
at Washington, for the Naval Depot of Charts. It was equipped with a three
and three-quarter inch transit-instrument. In 1835, a five-inch teleg/2ope was
placed in a tower at Yale College. In 1838, a small observatory was estab-
lished at Hudson, Ohio, through the exertions of Prof E. Loomis. In 1840,
84 THE WOELD's progress.
one at Philadelphia for the "High School." In 1841, one at "West Point, for
the U. S. Mili/tary Academy. Bill to provide for a U. S. Naval Observatory pas«
sed Congress, Aug., 1842. In 1844, under the superintendence of Lieut. Gilliss.
U. S. N., a building was completed at Camp Hill, Washington, and furnished
with European instruments. Lieut. Maury assigned to its charge, Oct., 184-4.
Ccipt. Gilliss appointed in 1861, vice Maury absconded. First volume of astro-
nomical observations appeared in 1842, compiled by Lieut. Gilliss. The Dudley
Observatory, Albany, N. Y., founded by Mrs. B. Dudley, 1858. The one at
Cincinnati founded by Prof. Mitchel, 1843. Cambridge Observatory, 1845.
Ann Arbor Observatory, 1854. The Chicago Observatory has the largest
telescope in the country. The Yale " Scientific school " has a revolving turret
for observations. Telescopes have been mounted at various places by private
individuals; the principal one at Nantucket, Mass., under the charge of Miss
Mitchel.
OHIO, U. S. In 1850 the Avheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels.
April 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered
Ohio. Population in 1860, 2,37*7,917 ; increase in ten years about 20 per cent.
Number of men sent to the War in 1861-5,317,133. In 1866 there were
erected in Ohio, at a cost of $4,889,900, 4,850 houses, 1,158 barns, 78 mills,
311 factories.
OIL WELLS, which supply a good burning oil, were discovered at Titusville,
Pa., 1859. The first was through 29 feet of earth, and 30 feet of rock. There
■were in 1861 numerous wells in that vicinity yielding about 15 barrels per
day. In August, 1861, the excitement on petroleum increased wonderfully by
the discovery of wells which threw up immense quantities of oil in the valley
of Oil Creek, Pa.; 30(iO barrels were obtained from a single well in one day.
Wells were discovered later in Ohio, California, Kentucky, and West Virginia.
From Penn. in 1860, 2,000,000 galls, were sent to market ; in 1861, 20,000,000.
In 1862, $60,000,000 worth was exported to foreign countries from the U. S.
The daily yield from the wells of the Oil Creek region was stated to be 5,717
barrels per day in 1862. From 1861-65, petroleum was the subject of number-
less speculations, and fortunes were daily made and lost. In Jan. 1862, the price
of refined oil was 40 cents in New York ; in Nov. it rose as high as $1,10 ;
in Dec. it fell to 40 cents again. In 1866-7 the petroleum fever had greatly
diminished.
OLYMPIC GAMES (p. 452). In 1858, M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave
funds to re-establish these games under the auspices of the Queen of Greece.
OMNIBUSES (p. 452). In New York City, in 1866, there were 8 lines of omni-
buses with 204 vehicles. Their average number of trips a day is 10 up and 10
down the city.
OPIUM. The Custom-house returns state that in 1858, 300,000 lbs. of opium
were imported in the United States, and it is calculated from reliable data that
not more than one-tenth of this used for medicinal purposes. Druggists and
physicians say that the habit of taking opiates is very prevalent, and extending
every year. The duty on opium is $2.50 per lb. ; on opium prepared for smok-
ing, 100 per cent, (acts of Congress 1864-5).
OREGON (p. 455). Received into the Union as a State, 1859. Population in
1860, 52,566. In 1865 about 70,000.
ORGANS (p. 455). A monster organ erected in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham,
England, June, 1857, which at times overpowered the 2,400 vocal and instru-
mental performers. The largest organ in the U. S. is that in the Music Hall at
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 85
Boston, Mass., completed 1862. The next largest in H. W. Beecher's church al
Brookfyn, 1866.
OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distinguished from the "Visigoths (West-
ern Goths) about a. d. 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &e., their
great leader, Theodoric, established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from
493 to 553.
OUDE, a large and rich province in North India, formerly a vice-royalty held by
the vizier of the Great Mogul. On the dismemberment of his empire about
1760, it was seized by the vizier Shuja-ood-Dowlah, ancestor of the late royal
family.
0 YES ! A corruption of the French Oyez^ hear ye ! The term used by a public
crier in law courts, &c., to enjoin silence and attention ; very ancient, and the
date not known.
OYSTER TRADE, U. S. The oyster product of the Chesapeake Bay in 1858
was valued at $20,000,000. From Baltimore in 1860, $3,500,000 worth was
distributed through the country. The trade of the town of Fair Haven, Conu.,
is almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation and export of oysters.
OZONE (from ozein^ to yield an odor), a name given in 1840 by M. Sehonbein
of Basel to the odor in the atmosphere developed during the electric dis-
charge. It is considered to be a modification of the oxygen, and when occur-
ring naturally, to have an effect on health. It is also produced by the action
of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858 ozonometers had been constructed by
Dr. Lankester and others in England. M. Sehonbein has since discovered
another modification of oxygen, which he terms antozone.
PAINTING, IN THE U. S. (p. 458.) Allston of S. C. and Boston, Morse of New
York, historical painters. More recently. Cole, Doughty, and Durand, in land-
scape, and Inman, Sully, Harding, and Elhot in portrait. In landscape paint-
ing during the last 20 years great advances have been made ; and the
works of Church, Bierstadt, Gifford, and others have won fame and honor
beside the best European works. See List of Painters in Biographical Index,
also Tuckerman's Book of the Artists, Spooner's Biog. Hist, of Fine Arts, etc.
PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, ancient, and onia, beings), treats of
the evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of Geol-
ogy. Cuvier, Manteil, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of
the present century, niay be reckoned as the fathers of this science. The
Palseontographical Society, which publishes elaborate monographs of British
organic remains, was founded in 1847. Prof. James Hall of Albany is the
author of an elaborate work on the Palaeontology of New York. A Professor«
ship of Palaeontology established at Yale College in 1866. It was endowed by
Geo. Peabody, Esq.
PALESTINE, After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and re-
taken, from the seventh to the tenth century, and after being the scene of the
wars of the Crusades, and other confliicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman
empire by SeUm I. in 1516.
PANAMA. The isthmus which joins North and South America. A new State,
named Panama, was formed out of New Grenada in 1855. The present pres-
ident (1860) is Jose de Osbaldin. The Panama Railroad opened 1855.
PAPER. The manufacture of printing and writing papers in the United States
86 THE WOELD's PEOGEESS.
lias been greatly advanced in the last 20 years. Printing paper is now made,
especially in Conn., Mass., Maine, N. J., and Pa., fully equal in quality to the
best in England. The amount of capital employed in this business is estima-
ted at 120,000,000. The quantity produced cannot be precisely calculated,
but it is now (1S67) probably greater than the product of Great Britain.
Mass, manufactures more paper than any other State. Number of mills in
1865, 11 ; value of stock $5,381,671 ; Capital $3,875,000. The materials for
making paper in the U. S. are various, such as rags, flax, worn-out bagging,
cable-rope, straw, hay. hemlock, corn-husks, mulberry leaves and bark, canea
and reeds. In 1855 there were in the U. S. 750 paper mills, 3,000 engines, pro-
ducing 280,000,000 lbs., which at 10 cts. per lb. would amount to $28,000,000.
The manuiacture of printing and stationery papers in 1860 was 153,776,000
lbs. An examination of the returns of the incomes paid by persons and firms in-
terested in the manufacture of paper, in a single collection district of the United
States, for the year 1865-'G6 gives the following results: Total income of
ninety-nine persons, firms and corporations, $948,988. Of these, one corpora-
tion reported an income of $178,000, and ten individuals an aggregate of
$314,000 ; being an average of $31,400 each. The annual value of paper pro-
duced in the U. S. is estimated at $17,500,000, nearly as large as in England.
PAPER CURRENCY. In 1857 the Bank of England had $98,800,000, other
banks in England, $89,585,000, total, $188,385,000; France, $121,070,000;
United States, $148,929,000; in 1863 the circulation of the 1466 banks in the
U. S. was $238,677,218.
PATENTS, U. S. The patent Office of the U. S. at Washington, an extensive
and imposing edifice, was completed 1858. The number of patents issued has
rapidly increased during the last seventeen years, being nearly nine times as
great in 18."6 as in 1843. The numbers in some of these years are thus stated :
(from 1790 to 1850 the whole No. was 16,296) :
Yeni
1843.
1?50.
]855.
1856.
The receipts of the office increased from $35,315, in 1843, to $245,942, in 1859.
Of the patents granted in 1859, 4,491 were to citizens of the U. S. (1,237
being from N. Y.), 23 to British subjects, 16 to French, and 8 to other foreign
apphcants. No. of patents issued in 1863, 3,887. Receipts of office $179,378.
Expenditure $189,803.
PARKS. The great " Central Park," N. Y. city, originated 1851 by the sug-
gestions of late A. J. Downing, and first officially recommended by A. C. Kings-
land, then mayor. It was authorized both by the Common Council and by
the Legislature, within 100 days after ; the award of the commissioners of as-
sessments, made July 2, 1855. The park came into possession of the city,
Feb., 1856. It originally extended from 59th to 106th St.: in 1859 it was
extended to 110th St., and then included in all 843 acres ; being 2-^ miles long,
■^ mile wide. The cost before extension was $5,444,369, of which $1,657,590
was assessed on adjoining property; the net cost being greater than was ever
before known to be expended on a public park. It is now more than twice
the size of Hyde Park in London; but of its area 142 acres is occupied by the
two Croton reservoirs. Preliminary surveys by Mr, Yiele (1856) were follow-
ed by the adoption of plans by Olmstead and Vaux, April 28, 1858, and the ap-
pointment of Mr. F. L. Olmstead as Superintendent and "Architect-in-chief."
Work on this plan commenced June 1, 1858, since which from 600 to 3500
s. Applied for,
819
Granted.
531
995
Years.
1857
Applied for.
Granted.
2710
2193
1858
5364
3710
44:35
2024
2910
1859
6225
4538
4960
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. SI
persons have been employed to this time (1867) under the general direction
of commissioners appointed by the Legislature. A park of about equal extent
to the '' Central Park," is projected but not yet (1867) completed ibr the City
of Brooklyn. Public Park at Baltimore opened 1S60. The "Common "at
Boston (Mass.,) though small in extent, is one of the most beautiful city en-
closures in the world.
PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of paper pulp combined with gum and
sometimes China clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German
snuff-box maker, is said to have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1740.
In 1745 it was taken up by Bnskerville, the printer at Birmingham, and soon
spread over that district. Papier mache is now largely employed in ornament-
ing the interior of buildings, &c.
PARADISE LOST, the great epic of Milton, appeared first in 10 books in 1667 ;
in 12 books in 1674. The author received for it the sum of £10, and his
widow £8 more as full payment for the copyright.
PARAGUAY, a province in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in
1526 ; and conquered by Alvarez Nuiiez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits,
who established an exclusive government, which they held till their expulsion
in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814 Dr.
Prancia was elected dictator, succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From
1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The present
(1859) president, C. A. Lopez, was elected in 1844. Paraguay was recognized
as an independent State by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, by Great
Britain in 1853, by the U. States in 185-
PARSEES, the followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle
of Kadseah, their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy anni-
hilated at the battle of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors,
but others fled to India, and their descendants still reside at Bombay, Avhere
they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant,
has been several years professor of Gujerati at Univerv<ity college, London.
PARIS, (p. 461.) Immense improvements at great expense by Louis Napoleon,
1853-6. Great Industrial Exhibition opened by him May 15, 1855 ; visited by
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 24, 1855, the first visit of an English
sovereign to Paris since that of the infant Henry VI. in 1422. The great Ex-
position of 1867, opened April 1, attracted tens of thousands from all parts of
the world — and was visited by the Emperors of Russia and Austria, King of
Prussia, the Sultan of Turkey, Viceroy of Egypt, &c.
PARISHES. The boundaries of parishes in England were first fixed by Hono-
rins, archbishop of Canterbury, a. d. 636. The parishes of England and Wales
now amount to 11,077. Parish-registers were commenced a. d. 1538
PARLIAMENT, (p. 462.)
bled in their new house
Nov. 4, 1852
Baron L. Rothschild, tlie first
The Peers took possesBion of their
hoii?e, that portion of the palace
being ready April 15, 184?
The members of the Commons'
House of Parliament assem-
Jew admitted July 26, 1858
PARMA, (p. 462.) When the war in Italy began in 1859, the Parmeans rose,
and established a provisional government. May 3; the duchess-regeut retired
to Switzerland. On Sept. 3, the annexation to Sardinia was voted.
PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit one country or enter another
without the consent of the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system vv'as some-
what changed in England, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced from
88
5s. to 6d. Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859; in Sweden in 1860;
and (with regard to British subjects) in France, Dec. 16, 1860 ; in Italy, June
26, 1862; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863; and are falling into disuse in other
countries. The passport system was temporarily enforced in the United States
dnring part of the war of 1861-4.
PASSAU, Treaty of. A celebrated treaty whereby religious freedom was es-
tablished, and which treaty was ratified between the Emperor Charles V. and
the Protestant princes of Germany, Aug. 12, 1562. By this pacification the
Lutherans were made at ease in regard to their religion. Henault. In 1662
the cathedral and greatest part of the town were consumed by fire.
PAWNBROKERS, (p. 464.) Three golden balls suspended from the doors of
pawnbrokers were the arms of the Lombard merchants, who were the first to
publicly lend money on chattel securities, and who gave the name to the pres-
ent street of bankers in London. They have been humorously described as
meaning that there were two chances to one that the things pledged would
never be redeemed.
PEABODY FUNDS. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George Peabody, the American
merchant, gave £150,000 to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. A
large pile of buildings, named Peabody dwellings, were erected in Spitalfields, as
homes for Avorking classes. luU. S. Mr. Peabody, during a visit to the U. S.
donated in 1866-7 the sum of $2,000,000, to be used as an educational fund
for the benefit of the Southern States. It was committed to a Board of Trus-
tees, who have absolute discretion as to the manner of its distribution. Dr.
Sears, of Brown University, appointed General Agent. The promotion of
Primary and Normal School education is to be the leading object. Mr.
Peabody delivered over bonds, covering the amount of his gift, March 4, 186Y.
PEACE SOCIETY, American. The first peace society in the world was found-
ed at New York in Aug., 1815. A sindlar society was founded at Paris in 1821.
Peace Society in England was founded in 1816 for the promotion of uni-
versal peace. It held its 43rd anniversary on May 17, 1859. A congress of
the friends of peace, from all parts of the world, commenced its sittings at
Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. And afterwards in England in successive years, Bright,
Cobden, Sturge, and others taking an active part.
PELASGI. The primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy appear to belong to the
Indo-Germanic race. They were in Greece about 19i)0 b. c. and in Italy
about 1600 B. c. They have been termed Tyrrheui, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli,
&c. From the Pelasgi come the Dorians, JEolians, and lonians; all three
being Hellenes or Greeks.
PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt by Kublai in 1279 ; and by
Yong-lo, 1471; visited by Lord Macartney in 1793; surrendered to the allied
English and French armies, Oct. 12, 1860; and evacuated by them Oct. 26
following, after peace had been signed. It was described as being in a very
desolate state, with a scattered, indigent population, estimated at 4,000,000.
PENSIONERS, U. S. The whole number of pensioners of all classes on the rolls
in 1860, was 11,585 ; and the aggregate amount required per annum for their
payment, $1,185,141. Of revolutionary soldiers, 165 were on the rolls in 1860,
In 1866, only 5 were on the rolls. Congress granted in 1866, to each of these,
$300 annuity, in addition to the $100 pension. The war of the rebellion pro-
duced a new list of pensioners. The entire number on the rolls, July 1, 1866,
was 126,722. The amount paid to them, including expenses of disbursement,
$18,459,996. The Naval Pension Fund amounts to $11,750,000 (1866).
SUPPEMENT, 1851-67. 89
PENNSYLVANIA. Population in 1860, 2,906,115, Number of common schools
in the State in 1865, 12,950. The State furnished 362,284 soldiers for the war.
It has under its care (1866), about 1,200 soldiers' orphans, appropriation having
been made by the legislature to support such.
PENS, STEEL. Gillott of Birmingham, employs nearly 1,000 hands for the con*
version of 2^ tons of steel into 35,000 gross of pens weekly. In 1820-1, the
first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for £7 4s ; now the commonest
pens can be sold at twopence the gross. Steel pens of a superior quality are
now made to a large extent in the U. S.
PERIODICAL LITERATURE, U. S. See Reviews and Magazines.
PERSEPOLIS. The ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander has been
falsely accused of setting fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 b. c. The fire is said
to have been accidental and not extensive. Remains of this city still exist.
PERU.
Marshal San Ramon president,
Oct, 24, 1862
Greneral J, A. Pezet president,
April 3, 1863
The Spanish admiral Pizon took
possession of the Chincha isles
(valuable for guano), belonging
to Peru, stating that he would
occupy them till the claim of
his government on tliat of Pern
was" satisfied April 24, 1864
Congress at Lima : plenipoten-
tiaries from Chili and other states
meet to concert measures for de-
fence against European powers.. Nov. 1864
Negotiations followed by peace with
Spain, Jan. 28 ; Chincha islands re-
stored Feb. 3, 1865
Revolt against president Pezet, Feb.
2S ; sev'eral provinces soon lost.. May 1865
The insurgents take Lima ; Pezet
jflLes, andCaneeco becomes president
Nov. 1865
PERUGIA. A city of the Papal States, anciently one of the Etruscan Confedera-
tion. It allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by two defeats by the
Romans, 309 and 295 b, c. It was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adhe-
rents of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars by their victor. Leo
X. took Perugia from the rival families Oddi and Baglioni, in 1520. An in-
surrection here against the pope was put down by the Swiss with great cruelty,
• Jan. 20, 1859. An American family who suffered by the violence of the Papal
soldiers was afterwards indemnified.
PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown and parliament for redress of
grievances is a fundamental principle of the British constitution. Petitions
are extant of the date of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV., petitions be-
gan to be addressed to the house of commons in considerable numbers. In
1837, there were presented to parliament 10,831 petitions, signed by 2,905,905
persons; in 1859, 24,886, signed by 2,290,579 persons. This right defended
by John Quincy Adams, in the House of Representatives, U. S., who presented
a petition for dissolution of the Union.
PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraffin, has been found in many
parts of the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1860-1, a number of oil-springs
were discovered in the bituminous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now
termed "PetroUa," and others have been since discovered in Ohio and other
states, and also in Canada. In consequence, numerous artesian wells have
been sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained.
In consequence of the importation of large supplies of this oil into this country,
and many accidents having taken place through its inflammability at Ir^sv
temperature, an act for " the safe keeping of petroleum" was passed in July,
1862.
PETROPAULO VSKL A fortified Russian town, on the east coast of Kamtschat
90
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
ka, attacked by English and French fleets, which were repulsed, Aug. 30, 1854.
It was afterwards deserted and the fortifications destroyed.
PEWS in churches were not in use in England till long after the Reformation:
about the middle of the seventeenth century. The earliest reading 'pew with
a date, is one at Geddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, dated 1602. Hook,
PHARMACY. The knowledge of the chemical and medicinal properties of drugs
and all other things employed medicinally. Pharmaceutical Society of Lon-
don founded in 1841. It publishes a monthly journal. College Pharmacy in
New York founded in 184-.
PHILADELPHIA, City of. Population in 1860, 585,529. During the war for
the Union, 1861-5, Philadelphia was distinguished for its enthusiastic patriot
ism and benevolence. Northern troops going to the field were most hospitably
entertained by her citizens, and a very liberal and efficient provision was made
for the sick and wounded in hospitals, &c. See Clubs.
PHILOSOPHY, (p. 470).
MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.
Ancient Schools. — Pythago-
reati, about b. c. 500 ; Platonic,
(the Academy), by Plato, 374;
Peripatetic (the l^yceiim), by
Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by
Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic, by Diog-
enes, 330; Epicurean, by Epi-
curus, 306 ; Stoic, by Zeno,
290 : Middle Acadermj, by Ar-
cesilaue, 278 ; New Academy,
by Carneades, 160.
Modern Systems,— iJah'owaZ, Ba-
con, ab't A. D. 1624 ; Cartesian,
Descartes, about 1650; Reflec-
tive or Perceptive, Locke, J 690 ;
Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710 ; Elec-
tive, Leibnitz, 1710; Common
Sense, Reid, 1750-70; Tran-
scendental, Kant, 1770-1860 ;
Scientific, Fichte, 1800-14; Ab-
solute Identity, Schelling, 1800-
20 ; Absolute Idealism, Hegel,
1810-30; Uiililarian, Bentham,
1790-1830 ; Positive, Co into,
1830.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
Greek and Z^aii'/i.— Thalee, about
B. c. 600 ; Pythagoras, 590 ;
Aristotle and'Plato, 350 ; Eu-
clid, 300; Archimedes, 287;
PHCENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The natives were the most eminent
navigators and traders of antiquity ; their cities being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus,
Tripoli, Byblos, and Ptolemais of Acre. From the nineteenth to the thir-
teenth centuries before Christ, they established colonies on the shores or isles
of the Mediterranean — Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus; and are
said to have visited the British isles. Phoenicia was conquered by Cyrus, 537
B. c. ; by Alexander, 334 ; by the Romans, 47. ; and was added to the Otto-
man empire, a. d. 1392.
i^HOKOGRAPHY (from the Greek, phone, sound). The English Phonetic So-
ciety, whose object is to reform our mode of writing and printing by rendering
it more consonant to sound, was established March 1, 1843 ; Isaac Pitman,
secretary, he being the inventor of the system which was known in 1837
Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, about
100; Julius Caesar, 50; Ptolemy,
A. D. 150.
HiddU Ages. — Arabians ; Ben Musa,
800; Alhazen ; &c., 1100. Gerbert,
Decimals, 959 ; Roger Bacon, Opus
Majus, 1266.
INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY.
Copernicns's system published 1543
Tycho Brahe 1546-1601
Kepler's Laws 1609-18
Bacon's Novum Organum 1620
Galileo's Dialogues 1632
Royal Society begin .<(w7a'c/t see) 1645
Otto Guericke — Ai i--pump 1654
Huyghens on Pendulums 1658
Newton — Fluxions, 1655 ; Analysis of
Light, 1699; Tiieory of Gravitation,
1684 ; Principia published 1687 ;
Death 1727
Bradley discovers aberration 1727
Euler on Perturbation of the Planets.... 1748
Black on He;>t 1762
Laplace on Tides 1775
Lagrange, Mechanique Analylique 1788
Gaivani's and Voltn's researches 1791
Laplace, Mechanique Celeste 1799
(See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry,
Electricity, &c.
STTPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 91
Among other works published by the promoters of this system was the ' Pho-
netic News."
PHOSPHORUS, (p. 470.) The consumption of phosphorus has immensely in«
creased since the manufacture of hicifer* matches. In 1805, Schrotter of
Vienna, made the important discovery of what is termed allotropic or amor*
phous phosphorus, which is not so unwholesome to work as ordinary phos-
phorus.
PHOTO-GAL VANOGRAPHY. The art of producing engravings by the action
of light and electricity. The earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore
Niepce, and presented by him, in 1827, to the great botanist, Robert Brown,
in Eng. Great advances have since been made in this art by MM. Niepce de
St. Victor (who published a treatise on it in 1856), and Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove,
H. Fox Talbot, &c. In 1854, Paul Pretsch patented in England a process which
he called " Photo-galvanography," and a company was formed to apply it to the
benefit of the public.
PHOTOGLYPHIC ENGRAVING (a process by which the light actually etches a
picture on a plate that may be and has been printed from), was invented by
Mr. Fox Talbot, in Eng. in 1859.
PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of hght on chloride of silver was known as early
as the sixteenth century. The phenomena were studied by Scheele (1777),
Senebier (1790), Ritter and WoUaston (1801). From the results of these in-
vestigations, experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and Humphry
Davy, which were published, 1802. Wedgwood may be regarded as the first
photographer. His paper was entitled " An Account of a method of copying
paintings upon glass, and of making profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate
of silver." Further discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, and Sir J.
Herschel in 1819. Daguerre commenced his experiments in 1824; and in
1826 joined Niepce, and worked with him till the death of the latter in 1833.
The production of the Daguerreotype plates was announced in Jan., 1839;
and the French chamber of deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to
Isidore Niepce (the son). In 1839, also, Henry Fox Talbot first published his
mode of multiplying photographic impressions, by producing a negative pho-
tograph {i. e. with the lights and shades reversed), from which any number of
positive copies may be obtained. His patent for producing the Talhotype or
Calotype (on paper), is dated Feb. 1841. From this time improvements have
been made with great rapidity. In 1851, Collodion was applied to photography
by Mr. F. Archer. Photographic Society of London, established Jan. 1853.
It publishes a journal. Celestial Photography began with Professor Bond, the
astronomer of Cambridge, U. S., who exhibited a photograph of the moon in
1851. In the U. S. M. Gourard, of Paris, first introduced Photog-
raphy in the U. S. in 1839, exhibiting some daguerreotype views in the
course of a lecture at the Broadway Tabernacle, early in that year. Pro-
fessors Morse, Draper, and Wollcott, simultaneously, before the end of the
year, improved Daguerre's process, and during 1840 applied it to portraiture.
Ambrotypes w^ere introduced in 1853, and paper photographs in 1851,
although very little was done in the business way until 1854. Early in 1855,
Mr. C. D. Frediicks made the first successful life-sized photographs, with an
apparatus invented by Mr. H. H. SneUing. Professor Bond, of Cambridge,
Mass., first exhibited a photograph of the moon in 1861. Photographs of
rapidly-moving objects are taken in a fractional part of a second. Ingenious
counterfeits of bank notes have been effected by photography.
PHOTO-SCULPTURE has been introduced in New York in 1867, by Messrs.
92 THE world's peogress.
McKaye & Co. ; among the earliest specimens are statuettes of Grant, Farri*
^ut, Greeley, and others.
PIANO-FORTES. Those made by Steinway of New York, and Chickering of
Boston, received the highest award (gold medal), at the Paris Exposition of
186Y, July 1. This manufacture has advanced very largely in the last 15
years, and is one of the most important branches of American industry.
There are in New York city alone 113 piano-makers ( 1867).
PIEDMONT {Pedemontium^ Latin, foot of the mountains). A region in North
Italy, seat of government of the modern kingdom of Sardinia, whicli see.
PINS. (p. 472.) Pins were first manufactured by machinery in England, in
1824, under a patent of Lemuel Wellman Wight, of the U. S. — Haydn.
PISTOLS, (p. 472.) Of late years they have been made with a revolving cylin-
drical breech, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges,
and bringing them in succession into a line with the barrel for firing. The
earliest model for this kind of arm is to be found in the United Service
Museum, and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. The manufac-
ture of pistols by machinery was first introduced into England from the
United States, in 1853, by Col. Colt, the inventor of the celebrated Colt pis-
tol, at Which time nearly the whole of the machinery used was new to Eng-
land. The perfection and econom.y of this system of manufacture induced the
British Government to establish the Enfield Armory in the year 1855. — Haydn.
In 1835 Colt patented his revolving chambered breech ; and in 1852, founded
his manufactory at Hartford, Conn., where the Colt Arms Co. make revolving
pistols of several sizes, costing from $10 to $25 each, at the rate of 300 and
sometimes even 500 each day. This revolver has 14 parts, besides screws,
and these pass through (in all) 460 separate processes before the pistol is
completed. Various oth^r revolving pistols have been invented, but none so
successful. The Derringer pistol is single-barrelled, throwing a small ball.
PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, Tennessee). On Sunday April 6, 1862
a great battle was fought between the U. S. troops under Grant and Prentiss,
and the rebels under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The latter
began the attack and were victorious, but lost their able general Johnston.
Grant was reinforced the next day and renewed the attack ; the rebels main-
tained their ground ; but soon after retired in good order to Corinth.
PLANETS. See Astronomy. Asteroids have been discovered as follows :
Massilia, by A. de Grasparis
Sept. 19, 1852
Lutetia, by H. G-oklsmith.Nov. 15, 1852
aaiiope, by J. R. Hinri....jSrov. 16, do
Thalia, by the same Dec. 15, do.
4 in 1853 ; 6 in 1854 , 4 in 1H55 ; 5 in
1856 ; 9 in 1857 ; 5 in 1858 ; 1 in 1859 ;
5 in 1860 ; 9 in 1861 ; 5 in 1862 ; 2 in
1863 : 3 in 1864 : and 3 in 1865.
Hygeia, by A. de G-asparis. April 12, 1849
Parthenope, by the same.. . .May 11, 1850
Victoria, by J. R. Hind Sept. 13, 1850
Egeria, bv A. de Gasparis. ..Nov. 2, 1850
Irene, by'j. R. Hind May 19, 1>^51
Eunomia, by A. de Grasparis, July 29, 1^51
Psyche, by the same Mavch 17, 1852
Thetis, by R. Luther April 17, 1852
Melpomene, by J. R. Hind.. .June 24, 1852
Fortuna, by the same Aug. 22, 1852
PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY (England) conveys letters and parcels
through tubes by means of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com-
pany's act was passed Aug. 13, 1859, and tubes were laid down inThreadneedle
street on Sept. 12, 1860 ; and on Aug. 20, 1861, successful experiments were
performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from the Euston rail-
way station to the N. W. post-office in Camden-town, and on Feb. 21, 1863,
the conveyance of the mail bags began. In Oct. 1865, tubes had been laid
down between Euston railway and Holborn ; and on Nov. 7, several persona
travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Rammell.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 93
PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. A body of Christians calling themselves " the
Brethren," which first appeared at Plymouth, England, about 1830. In 1851
they had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. They object tc
national churches as too latitudinarian, and to dissenters as too sectarian.
They receive into communion all who confess Christ, and own the Holy Ghost
as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those of most evangelical Protestant
churches, but they recognize no order of ministers.
POET-LAUREATE— England. Alfred Tennyson, appointed 1850.
POLICE. The " Metropolitan Police" law for the city of New York and sub-
urbs, passed 1857, resisted by the mayor (Wood), and a serious collision re-
sults between the old and new police force, June 16, 185*7. The new law
pronounced to be constitutional by the Court of Appeals, July 2, and the old
force is disbanded next day. The present police force of New York (1867),
is unquestionably the most effective and the most perfect that has ever been
organized on this continent. In 1866, the police force consisted of 26 cap-
tains, 105 sergeants, 42 roundsmen, 60 detailments, 1,250 patrolmen, 56 door-
men. There are 26 Police districts. Expense to the city for supporting this
force in 1866, $1,836,120.
POLITICAL ECONOMY, (p. 478.) In the U. States, the most elaborate works on
this subject, are those of Mr. Henry C. Carey, of Phila., who has published (as
a protectionist), several volumes which are highly esteemed also in Europe.
Works favoring free trade, have also been issued here by Opdyke, and others.
POLYNESIA. A name recently given to the isles in the great Pacific Ocean.
PONTIFFS (Latin, Pontifices). The highest Roman sacerdotal order, established
by Numa. The college first consisted of 4 Patricians ; to these 4 plebeians
were afterwards added. Sylla increased the number to 15 (8 majores, 7
minores). The chief Avas called the Pontifex Maximus. T. Coruncanius, a
plebeian, obtained this office, 254 b. c.
POPULATION OF THE Globe, (p. 481.) Professor C. F. W. Dietrich, of the
University of Berlin, has furnished the Academy of Sciences in that city with
the most recent and reliable tables on this subject, giving the following results,
with his grounds for them.
Population of Australia, etc 2,000,000
Total 1,288,000,000
Population of Europe 272,000,000
" ''Asia... 755,000,000
" " America 200,000,000
" " Africa 59,000,000
or more than twelve hundred millions. Reckoning the average death as
about one in every forty inhabitants, 32,000,000 die in a year ; 87,671 in a
day ; 3,653 in an hour ; and 61 in a minute. Thus one human being dies on
an average every second, and more than one is born. Of the U. S. In 1850,
23,191,000 ; in 'i860, 31,429,000. In 1860, the following cities had over 100,-
000:— New York, 805,651; Philadelphia, 585,529; Brooklyn, 266,661;
Baltimore, 212,418 ; Boston, 177,812 ; New Orleans, 168,675 ; Cincinnati,
161,044 ; St. Louis, ] 60,773 ; Chicago, 109,260. By an unofficial hut reliable
estimate taken by an officer of the government in Dec. 1866, the total popula-
tion of the U. S. was found to be 34,505,882.
PORTLAND, Maine. Population in 1860, 26,342. 8ee Fires.
PORT ROYALISTS. The name popularly given to the learned members of the
celebrated convent of the Port Royal des Champs (founded about 1204 ; ana
refounded in 1626), who occupied their time therein religious exercises, and in
instructing youth, from about 1636 to 1656, when they were expelled by
94 THE woeld's progress.
Louis XIV., as Jansenists and heretics. Among the distinguislied names con-
nected with the Port Koyal are those of Lancelot, Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole de
Sacy, and Tillemont. The school books which were published for the use of
that institution were greatly esteemed.
PORTUGAL, (p. 485.)
An American squadron arrives
in the Tagus to enforce claims
against the rortuguesesrovern-
raent June 22, 1850
Death of the queen Maria II.
Nov. 15, 1853
King-consort recognized as re-
gent Dec. 19, 1853
The young king visits England
June, 1854
And France May, 1855
All the slaves on the Royal do-
mains declared free... .Dec. ."10, 1854
Inauguration of the king.Sept. 16, 1855
Resignation of the Saldanha
ministry June 5, 1856
Eirst Portuguese railway (from Lis-
bon to Saritarem) opened Oct. 26, 1853
The French emigrant siiip for negroes
Charles-et-Georges, seized Nov. 29, 1851
Anger of the French government ; its
ultimatum sent, Oct. 13 ; and ships
of war to the Tagus ; the vessel re-
stored Oct. 2.^ 1858
1853. Peter V. (Don Pedro), bora
Sept. 16, 1837 ; the present (1^59) king
of Portugal. Married to the princess
Stephania, of HohenzoUern Sigmar-
ingen, May 18, 1858 ; who died
July 17, 1859
[Heir, Prince Louis-Philip, the king's
brother, bom Oct 31, 1838.]
POST OFFICE, U. S. (p. 484.) For the year ending June 30, 1859 : number
of post-offices, 28,539 ; increase during the year, 562 ; mail routes, 8,273 ;
aggregate length, 260,052 miles ; annual transportation, 82,308,402 miles, of
which by railroads, 26.010 miles, total, 27,268,384 miles, at 11.9 cents per
mile ; by steamboats, 19,209 miles, total, 4,569,962, at 25.3 cents per mile ;
by coaches, 63,041 miles, total, 23,448,498 miles, at 13.3 cents per mile ; by
inferior modes, 151,792 miles ; total, 27,021,658, at 7.1 cents per mile. Ex-
penditures of the department for 1859, $14,964,493; revenue, $7,968,484 ;
deficiency, $6,996,009. See Tab'e in Appendix. Nearly 2,000,000 " dead
letters " annually fail to reach the persons addressed. The Post Office re-
ceipts were in
1854 7 millions loss H millions.
1S55 li do " 2% do
1856 7| do <' 3 do
1857 ^ do " 3J do
1858 8 do ♦' 4| do
1859 81 do « 7i do
1860 8t do " 5£ do
Number of post-offices in 1863, 29,047 ; mail routes, 139,598 miles ; revenue,
$11,163,000 ; expenditures, $11,314,000. In 1865, $12,099,787 worth of
postage stamps were sold ; $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes ; $23,315
worth of stamped wrappers. 467,500,000 letters were conveyed in the mails,
of which 2,352,000 were lost or destroyed ; number of dead letters, 4,368,000.
There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,122. The
revenues of the year 1865, exceeded the highest annual receipts from all the
states previous to the rebellion by $6,038,090. The most money that can be
sent (1867), by one order by mail is $50. Length of postal routes in 1867,
180,900 miles. The revenue of the department for the year ending June 30,
1865, was $14,556,158, and its expenditures $13,694,728 ; the rate of increase
being 17 per cent., and of expenditure 8 per cent., compared with the pre-
vious year. Postage stamps to the value of $12,099,787 were sold, also
$724,135 worth of stamped envelopes, and $23,315 of stamped wrappers. It
is estimated that 467,591,600 letters were conveyed in the mails in 1865, of
which 2,352,424 were lost or destroyed ; the number of dead letters was
4,368,087. There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,«
122. The average annual increase of the revenue for the last four years over
the preceding four years was $3,533,846. The Postmaster-Genei'al thinks
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Qc
that in a few years, letter postage may be reduced to the rate adopted b^
Great Britain.
POSTAL MONEY ORDERS. On Aug. 2, 1856, 300 new money-order offices
Avere added, making 700 such post offices. The largest amount that can be
sent by any one order is now $50. The fees also have been changed — the
charge now being 10 cents on any order from $1 up to $20 ; and 25 cents on
any order over $20.
POST OFFICE, British. The net revenue was in 1853, £1,104,000 ; in 1857,
£l,293,9'7l. Rowland Hill's penny postage was broached in 1837, and
adopted in 1839. The numbers of letters in the last year of the old system
was, 82,470,596. The number in 1856 was 478 milhons ; in 1858, it was 523
millions. In 1855, books and pamphlets were first allowed to be sent by post,
at the rate of Id. for 4 oz. The number of letters annually passing through
the Post offices of Great Britain, with the uniform one penny postage system,
is four times as great as in the United States, as by the following table :
No. of Letters per Postal Postal
Countries. Population. letters. 1,000 persons. expenses, revenues.
United States '..•25,000,000 102,139,148 4,084 $12,722,470 $7,486,792
Great Britain 30,000,000 410,817,489 13,693 14,884,80(1 9,245,000
France 40,000,000 150,000,000 3,750 6,023,915 9,321,900
Spam 14,000,000 30,775,686 2,209 1,095,398 1,281,761
Bplgium.... 4,600,000 11,521,955 2,603 327,128 355,648
Holland 3.200.000 13.349,553 4,357 156,785 288,162
Switzerland 2,300,000 19,'773,671 8,2S9 341,028 447,752
PR^TORIAN GUARDS were instituted by the emperor Augustus (b.c. 13),
and their numbers enlarged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and his successors. At first
supporters of the imperial tyrants, they eventually became their masters,
actually putting up the imperial diadem for sale (as in a.d 193 when it was
bought by Didius Julianus). They at times committed many atrocities, and
were finally disbanded by Constantine, in 312.
PRESBYTERIANS, (p. 488.) The Presbyterian church in the United States
was divided into the " Old Scchool," and the New School, 1837. In 1850,
the aggregate No. of churches was 4,584, accommodating 2,040,000 persons.
The Presbyterians of the Southern states formed an independent organization,
Dec. 1861. The New School assembly in May, 1863, at Phila., passed resolu-
tions "that to support the President and the Government of the U. S. is relig-
iously the duty- of all good citizens " in the present crisis. Number of " Old
School" Presbyterians May, 1865 who were communicants, 232,450; ministers,
2,301; churches, 2,629. ''New School" communicants, 143,645; ministers,
1,694 ; churches, 1,479. Aggregate in other " schools " in 186-2, 200,000.
Contributions of " Old School" in 1865, $2,400,000 ; "New School," $2,200,000.
PRESS, FREEDOM OP THE, U. S. Several Papers were mobbed in the North in 1851
for expressing Southern sentiments. The N. Y. " Journal of Commerce,"
"News," "Day Book," "Freeman's Journal," were complained of by a Grand
Jury of the U. S. District Court at New York, as treasonable in their declara-
tions ; the Government accordingly, refused them the privilege of the mails,
Aug, 1861. Orders from the War Department prohibiting the publication of
military movements, Feb, 1862. In June, 1863, Gen. Burnside suppressed the
" Chicago Times." In 1864, about 35 newspapers were mobbed or suppressed
for disloyalty in the Northern States. In 1863 the editors of the N. Y. papers
passed resolutions that the restrictions on them were dangerous in their ten-
dency. During the war the Press was free, so long as it did not express trea-
son or give information to the enemy.
PRINTING, (p. 490.) In the United States this important art has made great ad-
96
varices during the last 10 years (1861). The best presses of Boston, and Cam-
brige, Mass., of New York, and of Philadelphia, have produced specimens,
nearly or perhaps fully equal to the best in England or France. Excellence haa
been especially aimed at of late in this country, while economy and cheapness
have been more studied in England.
PRINTING TYPES first electrofaced with copper, about 1850.
PRINTING IN COLORS was first commenced by the employment of several
blocks, to imitate the initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Meutz Psalter of
Eaust, A.D 1457, Avhich has a letter in three colors). Imitations of chiaroscuro
soon followed ("Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood, after Louis Cranach,
1519. in Germany ; others, by Ugo da Carpi in Italy, 1518). In 1819-22, Mr.
William Savage published in England "Hints on Color Printing," illustrated
by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of colored drawings, which are still greatly
admired, giving details of the processes employed. In 1836, Mr. George Baxter
produced beautiful specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent,
which expired in 1855. Since then ^reat improvements have been made in
the art. It has been applied to Lithography (hence, Chromolithography). In
1849, Mr. G. C. Leigh ton produced imitations of water-color-drawings, by
means of modifications and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851, he
commenced color-printing by machinery, and has since used aqua-tinted plates ;
and also electrotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of color as
well as durability. — Haydn. This art is also practised considerably in the U.
S., but has not been prominently recognized. Chromolithography, i. e. print-
ing from stone in colors, introduced in N. Y. and Pbila., about 1848, has been
carried to great perfection.
PRINTING PRESSES, (p. 488.) The largest presses more recently constructed by
Hoe & Co., of New York, will throw off 25,000 impressions per hour. These
are the "ten-cylinder type-revolving printing machines." Two of these have
been supplied to print the London Times, and a similiar one is used by four
daily newspapers in New York. The cost of each press is about $30,000. Of
the eight and six-cylinder machines Hoe & Co. have supplied 20 in Great
Britain, 4 in Paris, and 2 in Australia! The Adams printing presses are now
manufactured by Hoe & Co.
PRISONS. U. S. Number of state prisons in 21 Northern States in 1865, 25.
No two are alike in their general construction. Average number of prisoners
in them in 1865, 6,650. The Auburn silent system, inaugurated in 1812, is in
pratice in most of the states. The Prison Association at New York chiefly
promoted by Isaac T. Hopper about 1850.
PRISONERS. During the "Rebellion," U. S., at the close of the war, 174,223
were surrended by the Confederates to the Union Armies. The Government
also had in prisons in the North, 98,800. In 1863, there was a general ex-
change of prisoners, the U. S. giving up 121,900 in return for 110,800 Union
soldiers. During 1863 the Confederates held an excess of prisoners. From
1861 to 1864, 225,000 Union soldiers passed the doors of Libby Prison, Rich-
mond. 35,000 were at one time at Andersonville, Ga. Capt. Wirz (Confed-
erate) tried at Washington, D. C, for inhuman, treatment to U. S. prisoners at
the latter place, and executed Nov. 10, 1865. Union officers (prisoners) placed
under fire of Federal guns at Charleston, S. C, in retaliation for bombarding
the city, 1864.
PRIVATEER. A vessel belonging to one or more private individuals, sailing
with a license from Government in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships
of the enemy. The practice first became general during the war betweetj
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
97
Spain and the Netherlands, about the end of the seventeenth century, and was
very general during the last French war. Privateering was abolished by the
great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, March 30, 1856 ; but the U. S. govern-
ment declined to join in this treaty. During the war of 1812 there were 250
privateers commissioned by the U. S., of which 58 were from Baltimore, 55 from
New Yorls, 40 from Salem, and 81 from Boston. During that war 2,000 British
vessels were captured by the Americans, a large portion being by privateers.
About 500 American vessels were captured or destroyed by the British. See
CoggeshaWs Hist, of Am. Privateers. The thirty-seventh Congress (1863)
passed a Letter of Marque Bill enabUng the President to cover every sea with
Privateers. None were commissioned, the regular navy bring sufficiently
effective. The Southern Confederacy fitted out about 30 vessels as Privateers.
Seven of them proved formidable. They captured 275 vessels of American
merchants, 100,000 tons in all, and valued at many miUions. The fleetest of
these Privateers were of French and British build, and some of them manned
by seamen from those nations.
PRIZE MONEY, U. S. From May 1, 1861 to the close of the war in 1865, 1149
Rebel blockade-runners and privateers were captured. Net proceeds for dis-
tribution among seamen $20,501,92'?. The crew of the Kearsarge, which sunk
the Alabama (Rebel) in the English Channel, received $300 a piece.
PROPERTY IN THE U. S. In 1856, the real and personal property of the U. S
was estimated by Mr. Guthrie, Sec. of the Treasury, at $11,317,611,672 (more
than 11,000 millions). By the census of 1860, this had increased to $14,282,-
726,088, but this estimate is probably too low. The value of similiar prop-
erty of Great Britain at the same time was about $31,000 millions.
PRUSSIA, (p. 494.)
The king takes the oath required
by the new constitution. Feb. 6, 1850
Treaty of peace between Prus-
sia and Denmark July 2, 1850
Decree, calling out the whole
Prussian army, 223,000 infan-
try, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000
artillery, with 1,080 field-pieces.
Nov. 7, 1850
The Prussian troops commence
their retreat from Hesse-Caesel
Dec. 5, 1850
The king celebrates by a grand
banquet the 150th anniversary
of th e Prussian monarchy,
Jan. 18, 1851
The king revives the council of
Btate as it existed before the
revolution of 1848 Jan 12, 1852
A Prussian Industrial exhibition
opened at Berlin May 28, 1852.
Prussia repudiates a customs
union with Austria.... June 17, 1852
But agrees to a commercial
treaty Feb. 19, 1853
Continues neutral In the war. . . .
Sept. 21, Oct. 13, 1854
Excluded from the conferences
at Vienna Feb. 1855
Alarming illness of the king, the
prince of Prussia appointed
regent for three months Oct. 23, 1857
Prince Frederick William of
Prussia, married to the prin-
cess royal of England.. Jan. 25, 1858
7
Prince of Prussia made permanent
regent.. Oct. 7, 1858
Prussia declares its neutrality, but
arms to protect G-erm'y. May & June, 1859
Death of the king and the accession of
the Prince of Prussia, as William I.
Jan. 2, 1861
War was declared by Prussia and Italy
against Austria ; Bavaria, Saxony,
and Hanover sided with Austria;
The Prussian army occupied Hano-
ver and Saxony. (See J3attles,Austrian
and Prussian) June 17, and 18, 1866
Negotiations for an armistice com-
menced July 12, 1866. Prussian ad-
vance in sight of Vienna, July 22.
Treaty of Peace signed Aug. 30;
Prussia acquired Hanover, Schles-
wig-Holstein, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau,
Frankfort, parts of Bavaria and
Hesse-Darmstadt ; by these annexa-
tions her population became 23,583,-
000 ; the strength of Austria remain-
ed united, but she paid Prussia $28,-
000,000 ; Venetian Province ceded
to Italy ; a vote on the question of
annexation of Venetia to Italy was
held in that province, resulting in
641,758 affirmative, 68 negative.
Oct. 19, 1868
The King of Italy entered Venice,
amid great demonstrations of joy
Nov. 7, 18«f
98
PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a. d.
140), supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that
the sun, moon, and stars moved around once in twenty-four hours. This
system (still the official doctrine of the Church of Rome), vfas universally
taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B. C.) was revived by Copernicus (a. d.
1530), and demonstrated by Kepler (1619), and Newton (IBS'?).
PUBLIC LANDS, U. S. From 1838 to 1860, the sales of public lands reached
122,038,290 acres, which produced $136,401,302 (1860). In Sept. 1863, the
amount of surveyed public lands undisposed of, was 133,487,495 acres ; the
quantity disposed of in 1863, was 2,966,690 acres, of which 91,354 were sold
for cash, the remainder granted for bounties, railroads, &c.
PriBLIC WORKS, American. The Croton Aqueduct carries more water than
any other in the world, and is but two miles shorter than the Julian Aqueduct
at Rome, the longest in the world. The stone arch over Cabin John's Creek,
in the Washington Aqueduct, is about 50 feet longer span than any stone arch
in the world. The Suspension Bridge at Lewiston, and the railroad suspension
bridge, both over the Niagara river, have each the largest span of the kind in
the world. The United States Dry Dock at Brooklyn, is not equalled in di-
mensions, nor surpassed in workmanship, by any of the kind anywhere.
PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system ; and
doubtless employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of
oar points the period (.) is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced
about 14S5; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and the semicolon (;)
about 17S0. In Sir Philip Sidney's " Arcadia " (1587), they all appear, as well
as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and parenthesis ().
Q
QUADRANGLE, or Quadrilateral. Terms applied to the four strong Austrian
fortresses in North Italy : — (1) Peschiera, on an island in the Mincio, near the
lake of Garda. It was taken by the French in 1796; by the Austrians and
Russians in 1799; by the French again in 1801; but restored in 1814. It
was taken by the Sardinians in 1848 ; but retaken by Radetzky in 1849. The
Sardinians were about to invest it in 1859, when peace was made: (2) Mantua,
on the Mincio ; (3) Verona : and (4) Legnano ; both on the Adige.
QUAKERS, (p. 497.) In 1682, Wm. Penn, with a company of Friends, colonized
Philadelphia, where on Jan. 1, 1788, they emancipated their negro slaves. In
England, on Jan. 23, 1833, Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to Parlia-
ment on his affirmation. The Quakers had in England, 413 meeting-houses in,
1800, and 371 in 1851. At a conference held on Nov. 2. 1858, it was agreed
to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many of the
peculiarities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned.
QUARANTINE. The quarantine system has long been enforced at the principal
ports of the United States. The buildings used as quarantine hospitals, at
Staten Island (near New York city), were burned by an " orderly mob " of
citizens, who regarded them as a "nuisance," Sept. 1-2, 1858,
QUININE OR QuiNiA. An alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820
by Pelletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cliichona
barks, especially of the yellow bark.
R
RACES, (p. 501.) The most eminent races in England are those at Newmarket,
established by Charles II. in 1667 ; at Epsom, begun about 1711, by Mr. Park'
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 09
hurst (they have been annual since nsO) ; at Ascot, begun by the Duke of
Cumberland, uncle to George III. ; at Doncnster, in 1'7'76, and at Goodwood,
begun by the Duke of Eichmond (who died in 1806). The English Jockey
Club began in the lime of George II. The New York Jockey Club p.nd the
race course at Jerome Park, established 1865-6. Flying Childers^ bred in
1715 by the Duke of Devonshire, was allowed by sportsmen to luive been the
fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that w^sever bred in the world;
he ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 85^
miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He died in 1*741, aged 26
years. Robt. Bonner of New York, is said to have paid $30,000 for Dexter,
a fast trotter, Aug. ISe^.
RAGGED SCHOOLS. Free schools for outcast, destitute, ragged children set up
in large towns. They existed in some parts of London previous to 1844, but
did not receive their name till that year, when the "Ragged School Union"
was formed. In 1856, there were 160 Ragged-school institutions, 16 refuges,
where 600 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated. Upwards of 500
boys and girls have emigrated to the colonies. In New York and other large
cities of the U. S., " Ragged Schools" have been established by benevolent in-
dividuals, to the great benefit of many thousand destitute children, who would
otherwise have received no instruction. " Mission Schools " also have gathered
in thousands from the cellars and gutters, who have been provided not only
with oral teaching, but with lodging, food, and raiment. The "Fourth Ward"
and "Five Points " Missions are of this character.
RAILROADS of the World.
/ Area sq. mile. , , Population ,
Miles of To mile To mile
railriiad. of KB. of ER.
N.America 39,414.1 7,600,000 192.8 52,000,000 1,809.3
West Indies 410.3 100,000 2437 3,500,000 8.529.8
8. America 1,041.9 7,100,000 6,bl4.4 22,500,000 21,595.1
Tot. Amer.... 40,866.3 14,800,000 362.1 78,000,000 1,908.6
Europe 50,117.5 3,600,000 71.8 285,000.000 5,686.6
Asia 3,660.3 17,400,000 4,753.7 789,000,000 213,097.3
Africa 375.4 11,700,000 81.166.7 200.000,000 532,765.1
Australasia 607.7 3,200,000 5,265.7 1,600,000 2,632.8
Total of
world 95;727.2 50,700,000 530.2 1,344,600,000 13,903.8
See table in detail, in Com. & Financial Chronicle^ N. Y.
RAILWAYS, (p. 502.) In England, the capital invested in railway undertakings
has reached a most astonishing amount. Up to 1840 is was 69 m.iUions ; the
rjiilway mania and panic year was 1846, when 270 railway acts passed. Up to
1858, the sum of £308,824,851 had been invested in railways. In the U. S.
In June, 1859, the length of railwavs in operation in the United States was
stated. to be 27,857 miles; cost $961,047,364. Increase since 1847, 24,057
miles. In 1865, the length of completed railroads was 35,935 miles ; coat
$1,432,649,000; cost per mile, $40,000. Pennsylvania had 3,967 miles; Ohio,
3,303; Illinois, 3,206 ;'' New York, 2,956. Railway accidents in 1866, 183, in
which 335 persons were killed. In Cities. On the eleven street railroads in
the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30,
1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the
previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same
period were $4,623,683, and the expense $2,821,625.
100
THE WORLD'S PE OGRESS.
BAIL WAY TRAVELLERS. The statistics on this subject prove that this mod©
of travelling is much safer than the old modes. Thus in the French postsy*
tem there were nearly seven times as many deaths as in an equal number of
miles by railroad. Yet the number of accidents is inexcusably great, especial
ly in the United States. The summary of several years shows
Passenarers.
In Prussia, killed or wounded 1 in 1,294,075
In Belgium, " " " 1,611,237
In France, " '« " 375,092
Passengers.
In England killed or wounded 1 in 311,340
In United States, " " lb8,459
The railroad travelling is more than six times as dangerous here as in Prussia,
probably because the responsibility here exacted is less in nearly that pro-
portion. Disasters. On Great Wesern (Canada) R. R., 42 killed, Oct. 27,
1854; Chicago and Rock Island 40 k. and w., Nov. 1, 1854; Camden
andAmboy, at Burlington, N. J., 23 k., 60 w., Aug. 29, 1855; Pacific R. R.,
near St. Louis, 25 k., oO w., Nov. 1, 1855 ; Panama R. R., 43 k., 60 w., May 6,
1856 ; N. Penn. R. R., 60 k., 78 w., .July 17, 1856: Grand Trunk R. R., Can-
ada, 70 k., March 12, 1857; Central R. R., Utica, 8 k., 30 w., May 11, 1858 ;
Michigan Southern, near South Bend, 38 k., 50 w., June 27, 1859 ; 79 acci-
dents occurred in the United States during the year 1859, at which 129 per-
sons were killed and 411 injured. Total in 7 years, 903 accidents, 1,109 killed,
3,611 injured.
RAPE, Punishment of, U. S. In New York state the extreme penalty is ten
years' imprisonment. Military laws impose death on the guilty party. Du-
ring the rebellion, death was inflicted in several instances, on soldiers convicted
of rape.
REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented in England early in the present
century, but it failed from its intricacies. McCormick's American machine
was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1846, and received a gold medal
from the jurors of the London Exhibition of 1851. Hussey's machine, also
American, exhibited at the same time, was highly commended. McCormick's
received the highest prize also at Paris Exposition of 1867.
REBELLIONS m U. S. Shays's Rebellion in Western Massachusetts, 1786.
The "Whiskey Rebellion" in Pennsylvania, 1794. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode
Island, 1842. South Carolina troops fire on the steamer Star of the West,
having U. S. troops on board, bound for Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, Jan.
9th, 1861. See Secession, Treason. In British History. The most im-
portant were :
Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compro-
mised by the grant of Magna Charta,
June 15 following. See Magna
Charta.
Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vul-
garly called Wat Tyler, occasioned
by the brutal rudeness of a tax-col-
lector to his daughter. Having
killed the collector in his rage, he
raised a party to oppose the tax itself,
- which was a grievous poll-tax, 1381.
Of Jack Cade in favor of the duke of
York, against Kenry VI., 1450.
Under Perkin Wavbeck, 1492, which
ended In the execution of Warbeck.
Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ;
it ended in his death.
Of the Scots in favor of the Old Pre-
tender 1716 ; quelled in 1716.
Of the Scots, under the Young Pre-
tender, 1745 ; suppressed in 1746,
when lords Lovat, Balmerino, and
Kilmarnock were beheaded.
Of the Americans, on account of tax-
ation, 1774. This rebellion led to a
disastrous war, to the loss of the
chief North American colonies and
to the independence of tte United
States, 1782.
Canadian Insuriection, Dfcember,
1837 to Nov. 1838.
Of Chartists, Nov. 3, 1839.
Smith O'Brien's Irish rebellion ; termi-
nated in his defeat, Tipperary, July
29, 1848.
Fenian outbreak in Canada, 1866, Ir
Ireland 1867.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
lOi
RECIPROCITY Treaty with Canada, ratified at Washington, June 5, 1854. It
allowed certain privileges of trade to both parties, and either could withdraw
from it upon notice of one year. In Dec. 1864, the President was authorized
to terminate the treaty. It expired March, 1*7, 1866. It was argued against
the treaty, that under its operation, the balance of trade proved to be against
the U. S. One great advantage of it was, that American fishermen could have
the same rights as the Enghsh, in the bays and inlets of Canada and the
British Provinces.
REPUBLICAN PARTY, U. S., first appeared as a distinct organization in 1854.
The whig party dissolved when the south united on the passage of the Kansas-
Nebraska bill, and the repudiation of the Missouri Compromise. All who op-
posed the bill were called "anti-Nebraska," and afterwards " Republicans."
In 1854, they carried most of the free state elections. {Greeley^s History.)
Their first presidential convention v/as held at Philadelphia, 1856. Gen. Fre-
mont was nominated for president but was defeated. In 1860, Republican
Convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln for president, who was
elected. The south considered this a cause for seceding from the Union. In
1864, the vote of the country was overwhelmingly "Repubhcan."
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES, (p. 508.) Harper's Monthly Magazine commenced
in 1850. Putnam's Monthly (N. Y.), commenced Jan. 1853 ; sold to new pub-
lishers, 1855, ceased Sept. i85'7, new series 1867. Atlantic Monthly (Boston),
commenced 1857 (Dec). Russell's Magazine (Charleston), commenced 1858,
ceased 1860. Hours at Home, 1866. The Galaxy (N. Y.), 1866. New Jersey
Magazine 1867. British, (p. 507.)
Tait'8 Mag., founded 1833
Dublin UniTersity ] 833
North British Rev 1844
New Qunrterly Rev. . .1852
Household Words (Dic-
kens) 1852
Lon. Quarterly 1853
National Rev 1855
All the Year Round
(Dickens) 1P58
Ouce a Week 1859
MacMillan' s 1859
Cornhill Mag. (^Thacke-
ray) 1860
Temple Bar Mag. (Sala) 1860
St. James Mag 1860
Good Words 1861
Popular Science Rev 1861
London Society 1862
Victoria 1863
Union Rev 1863
Fortnightly Kev 1865
Argosy 1865
" Belgravia " Mag 1866
Broadway 1867
Tinsley's 1867
REVIVALS OP Religion. Remarkable interest and excitement on religious sub-
jects in the United States in 1858 and 1859, extended in the latter year to
Scotland and Ireland.
REVENUE OF the United States, The, up to 1863, was derived chiefly from cus-
toms and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in
1850 $43,000,000 I 1860 $56,054,599
1855 65,000.000 1861 41,476,299
1859 53,000,000 \ 1862 51,935,720
Revenue of the U. S, for years ending July 1, (exclusive of loans):
Year. Internal. Customs. Total. Exvenditures.
1863 $37,640,787 .$69,059,642 $112,687,290 $895,795,630
1864 109,741,134 102,316,152 264,626,771 1,298,144,656
1885 209,464,215 84,928,260 333,714,605 1,897,674,224
1886 ........309,226,813 179,046,651 558,032,620 1,141,072,666
Internal, U. S. The aggregate revenue from 1789 to 1861, w^aa
$1,800,0(0,000. Between 1817 and 1861, no internal taxes were imposed on
the people of the U. S. by the general government. During the years 1861-
2-3, Congress passed laws for increased revenue to maintain the war. The
Excise law of July 1, 1862, levied a heavy tax on about 500 different articles.
The revenue from this source in 1862 to" 1866 is stated in above table.
REVIEW Military, U. S. Grand review of a part of the national army at the
102
close of the war, at Washington, D. C, May, 1865. The army of the ^est
under Sherman, and of the east under Meade, reviewed by the President, Cab-
inet, and Gen. Grant. About 200,000 troops marched by the White House,
occupying two days. Great numbers of citizens from all parts of the country
were present to witness the sight.
REFORM IN Parliament (England), (p. 504.) A new Reform bill, introduced
by Lord J. Russell, 1854, but withdrawn. Another by Mr. Disraeli, rejected
March 31, 1859. Another by the same passed through the House of Lords
July 15 1867.
REGENT'S PARK, London. It originally formed part of the grounds belonging
to the palace of queen Elizabeth. In 1814 improvements were commenced
under the direction of Mr. Nash, which have rendered this park the most
beautiful part of London. It is nearly circular, and consists of about 450 acres,
laid out in shrubberies, adorned with a fine piece of water and intersected by
roads which are much frequented as promenades. In the enclosure are sev-
eral villas, and round the park noble ranges of buildings in various styles of
architecture.
RENTS IN England, were first made payable in money, instead of in kind, a. d.
1135. Numerous statutes have been enacted in various reigns to define the
relations and regulate the dealings between landlord and tenant. In England,
the duke of Sutherland received his rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland
in the value of wool and sheep. The rental of England, including, land,
houses, and mines, was six millions about the year 1600, and twelve yeisrs'
purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to fourteen mil-
lions, and the land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davenant on the Reve-
nues. The present rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated lately in
parliament at 127 millions. See Land, &c.
RHODE ISLAND. One of the United States. Population in 1860, 174,621 ; in
1865, 184,695, of whom 112,107 were born in the state. It sent 25,455 sol-
diers to the war. War debt, $4,000,000.
RIOTS IN THE U. S. The largest and most alarming was the riot caused by the
enforcement of the draft in N. Y. city, July 13, 1863. It lasted three days.
The rioters destroyed and burnt property to the amount of $2,500,000.
They were finally put down by the police and military. Loss of life estimated
at 1,000. Similar but smaller riots occurred in Boston, Portsmouth, and Holmes
County, Ohio. Threatened disturbances in many other places. Bread riots
in Mobile, Ala., Sept., 1863, by women ; also at Salisbury, N. C, March 18,
and at Richmond, Va. Riot at New Orleans, July 30, 1866 ; a State Conven-
tion broken up by ex-robels and policemon ; 30 negroes and a few whites
killed. Attack on Judge Kelley at a public meeting in Mobile, May, 1867.
Attack on negroes at Memphis, 1866.
RICHMOND, Va. Founded in 1742. It became the capital of the State in
1779. Population in 1800, 5,730; in 1830, 16,060; in 1850, 27,570; in
1860, 37,910, of whom 11,700 were slaves. It was distinguished for many
years for the eminent men it furnished to the councils of the nation. On the
secession of Virginia, Richmond was made the capital of the "Southern Con-
federacy, " June, 1861. During the war it was the main object aimed at
by the " Union army of the Potomac," The place was fortified with great
skill. It fell April 2, 1865. A severe fire broke out during its evacuation by
- the Confederates, which consumed the business portion of the city. The
notorious "Libby Prison" was situated in Richmond.
ROADS AND PAVEMENTS. The first general repair of the highways of Eng-
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 103
land was directed in 1288. Macadam's roads were introduced about 1818.
Wooden pavements were tried with partial success in the streets of London ;
at Whitehall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon
after. In New York and some other American cities the best pavements
have been those of square blocks of granite on a cement foundation ; particu-
larly that known as the Rnss pavement. In 1855, an iron pavement was in-
troduced which has proved satisfactory.
KOBBERS. First punished in England with death by Edward I.'s Laws, which
directed that tlie oldest robber should be hanged. The punishment was
pecuniary till that time. The most remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in
England, a. d. 1189, and Claud Du Val, " executed at Tyburn," says an his-
torian, quaintly, " to the great grief of the women," Jan. 16'70. In later
times the accomplished Barrington was transported, Sept. 22, 1790.
ROCHE LLE (W. France) A sea-port on the Atlantic. It belonged to the Eng-
lish for some time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guescliu,
in 1372. It became a stronghold of the Calvinist party in France; and was
vainly besieged by the Duke of Anjou, in 1573. It was taken after a re-
markable siege of "thirteen months by Cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The Duke
of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to relieve the besieged ; but
they, from distrust, declined to admit him.
ROMAN CATHOLICS m the United States, m 1839, 1849, and 1859 ; from
the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for 1859:
1839 1849 1859 1839 1849 1859
Provinces 1 3 7 1 Priests 478 1000 2108
D oceses IG 30 48 Chuxches 418 966 2334
Bishops IS 26 45 |
The estimated number of Roman CathoUcs in the U. S., in 1863, was 3,177,000.
ROME. (p. 511.)
The pope issues the bull estab-
lisliiiii^ a E,oman Catholic hier-
archy in England (see Papal
Aggression).. Sept. 24, 1850
Important concordat with Aus-
tria .., Kwyr., 1855
Tne pope visits difterent parts of
his dominions June, 1857
Insurrection in the Romagna, at Bo-
lou:na and FervHra June, 1850
They declare for adhesion to Pied-
mont Sept. 1859
Accept Buonconipagni as Grovernor-
General ,,...Nov. 1859
ROXCESVALLE (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Charlemagne was surprised
and defeated by the Gascons, and his renowned paladin, Roland or Orlando,
slain, A. D. 778.
ROSETTA STOXE, discovered in 1799, and deposited in the British Museum.
In 1841, Mr. Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek in-
scription. It is a piece of black basalt, about three feet long, and 2^ feet
wide, with an inscription in three languages, viz. : hieroglyphics, modified
hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy
Epipluines (about 194 b. c.) It has been subjected to the investigation of Dr. T.
Young and ChampoUion.
ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148,
Judengasse (Jew-lane), Farnkfort in 1748. In 1772 he began business as a
money-lender and dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he
placed the sign of the Red Shield (in German, Roth Schild). Having had deal-
ings witii the landgrave of Hesse, that prince entrusted him with his treasure
(said to have been £25),000), in 1806, when the French held his country.
With this sum as capital, Ansehn traded aud made a large fortune, and re-
stored the £250,0Dj to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons con-
104
THE world's PEOGEESS.
tinued the business as partners. His son, Nathan began at Manchester in
1798, removed to London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, July 28, 1836.
EOTTERDAM. The second city in Holland. Its importance dates from the thir-
teenth century. The commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509.
It suffered much from the French revolutionary wars, and from inundations
in 17 75 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born here in 1467.
ROUEN, an ancient city of N. France, became the capital of Normandy in
the tenth century. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was re-
taken by Henry V. Jan. 19, 1419 ; Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was
burnt here May 30, 1431. With Normandy, it was subdued by the King of
France in 1449. '
RUSSIA, (p. 613.)
Russia demands an expulsion of
the Hungarian and Polish refu-
gees from Turkey (see Turkey')
Nov. 5, 1849
They are sent to Koniah, in Asia
Minor Jan. 1850
Harhor of Sebastopol completed,
Feb. 1850
The czar concentrates his forces
on the frontiers of Turkey
Feb. 1853
Orign of the Russo-TurKish war,
{which see) March, 1853
The czar issues a manifesto to
his subjects ; he will only com-
bat for the faith and Christian-
ity, April 23, 1854
Death of the Czar Nicholas ; no
change of policy March 2, 1855
Most extensive levy ordered by
the czar (at Nicolaiefl). .Nov. 3, 1855
He visits his army at Sebastopol,
Nov. 10, 1855
Amnesty granted to the Poles,
May 27 ; political offenders, &o.
Sept. 7, 185e
Alexander II. crowned at Moscow,
Sept. 2, 1856
The czar meets the emperor Napoleon
at Stutgardt, Sept. 25 • and the Em-
peror of Austria at Weimar. . .Oft 1, 1857
Emancipation of the serfs decreed,
July 2, 1856
A Russian naval station established at
Villa Franca, on the Mediterranean,
creates some political excitement
Aug 1858
New Commercial treaty with Great
Britain Jan. 12, 1859
Russia reproves the warlike move-
ments of the German confederation
during the Italian war May 27, 1859
Alexander II., son of Nicholas, born
April 29, 1818 ; succeeded at his
fathei-'s death, March 2, 1855 ; mar-
ried April 28, 1841, Mary, Princess of
Hesse ; the present emperor of
Russia 1860
Heir : his son Nicholas, bom Sept. 20, 1843
RUSSO-TURKISH WAR with France and England. The Russian and French
governments having each taken a side in the dispute between the Greek and
Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of the Holy Places in Palestine,
the Porte advised the formation of a mixed commission, which decided in
favor of the Greeks, and a firman was promulgated accordingly, March 9,
1853 ; to this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. The Russians
now made further claims. MenschikofTs ultimatum was rejected, and he quitted
Constantinople, May 21. On June 6, the sultan issued a hattlscherifif confirm-
ing all the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, and appealed to his
allies. On June 13, the English and French fleets anchored in Besika bay.
On June 26, the czar published his manifesto, and his troops crossed the Pruth
and entered Moldavia, July 2. The sultan, with the advice and consent of a
grand national council, after demanding the evacuation of the principalities,
Oct. 3, declared war against Russia, Oct. 5. The Russian declaration follow-
ed, Nov. 1, 1853. France and England declared war against Russia, Marclt 2Y
and 28, 1854. Hostilities ceased, Feb. 29, 1856, and peace was proclaimed in
April following.
The Sultan declares war against
RussiM Oct. 5, 1853
Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bay-
andur, Atskur, and Achaltzik,
Nov. 14, 18, 26, 1853
Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope,
Nov. 30, 1853
At the request of the Porte (Dec.
5.) the allied fleets enter the
BlackSea Jan. 4, 1854
SUPPLEMEXT, 1851-67.
105
Miss ]Sria:btingale and nnrsps arrive
at Scutari Nov. 6, 1854
Sardinia joins England and Prance,
Jai:. 26, 1855
Death of Emperor Nicholas and acces-
sion of Alexander II. (no chai'gii of
war policy) March 2, 1855
Sortie frnm the Malaklioti' tower (15,030
men) repul&ed March 22, 1855
Hesignation of Gen. Canrobert, suc-
ceeded by Gen. Pelissier May 16, 1855
Death of Lord Eaglan ; succeeded by
(jren. Simpson June 28, 1855
Kussians invest Kars in Armenia, de-
fended l.y Gen.Williains July 15, 1855
The French take the Malakhoff {luJiich
see) by assault ; the English assault
the liedan without success ; the Rus-
sians retire from Sebastopol to the
North Forts, and the allies enter the
city ; the Kussians destroy or sink the
remainder of their fleet. . .Sept. e, &c. 1855
Explosion of 100,(i()0 lbs of powder in the
French siege-train at Inkerman, with
great loss of life Nov. 15, 1855
Capitulation of Kars to Gen. Moura-
vielT, after a gallant defence bv Gen.
Williams Nov. 26, 1855
Council of war at Par s Jan. 11, 1856
Destruction of Sebastopol docks com-
pleted Feb.l, 1856
Peace conferences open at Paris, an
aiinislice till March 31, agreed on
Feb. 25, 1856
Proclamation of peace in the Crimea,
April 2; in London . April 29, 1856
The Crimea evacuated July 9, 1856
RUSSIA, American Intercourse with. Commercial relations: In 1861,
exports from Russia to U. S. Avere $1,290,000 ; imports, $800,000. 8,220 tons
of shipping from Russia entered U. S. ports ; 9,300 tons cleared for Russia.
Diplomatic relations between the two countries have been most cordial. July,
1861, the Emperor of Russia communicated to the American Government his
sincere hope that the Union would not be dissolved. Resolutions passed
Congress May, 1867, congratulating the Emperor on his escape from assassi-
nation.
ROYAL ACADEMY, England, (p. 512.) Presidents.
Baltic fleet sails, under Sir C.
Napier March 11, 1854
Treaiy betAveen England, France,
and Turkey March 1 2, 1854
France and Kngiand declare wnr
against Paissia March 27, 28, 1854
Gen. Canrobert and French troops
ariive at Gallipoli, soon after
followed by the English
March 31, 1854
Russians defeated by the Turks
at Karakai May 30, 1854
Bombardment of Odessa by afied
fleet April 22, 1854
Bombardment and surre/ der of
Bomarsund Aug. Id, 1854
The Russians defeated by Scha-
myl in Georgia.. about Aug. 28, 1854
They begin to evacuate the prin-
cipalities Aug. and Sept. 1854
Battle of the Alma Sept. MO, 1854
Russians sink part of their fleet at
Sebastopo: Sept. 23 1854
Death of Marshal St. Arnaud,
Sept. 29, 1854
General Canrobert appointed his
successor Nov, 24, 1854
Siege of Sebastopol commenced—
grand attack (without success)
Oct. 17, 1854
Battle of Balaklava — gallant
charge of the light cavalry un-
der Lord Cardigan, with severe
loss Oct. 25, 1854
Battle of Inkerman ; defeat of the
Russians Nov. 5. 1854
1830. Sir Martin A. Shee.
1850. Sir Charles East lake.
1866. Sir Francis Grant.
1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds.
1792. Benjamin West.
IS'iO. Sir Tiiomas Lawrence.
ROYAL SOCIETY, (p. 512.) Presidents.
1660-3. Sir Robert Moray.
1663-77. Lord Brouncker (the first under the
the chartei).
1680-2. Sir C. Wren.
1684-6. Samuel Pepys.
1398-1703. John Lord Somers.
1703-27. Sir I. Newton.
1727-41. Sir Hans Sloane.
1778-1820. Sir Joseph Banks.
SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first "Sabbath school" was founded by Ludwig
Hacker between the years 1740 and 174Y at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pa.,
among the German Seven-day Baptists there. The school room was used aa
an hospital after the battle of Brandywine, fought in 177Y. This event occa-
Bioned the breaking up of the schools about five years before the first Sundaj
1820. Dr. W. n.WoUaston.
1820. Sir H.Davy.
1827. Davies Gilbert.
1S30. Duke of Sussex,
1838. Marquis of Northamplon.
1848. Earl of Eosf^e.
1854. Lord Wrottesley.
1858. Sir Benjamin C. Brodie.
106 THE woeld's progeess.
school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by Robert Raikes, about
IV 82.
SANDWICH ISLANDS, (p. 517.) Kamehameba lY. (or Tamehameha) when
20 years old, succeeded his uncle, Dec. 15, 1854.
SANITARY COMMISSION, U. S. Organized under appointment of the Secre-
tary of War, dated June 9, 1861, H. W. Bellows, D. D., Prest., Fred. Law
Olmstead, Secretary. [The Women's Central Relief Association had been
previously organized, April, 1861.] Supplies furnished through the Com'n
estimated by Sec. at $15,000,000. Cash receipts at central treasury to May 1,
1866, $4,962,014.26, of which New York contributed $229,328, and California,
$1,233,97'7. The Metropol. Fair, N. Y., produced $1,184,487; that at Phila-
delphia, $1,035,368; 12 others $425,000. See History Sanitary Commission,
8vo. Philadelphia, 1866. The Freedmen's Union Commission rec'd and dis-
bursed for teachers at the South, in 1865, $318,670; for supplies, $490,755.
Total, $809,425.
SANITARY REFORM, U. S. (p. 517.) The ventilation of buildings has been
greatly improved since the publication of Perry's Essay on School Houses,
1833, and Barnard's School Architecture, 1838. This reform was specially
needed in printing offices, bookbinderies, and manufactories generally.
SANITARY LEGISLATION, England. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly
attributable the honor of commencing the agitation on the subject of public
health, about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of Health " having excited much atten-
tion. Since 1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, having been
much employed by the government. U. S. Resolution authorizing the Secretary
of the Treasury to curry out regulations of quarantine to guaid against cholera,
passed Congress May 26, 1866. States and cities enact local sanitary laws.
Board of Health of N. Y. city, organized, 1866. See Sanitary Covnnission.
SANSCRIT. The language of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Sol-
omon, has been much studied of late years. Sir Wni. Jones, who published a
translation of the poem, Sakuntala in 1783, discovered that a complete litera-
ture had been preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history
and philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. Texts and translations of many
works have been published by the aid of the East India Company, the Oriental
Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship of Sanscrit at Ox-
ford was founded by Colonel Boden. The first professor, H. II. Wilson, ap-
pointed in 1832, translated part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of
the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. The present professor, Monier Williams
(elected 1860), published an English and Sanscrit dictionary, 1851. Professor
Max Miiller published his history of Sanscrit Literature in 1859, and has edited
part of the original text of the Vedas. Philologists have discovered an inti-
mate connection between the Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Sla-
vonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages.
SARDINIA, (p. 518.) See Italy.
Bill for suppression of convents
paf^sed March 2, 1855
Convention wtii Englai.d and
Fj-ance sgned, a co tingent of
15,000 troops to be supplied
HiCai list Russia A jn-ii 10, 1855
10,000 troop-i under Gr-neral La
Marmora arrive in the Crimea,
May 8, 1855
Who di-t'.nguisli themselves in the
battle of the Tchernaya, Any:. 16, 1855
The ki.:g visits Louiou, &c. Nov.
SO, &c. 1855
Important note on Italy from Connt
Cavour to England April 16, 1856
Count Cavour declares iu favor of free-
trade June, 185T
Prelimiiaries of peace signed at Villa
Franca ; Count Cavour resigns,
July, 1359
Treaty of pe^ice signed at Znrich. Nov. 1859
Sai-dinian troops besiege the King of
Naples at Gaeta Kept. 1860
Caela capitulates to Victor Enuimie^,
Feb. 13, 1861
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 107
ST. DOMINGO. A city of Hayti. The Republic of St. Domingo was established
in 1801. It has been frequently assailed by the rulers of Hayti, particularly
by FausLin I., dethroned in 1858.
ST. GEORGE. This patron saint of England was a tribune in the reign of Dio-
cletian, and being a man of great courage, was a favorite with the emperor ;
but complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and
arguing in their defence, he was put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290.
ST. HELENA (an island in the South Alantic Ocean), was discovered by the
Portuguese, under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the festival of St. Helena, May 21,
1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they
were expelled by the English. The British East India Company settled here
in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch,
until 1673, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once
more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 15, 1815 ;
and it became the scene of his death. May 5, 1821.
ST. LUCIA (West Indies). First settled by the French in 1350. Taken by the
British several times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the
French negroes, April, 1*795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent's, Grenada,
Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucia, were taken by the British. St. Lucia
was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was again seized by England
the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814.
ST. MARK'S CHURCH at Venice, erected 829 ; St. Mark's Place, 1592. The
old Gothic Cathedral (built about 1086).
ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL (London). The first stone of the present edifice was
laid June 21, 16*75. The whole edifice was completed in 1710. The total cost
(including 200 tons weight of iron railing) was £1,511,202. The length of St.
Paul's from the grand portico to the east end is 510 feet ; the breadth, from
the north to the south portico, 282 feet ; the exterior diameter of the dome,
145 feet ; The height from the ground to the top of the cross, 404 feet.
Architect, Sir Christopher Wren.
ST. PETERSBURG. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began
this city in May 27, 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some
wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the Count Golovkin built the first house
ot brick; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the founda-
tion of a house of the same material. From these small beginnings rose the
imperial city of St. Petersburg ; and in less than nine years after the hovels
had been erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this
place. The winter palace was burned to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. The rail-
way to Moscow was finished in 1851.
ST. PETER'S CHURCH, Rome. Originally erected by Constantine, a. d. 306.
About the middle of the fifteenth century, Pope Nicholas V. commenced a
new church. The present magnificent pile was designed by Braraante ; the
first stone was laid by Pope Julius II. in 1506. In 1514, Leo X. employed
Raphael and two others to superintend the building. Paul III. committed
the work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of
which 30,000 lbs. of iron was used. The church was consecrated Nov. 18,
1626, the building having occupied i76 years. The front is 400 feet broad,
rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre
of the church to a height of 324 feet ; the length of the interior is 600 feet,
forming one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. The length of the
exterior is 669 feet; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet; and the entire
108
height from the ground 432 feet. St. Peter's is the most sumptuous Roman
Catholic church in the world.
SARATOGA, Bukgoyne's Surrendek at. Here General Burgoyne, commandei
of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans, in the war
of Independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the American
General Gates, when 5,791 men laid down their arms, Oct. 1*7, IVTY,
SATIRE, JJ. S. Among the best American humorous and satirical publications
are the Biglow Papers and Fahle for Critics, by J. R. Lowell ; the New Gospel
of Peace, castigating secessionists and peace democrats during the recent
war ; the broadly humorous essays of " Artemus Ward, " Petroleum V. Na^by^
and others ; and the Tery cleVer pictorial satires of Thos, Nast.
SAVINGS BANKS, U. S. The number of savings banks in the New England
states, New York, and Pennsylvania, was about 300 in 1862. The amount of
deposits, ITO.OOOjOiiO. Massachusetts has more banks than any other state,
the number being 93 ; deposits, $44,785,400. There are comparatively few
savings banks in the states not mentioned above. On Nov. 20, 1851, the
number of savings banks in Great Britain and Ireland, was 574, besides above
twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable institutions. The depositors
(in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the societies embraced a vast but un-
known number of persons : the amount of deposits was £32,893,511.
SAVOY, (p. 520.) Annexation to France voted for by 130,533 against 235, April
22, 1860. The annexation completed 1860.
SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Pop-
ulation, Dec. 1861, 159,431. The reigning family is descended from John,
younger son of Ernest, who became elector of Saxony in 1464. 1844. Ernest
II. son, Jan. 29 ; born June 21, 1818, (married Alexandrina, duchess of Baden,
May 3, 1842 ; no issue). Heir (presumptive) ; Prince Alfred of England, bora
Aug. 6, 1844, (in whose favor the Prince of Wales resigned his rights, April
19, 1863).
SAXE-WEIMAR. Saxe- Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes
have greatly favored literature, and their capital, Weimar, has been called the
Athens of Germany. Population of the duchy in 1858, 267,112.
SAXONY, (p. 520.) 1854. John, Aug. 9, (born Dec. 12, 1301), the present
(1861) king. Heir : His son, Frederic Augustus Albert, born April 23, 1828.
SCANDINAVIA. The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Den-
mark, whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Nor-
mandy (about A. D. 900), and eventually England (1066). They were also
called Sea-Kings or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is
thought, the northern regions of America, about the ninth century.
SCANDINAVIANS. The Scandinavian population of the United States is esti-
mated at 180,000 : namely, 150,000 Norwegians, 25,000 Swedes, and 5,000
Danes (1860).
SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, in England. In 1851, there were 2,310 schools in connec-
tion with the Education Committee actually inspected in England and Scotland.
They included: 1,713 Church of England schools in England and Wales; 282
Protestant Dissenting schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic
schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof
91 were of the Free Church ; the whole affording accommodation for 299,425
scholars. In the same year (1851), the estimated sums voted for education
were: for Great Britain, £150,000, for Ireland, £134,560. United States.
Schools both English and classical were almost instantly established by the
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 109
^rst settlers of New England on their arrival ; were soon made obligatory
by law, and have since grown with the population, being, however, fewer and
worse in the southern states. The present era of public schools commenced
about 1800. Its important dates are : Connecticut school fund, established
1795 ; first state school sup't., New York, 1812 ; first state school system,
Ky., 1821 ; Colburn's arithmetic, 1821 ; school movement of 1825-40, com-
menced by publications of Carter, Gallaudet, and Johnson ; Cousin's report on
Prussian schools, published here 1835 ; Horace Mann, sec'y of Board of Edu-
cation in Mass., 1837; Stowe's report ou European schools, 1837 ; first nor-
mal school, at Lexington, Mass., 1839. From 1840 to 1860, the improved
principles and methods thus introduced have been increasingly put into prac-
tice. The following totals for the United States are approximate for 1858 :
children of school age, 6,933,441; public schools, 97,621 ; school funds, $49,-
824,384; expended for public schools in the year, $20,159,268. See Education^
Colleges^ &c.
SCIENCE IN THE U. S. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American
Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr.
S- L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1802. Botanic garden and Professor of Natural History
estabUshed at Harvard College, 1805. American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, formed, 1845. National Academy of Sciences, founded by
Congress, 1865. Among the important National and State publications are the
U. S. Exploring Expedition under Com. Wilkes, with its Scientific Keports, to
be in some 30 quarto and folio volumes ; the Reports on the Mexican Bounda-
ries, Pacific Railway &c ; the Natural History of the State of New York, in
about 20 quartos, the great work of Agassiz on Natural History, pub. by sub-
scription, etc, etc. See Astronomy^ Observatories dr.,
SCREW-PROPELLER consits of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes of a
wind-mill, set on axis, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving
beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The princi-
ple is as old as the wind-mill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by
Du Quet, Bernouilli, and others. In 1836 patents were obtained by F. P.
Smith and Captain John Ericsson, and to them the successful application of
the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the screw, the
Archimedes and the Rattler, were constructed in the U. S. The latter was
tried in England in 1845. Since then the screw-propeller has been largely
employed in this country and in Europe. War vessels are now almost entirely
propelled by the screw.
SEBASTOPOL, or Sevastopol. A town and once a naval arsenal, at S. W. point
of the Crimea, built in 1784, by Catharine II., memorable for its eleven
months' Siege, by the English and, French in 1854 and 1855. Bombardment
commenced Oct. 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters
by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on
Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, the most important
fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing
and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the great Redan
and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants
were compelled to retire alter a desperate struggle, with great loss of life.
"SECESSION," U. States. The election of Lincoln, the " Republican" candidate
for president, Nov. 6, 1860 was made the pretext for the secession of several
southern states for another Union ; the resignation of Federal officers in those
states, and of members of the cabmet at Washington, and of several officers of
110
TEE WOELD'S PEOGEESS.
the army and navy ; and the seizure of government moneys, forts, and arsenala
The chief incidents of these treasonable or revolutionary proceedings were the
following:
Alabama secession passed Jan. 11, 1861
Florida st'cessioii passed, and U. S.
forts at Pt-nsacola seized Jan. I'J, 1861
Georgi-i secession passed Jan. 19, 1861
Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida
senators of the U. States resigned
Jan. 21, 1861
.Jan. 28. " ""
..Feb. 1,
" Peace Confere'nce " at "Washington,
Feb. 4,
Eesigniuion of S. C. senators of
the U. States Nov. 9-11, 1860
U. S. H. of Rej). appoints a com.
of 33 on the state of the Union,
Dec. 6, 1860
Resiijnation of Howell Cobb, Sec.
of Treas., U. S Dec. 10, 1860
U. f^. stocks (5 pei- cent) sold for
89, Dec. 10, 1860
Resignation of My. Cass, Sec. of
State Dec. 14, 1860
South Carolina Ordii.ance of Se-
cession passed Dec. 20, I860
Ma;. Anderson transfers the U.
ytates gairison at Fort Moultrie
to ForL Sumter, In Charleston
harbor Dec. 26, 1S60
S. Carolina anihorities seize Fort
Moultrie and other U. States
property Dec. 28, 1860
J. B. Floyd, U. S. Sec. of War re-
sig.is Dec. 29, 1860
Ports Pulaski and Jackson, in
harbor of Bavannah, seized by
Gov. Brown of Geo Jan. 3, 186
8. C. commissioners' demands
refused by the President
Jan. 3, 186
Fast-day observed in the U. S.
Jan. 4, 186:
Fort Morgan, Mobile, seized by
the btPtc Jan. 4, :
Steamer titar of the West with U.
S. troops for Fort Sumter,
fired into by the rebels.. Jan. 9, 186:
Mississi]ipi secession passed,
Jan. 9 : and U. S. forts and
Louisiana secession passed.
Texas tecession passed
1861
1861
Louisiana delegation excepting Mr.
Bouligny withdraws from Congress
Feb. 5, 1861
Congress of seceding states at Mont-
gomery, Ala., Feb. 6 ; elects Jeffer-
son Davis of Miss. Pros., and Alex-
H. Stephens of Ga. Vice-pres..Feb. 9, 1861
Tennessee votes against secession,
Feb. 9, 1861
Resolution guaranteeing non-interfer-
ence with slavery in any state passed
unanimously in H. of Reps.. Feb. 11, 1861
Jelferson Davis inaugurated Pros, of
Southern Co.,federacy Feb. 18, 1861
The " Peace Con erence" at Washing-
ton agrees on proposition for " com-
prom'se," and adjourns March 1, 1861
Gen. Twiggs, having hurjendered the
U. States forces and property in Texas
is dismissed from the U. S.army as a
traitor Ma.rch 1, 1861
Missouri votes against secession, in
convention March 1, 1861
Lincoln inaugurated Pres. of Unted
States March 4, 1861
See Battles, U. S., War, & . Also
lailes, p. 190, «fec.
property seized there... Jan. 10, :
SEPOYS (a corruption of SipdM, Hindostanoe for a soldier). The term applied
to the native troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided in
establishing British rule in India. For their mutinies, see India, 185Y.
SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS in England commenced iTie. Parliaments
had been triennial from 1688 to that date.
SERVIA. A principality nominally subject to Turkey, south of Hungary. The
Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about a. d. 640,
The Emperor Manuel subjugated them in 1150; but they recovered their in-
depeudt^nce in 1180, and were ruled by princes, generally named Stephen,
till their country was finally subdued by the Sultan Mahomet II. in 1459.
Population in 1854, 985,000.
SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the Apostle
John was commanded to write the epistle contained in the 2d and 3d chapters
of his Revelation, viz. : Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Phila-
delphia, and Laodicea, a. d. 96.
1. Ephesus. Paul founded the church
here, a. n. 57, and ui a. d. 59, was
in great danger from a tumult creat-
ed by Demetrius. Ephesus was in
a ruinous state even in the time of
Justinian (a. d. 627), and etill re-
mains so.
2. Smyrna. Now an important com
mercial city and seaport of Ionia.
Poly carp, its first bishop, suffered
martyrdom, A. d. 175.
3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom
of the same name, founded by Pl-iil-
etserus, b. c. 283, and part of Bithy
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Ill
6. Philadelphia. Was bnilt by Attains Phila-
delphtis, king of Pergamos (about b. c.
159, 1S8) ; was taken bv Bajazet I. A. d.
1390. It is noAV called Allali Shehr, " The
city of God, " and is a miserable town of
3000 iiouhes.
7. Landicea. In Phrygia near Lydia. has
suftertd much from earthquakes. It is
now a deserted place called Eskehissar.
" The old Castle."
nia. It was renowned for its libra-
ry. Attalus III., the last king, be-
queathed his kingdom to the Roman
people, B. c. 133. Ic is still an im-
portant place called Bergamo. Parch-
ment is said to have been invented here.
4. Thyatiro. Now a mean town of 2000
houses, called Akhissar, " "White Castle."
5. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia,
the kingdom of CrcBsus (b. c. 560), is xiow
a miserable village, named Sart.
SEWING-MACHINE. The practical sewing-machine was the invention of Elias
Howe, an American mechanic. These machines are all of American origin.
Saydn. To America unquestionably belongs the honor of giving to the
world the first practical sewing-machiiic. Here also, it has received its fullest
development, Mr. Howe's patent was granted in 1846. Very iittle advance
was made for the next six vears. Since that period the sales of reliable ma-
chines have been as follows : 185;:;, 2,509 : 1854, 4,469 ; 1855, 3,515 ; 1856,
V,225; 1857,12,715; 1858, 17,589; 1859,46,245. The machine has been
improved, and adapted to all branches of sewing. Indeed it has revolution-
ized, and developed every department of needlework ; introduced new
branches of industry ; rendered healihful, pleasant, and profitable an employ-
ment hitherto proverbially unhealthful, and proved itself the most beneficial
invention of the age. In the domestic world it ranks as do railroads and
telegraphs in the commercial. The importance of this invention to the
manufacturing interests of the U. States was estimated in 1860 at $342,000,-
000 annually. The following table exhibits the economy of the sewing ma-
chine in stitching the various parts of the following garments.
BY MACHINE. BT HAKB.
Uours. Minutes. Eoutr. Minutes.
Gentlemen's shirts 1 16 14 26
Frock coats 2 38 ..^ 16 35
Satin vests 1 14 7 19
Silk dress 1 13 8 2J
Merino dress 1 4 8 27
SHAKESPEARE'S NATIVE PLACE, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick. Shake-
speare was born at Stratford, April 23, 1564, and died on his natal day, 1616.
Shakespeare festival was held at Stratford, April 23, 1886. In 1847, a number
of pei\sons of distinction interested themselves for the preservation of the
house in which Shakespeare was born, then actually set up for sale. In the
end Shakespeare's house Avas sold at the auction mart in the city of Loudon,
where it was " knocked down " to the United Committee of London and
Stratford for the large sum of £3,000, Sept. 16, 1847. In 1856, a learned
oriental scholar, John Shakespeare, no relation to the poet, gave £2,500 to
purchase the adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in order to ensure
the poet's house from the risk of fire,
SHEEP, U. S. They have generally been reared to supply mutton rather than
wool. Of late, however, much attention has been paid to breeding them for
their value in producing wool. The number of sheep in 1850 in the U. S. was
21,728,000; in 1860,22,471,000. Ohio, New York, and Indiana, produced
the most. Cahfornia, in 1860, had 1,075,000 sheep ; in 1867, 3,000,000. The
ravages among sheep by dogs is very great. In 1866 about 500,000, worth
$2,000,000, were killed by dogs. 12 merino ewes from Westminster, Ver-
mont, took the first two premiums at the Agricultural Exhibition at Hamburg.
in 1863, against all the best breeds of England, France, Saxony, Prussia, and
112
Silesia. They were sold for |5,000 to a Count of Silesia. This result, svtr
prising to Americans, gave a new impetus to sheep-raising in the U. S.
SHIBBOLETH. The word by which the followers of Jophthah tested their
opponents, the Ephrainiites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 b. c. Judges,
eh. xii. The term is now applied to any party watchword or dogma.
SHIPPING OF THE U. S. (p. 524.) Tonnage at different periods.
Yfit'rs. Tonnage.
1861 5,539,813
1862 5,112,165
1863 5,126 081
1864 4,986,081
Years. Tonnage.
1865 (old) 3,516,787
" (new) 1,579,994
1866 (old) 942,299
" (new) 3,368,479
The above table shows the loss of American shipping, or its transfer to for-
eign flags during the rebellion. The total tonnage of the United States,
June 30, 1858, was 5, 049, 80S tons ; of which registered for foreign trade,
2,499,741 ; enrolled and licensed, 2,502,086 ; steam navigation, 729,390. In-
crease for the year, 108,965 tons. In 1860, the tonnage of the U. S. was
5,353,868 tons. In the same year there were built 212,892 tons. Amount of
licensed tonnage in 1866, 2,256,947 tons. Since the year 1860, American
ship-building has greatly declined. In November 1866, there was but one
vessel in the course of construction in New York City, and but two in Boston.
This is due to the great cost of material and labor in seaboard cities. Ships
which cost $100 per ton in N. Y., cost only $60 in the same currency in the
British Provinces (1867). In 1860, two-thirds of American imports were
carried in American ships ; in 1866 nearly three-fourths in foreign vessels.
Number of ship-carpenters in the U. S. in 1860, 13,392. Before the
war the Stars and Stripes led the carrying trade of the world. Not
only was there a larger tonnage afloat under our flag than under
any other, but American ships had the preference for enterprise, speed, and
care of cargo, which gave them the lead in every port and on every ocean.
The entire tonnage of Great Britain in 1861 was 4,806,826 tons; and that of
the United States, 5,539,813 tons. In the trade of this country we kept the
lead without the assistance of discriminating legislation. During the five
years ending with 1861, the carrying trade ,of New York amounted tc
$1,644,000,000, of which over $1,000,000,000 was done under the Americar<
flag, leaving but little more than half that amount for the flags of all other
nations on the globe. With the advent of vvar there came a disastrous
change. The few privateers fitted out in English ports, chiefly through the
assistance of British capitalists, turned the scale against us, and almost the
entire fleet of American vessels was forced to engage in the government
service, lie idle at the dock, or transfer their ownership to a foreign flag.
Thus in the four years which followed, out of |1, 700,000, 000 of foreign trade
for the city of New York, less than $400,000,000 were done under the Stars
and Stripes, while over $1,300,000,000 were carried under foreign flags. In
1865 the entire foreign commerce of New York was $429,100,229, of which
$345,750,622 was in foreign ships, and only $82,349,607 in American ships.
This is a humiliating and exasperating record ; yet in the recent Fenian
movements our government and people refused. to retahate. — Chr. Almanac.
SIAM. A kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siam was re-
discovered by the Portuguese in 1511, and a trade established, in which the
Dutch joined about 1604. A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683 a
Cephalonian Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreigc minister of Siam,
and opened a communication with France ; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in
1865 with a view of converting the king, without effect. Sir John Bowring
BTJPPLEMEIST, 1851-67. 113
succeeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and commerce between England
and Siara, which was signed April 30, 1855, and one with France in August
following. Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in England Oct., 185*7, and
had an audience with the queen to deliver magnificent presents on Nov. 16.
A treaty with the United States negotiated by Townsend Harris, 1859.
SIAMESE TWINS. The two persons known under this name, are twins, born
about 1811, enjoying all the faculties and powers usually possessed by sepa-
rate and distinct individuals, although united together by a short cartilagi-
nous band at the pit of the stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and
were first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an American, Mr.
Eobert Hunter, by whom they were taken to New York, where they were
exhibited. No connexion exists between them but this band, and their prox-
imity seems in no way to inconvenience either. They are perfectly straight
and well made, and walk witli a gait like other people, being perfect in all
their parts, and having all their functions distinct. After having been exhib-
ited for several years in England and the United States, the Siamese Twins
went to Georgia, where they settled on a farm, married sisters, and now
(1860) have several children.
SICILY. See Italy.
SICYON. An ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponnesus, founded it is said
about 2080 b. c. In 252 it became a republic and joined the Achaean league
formed by Aratus. It was the country of Polycletes (436) and Lysippus
(238), the sculptors.
SIDON (Syria). A city of Phoenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by
Cyrus about 537 ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332. See Phoenicia. The
town was taken from the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of
his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under Admiral Stop-
ford and Commodore Charles Napier, Sept. 27, 1840.
SIEGES, (p. 529.) of Kome, 1849; of Sebastopol, 1854-5 ; of Ears, 1855; Delhi,
1857 ; Gaeta, Oct. 1860 to Feb. 13, 1861.
SIKHS. See Punjab and India.
SILISTRIA. A strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken
by the Russians, Sept. 26, 1829, after nine months' siege, and held some years
by them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by the Porte ; but was
eventually returned. In 1854, it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000
strong, under Prince Paskiewich, and many assaults were made. Russians
commenced their retreat, as Omar Pacha was drawing near.
SILVER COIN, U. S. The silver coinage of the U. S. Mint, for one year, end-
ing June 30, 1859, was $7,336,609. From 1793 to 1859, inclusive, it amount-
ed to $122,694,836. In England, in the first ten years of Victoria, the
amount of silver coined was $2,440,614. It is supposed that the silver coin-
age of the world amounts to twelve hundred millions of dollars. The largest
amount coined in any one year in the U. S. was $9,077,571 in 1853. In the
year ending June 30, 1863, the coinage was $1,564,297, in 3,053,150 pieces.
Of this $1,040,638 came from the mint at San Francisco, Cal, and the rest
from Philadelphia and New York. The coinage in 1866, including two and
three-cent pieces, was $1,183,330. A tax of 3 cents per oz. was levied on
silver ware in use, by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Revenue from this
source to the governnient in 1863, $18,372; in 1866, $128,522. This tax re-
moved, 1866.
SIMPLON. A mountain road leading from Switzerland into Italy, constructed
8
114 THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS.
by Napoleon in 1801-*7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes by
galleries through solid rock. It lias eight principal bridges. The number of
workmen employed at one time varied from thirty to forty thousand.
SINKING FUND, in England. First projected by Sir Robert Walpole, whose
act was passed in 1716. The act establishing the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt
was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated surplus of £900,000 in the
revenue was augmented by new taxes to make up the sum of one million,
which Wiis to bo invariably applied to the reduction of the national debt. la
July, 1828, the sinking fund was limited to the actual surplus of revenue.
SINOPE (Sinoue). See Russo-Turkish War.
-SKATING. Invented probably by the Scandinavians who used the sharp-edged
shank hones of sheep or deer, or strips of fir wood, though Glaus Magnus
(d. 1555) mentions the use of iron. At first the skater pushed himself about
by an iron-shod po! >. Wooden skates with iron blades were invented in
Holland. From 1855 to 1861 various means were contrived to improve
skates, by attaching a shoe to the wood, making it wholly of steel, jointing
the wood, setting it on springs, &c. A skate for floors has been invented,
running on small wheels of India rubber.
SLAVERY, (p. 530.) There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 b. c. In Rome
slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admit-
tance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII.
Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their
houses, till by their services or labor they had discharged the sum they owed.
C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish
ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 b. c. Caecilius Isodorus left to his heir 4,116
slaves, 12 B. c. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 1329. — Serfdom^
a modified form of slavery, was abolished by Frederic I. of Prussia, in 1702;
by Christian VII. of Denmark, in 1766, by the Emperor Joseph II. in his
hereditary stdtes in 1781 ; and by Nicholas I. of Russia on the imperial do-
mains, in 1842 : whose successor, Alexander II., effected its total abolition
throughout his empire, amid much opposition (1860-1). In the United
States (p. 532) before the war of independence all the states contained
slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All
men are born free and equal," was declared in the supreme court at
Boston to bar slave holding in that state. Before 1790 the further intro-
duction of slaves had been prohibited in five other states. On July 13,
1787, Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordinance "for the govern
ment of the territory to the N. W. of the Ohio," which contained an ^^unalter-
able " article forbidding slavery or involuntary servitude in the said territory.
After 1800, several of the states prayed without eff'ect to be relieved of this
prohibition. In 1803 Louisiana was purchased, which act was considered by
many as fatal to the constitution. In Feb. 1820, the celebrated Missouri Com-
promise, drawn up by Mr. Clay, was carried, by which slavery was permitted
in that state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to the north of 36° 30'
N. Lat. In 1845 a fresh contest arose between the slave-holders and their
opponents at the annexation of Texas. The utmost the advocates of freedom
could obtain was a similar division to that of Missouri, Dec. 29, 1845. In 1850
another compromise was effected: California was admitted as a free state; but
the Fugitive Slave Act was passed {which see). In 1854 the Missouri compromise
was abrogated with the admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave-holding
states; in the latter of which civil war ensued. Bee Kansas ; United States.
An attempt to create a slave rebellion took place in Virginia, headed by John
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 115
Brown, and failed, in Oct. 1859. Number of slaves in 1850, 3,204,813 ; in
1860, 3,999,283. Upon the secession of the southern states, Mr, A. H. Steph-
-. ens, of Georgia, declared that " slavery " was the corner stone of their confeder-
acy (1861). During the war, slaves wore held to be "contraband of war" by
the U. S. Government. By act of Congress, June 19, 1862, slavery waa
forever excluded from the tcrritoties. Jan. 1863, the great "Emancipation
Proclamation" of President Lincoln was issued, declaring all slaves in the
TebelUous states /ree, on the ground that it was a " fit and necessary war meas-
ure for suppressing such rebellion," Slavery was finally abolished from the
United States by act of Congress, January, 1865, See Constitution.
SLAVE TRADE, U, S. Since 1855 the proposition to reopen the slave trade
has been discussed in several conventions and public assemblies in the
southern states. This infamous traffic is denounced in the "Republican plat-
form" (Chicago, June, I860), and is repudiated also by the congress of the
" Southern Confederacy" (Feb., 1861), but the latter abohshed the death
penalty affixed to its prohibition by the laws of the U, S. In defiance of these
laws a large number of slavers have been fitted out, chiefly in N. Y. and other
northern ports, during the years 1858, '59, '60 ; several have been seized be-
f'. re sailing and many others captured with slaves. Treaty with Great Britain
for further measures against trade in slaves, 186-
SNUFF-TAKING. (p. 623,) In England, in 1858, 2,573,925 lbs, of snuff and
cigars were imported. See Tobacco.
SOCIAL SCIENCE. The British National Association for the Promotion of So-
cial Science originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 1857. Its ob-
ject is to promote improvements in the administration of law, in education, in
public health, and in social economy. It holds annual meetings, and publishes
its proceedings. The first meeting was at Birmingham.
GOCIETIES AND Institutions, Literary and Scientific, in the United States. See
Academies (p. 147).
American Ethnological Society at N. Y. | American Institute (for Agricultxure and
American Oriental Society at New Haven. Useful Arts), N. Y.
American Geographical and Statistical So- National Academy of Sciences 1865,
ciety, N. Y. |
In nearly every State of the Union there is an Historical Society, devoted to
the collection and preservation of historical records, printed and in MS. ; several
of them have published transactions and collections. That of the Mass. Hist,
Soc. comprises about 30 vols. The N. Y, Hist, Soc. has published 6 or 7 vols.
Great Britain, All in the list below are in London, except othherwise stated.
An act was passed Aug. 11,1854, "to afford facilities for the establishment
of Institutions for the promotion of Literature and Science," by grants of land,
&c., and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions are exempt-
ed from the operation of the act.
SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, &C,
Royal Society Charter 1662 Medico-CMrurgical Society
Society of Antiquades ! (Charter 1834) 1805
(Charter 1751) 1717 I London Institution 1805
Society of Dilettanti 17o4
Boyal Society of Eflinburgh
(Charter 1783) 1739
Society of Arts (Charter 1847) 1753
Jioyal Irish Academy Charter 1783
Linncan Society. . .(Charter 1802) 1788
Horticultural Society
(Chartei' 1809) 1804
Gei)log!cal Society. .(Charter 1826) 1807
Koyal Society of Literature
(Charter 1826) 1820
Royal Asiatic Society... .Charter 1823
Mechanics' Institution, London.. .1823
Zoological Society 1826
British Association 1831
Entomological Society 183S
116
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Pharmaceutical Societj' 1841
Philological Society...' 1842
Dublin Philosophical Society 1842
Arcliseological Associatioi: 1843
Archaeolouical Inst itute 1843
Sydenham Society 1843
Etlmological Socieiy 1S43
Syro-Eiiyptian Soc ety 1 844
Eay Society 1844
Cavendish Society 1846
Ilakluyt Society 1 846
Institute of Actuaries 1848
Arundel Society 1849
M eteorologi cal Society 1 851
Photographic Society 1853
Horological Institute 1858
Statistical Society, 1834
Boyal Institute of British Archi-
tects (Charter 1837) 1835
Botanical Society 18o6
Numismatic Society 1836
Electrical Society 1837
Ornithological Society 1837
Royal Agricultural Society 1838
Canide r. Societ y 1838
Royal Botanical Society 1859
Microscopical Society 1839
Ecclesiolo2.ical Society 1839
Parker Soc'ety 1840
Percy Society 1840
London Library 1840
Shakespeaie Society 1840
Chemical Society 1841
SOLFERINO (in Lombar(iy), celebrated as the site ofihe chief struggle on the
great battle of June 24, 1859, between the allied French and Sardinian array
commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the Austrians under General
Hess; the emperor being present. The Austriaus after their defeat at
Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up a position in the
celebrated quadrilateral, and was expected there to await the attack. But
the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Napoleon and the Tus-
cans on the other, induced them to recross the Mincio and take the offV-nsive,
which they did on June 23. The conflict began early the next morming, and
lasted fifteen hours. The French attribute tlie victory to the skill and bravery
of their emperor and the generals M'Mahou and Niel ; the Austrians to the
destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adversaries. The
Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is
said against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers, and
19,311 soldiers ; of the allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiera
killed and wounded. This battle closed the war; preliminaries of peace be-
ing signed at Viha Franca, July 12.
SOUTH CAROLINA, (p. 635.) Population 1850, whites, 274,463 ; free colored,
8,960; slaves, 384,984 ; 1860, whites, 303,186; slaves, 407,185. Ordinance
delaring " Secession " from the United States, passed Dec. 20, 1860. The
" Star of the West " with U. S. troops for Fort Sumter, fired on and repulsed
from the harbor, Jan. 1861. Gen Sherman marched unopposed through the
state early in 1865. B. Perry appointed Provisional Governor June 30, 1866.
Act of Secession repealed Sept. 16, 1865, by the State Legislature. Debt of
the State in Sept. 1866, exclusive of past due coupons and military debt,
$4,426,440. South Carolina included in the " Second Military District," by
act of Congress 1867, and Gen. Sickles appointed Governor. In Sept. 1867,
he was removed by the President, and succeeded by Gen. Canby.
SPAIN, (p. 537.)
Narvaez exiled to Vienna. . .Jan. 1863
General O'Donne'l, Concha, and
others, bai.ished Jan. 18, 1854
Peace restored ; the d(;graded
generals reinstated, &c. ; Espar-
tero forms au administration,
July 31, 1854
The queen mother impeached;
Bhe quits Spain Aug. 58, 1854
Don Carlos dies March 10, 1855
Resignation of Espartero ; new
cabinet formed headed by Mar-
shal O'Donnell ; insurrection
in Madrid, July 14; O'Donnell
and the government troops subdue
the insurgents; the national guard
suppressed July 15, 16, 1856
O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Nar-
vaez becomes minister Oct. 12, 1856
Joint Preiich and S] anish expedition
against Cochin China announced
Dec. 1, 1858
War with Morocco...... Nov. and Dec, 1859
0'Donne]l commands tlie army in Afri-
ca ; indecisive conflicts reported;
battle at Castillijos : a Spanish " B?-
laklava" charge; Jan. 1 ; the Spa-
niards near Tetuan Jan. 1860
SUPPLEMEis'T, 1851-67. 117
SPEAKERS, HoTTSE of Represektatives. See Administrations. Of thb
House of Commons, British. Peter de Montfort, afterwards killed at the
battle of Evesham, was the first Speaker, 45 Hen. III. 1260.
E,t. Hon. James Abercromby (after -
wards Baron Dunferml ne). . .Feb. 19, 1835
Rt. Hon. Cbarlee Shaw Lefcvre
(afterwards Viscount Evereley)
March 27, 1839
Et. Hon. John Everlyn Denison
(PRESENT Speaker, 1867) April 30, 1857
E,t. Hon. Henry Addington (after-
ward Visct. Sidmouth..Jan. 22, 1801
Sir John Mitford (afterwards Ba-
ron Redesdale) Eeb. 11, 1801
Et. Hon. Charles Abbot (after-
Avards Lord Colchester. Feb. 10, 1802
Rt. Hon. Charles Manners Sutton
(afterwards Viscount Canter-
bury) June 2, 1817
SPECTATOR. The first number of this periodical appeared on March 1, 1711 ;
the last Aug. 2, 1715. The papers by Addison have one of the letters clio
at the end. The most of the other papers are by Sir Richard Steele ; a few
by Hughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and others.
STAGE-COACH. Stage-coaches were quite general in England about 1660, suc-
ceeding a kind of wagon, which had been introduced about 1564. They
often travelled only 30 miles a day.
STAMP-DUTIES, England, (p. 640.) In June, 1855, the stamp-duty on news-
papers as such was totally abolished ; the stamp on them being thenceforth
used for postal purposes only. In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 news-
paper stamps were issued ; in the same months, 1855, only 6,870,000.
STARS, (p. 541.) Maps of the Stars were published in London by the Soc. for
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1839; and those by the Royal Prussian
Academy were completed in 1859.
STEAM-BOAT EXPLOSIONS. See Wrecks. Steamer Pennsylvania, on the
Mississippi, boilers burst, 10 lives lost, June 3, 1858. Steamer Princess for
New Orleans, boilers burst, 25 k. 35 w., Feb. 27, 1859. By 21 inlana steam-
boat accidents during 1860, 242 lives were lost, and 146 persons injured. To-
tal in 7 years, 213 accidents, 2,304 killed, 956 injured. It thus appears that
while the accidents and injuries by railroads are about four times as numerous
as those by steam-boat, the deaths are but half as many.
STEAM-BOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation,
gives the following aggregate of the number of steam-boats built in the
United States since 1824 — thirty years — in periods of five years each :
From 1824 to 1829 194
" 1829 to 1834 ...S04
" 1834 to 1839 504
" 1839 to 1844 522
From 1844 to 1849 960
" 1849 to 1854 1203
Total 3687
Since 1860, steamship building has fallen off very materially (except for
inland navigation). In 1860, the whole registered "steam tonnage" built in
the U. S., was the small amount of 97,296 tons ; in 1865 it decreased to 69,500
tons. See Shipping.
STEAM NAVIGATION, (p. 542.) The Collins line of steamers from New
York to Liverpool, commenced running April, 1850. The Pacific of this line
crossed the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours. May, 1851. The Adriatic, the larg-
est of the line, first left N. Y. Nov. 23, 1857. The City of Glasgow, first of
a line between Philadelphia and Liverpool, arrived Jan. 1, 1861. In 1865,
there were 12 steamship companies employed in the tr^insit between Europe
and the U. S., none of which were American! The diflBculty is that steam-
ships cannot be constructed in America to the same advantage as in England-
See Shipping.
STEEL PENS came into use in England about 1820, when the first gross of
118
- tbrpe-split pons was sold wholesale for £7 4s. In 1830 the price was 8s., and
in 1863, 6s. A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross ; the cheapest sort at
2d. ; Birmingham produces about 1,000 million pens per annum. "Women and
children are principiiUy employed in the manufacture. In the U, S. the
manufacture of this article has been successfully introduced since 1850, and
brought to considerable degree of perfection. Gold pens are also made here
extensively, and fully equal to any imported.
STEREOCHROMY. A mode of painting in which water-glass (an alkaline solu-
tion of flint, silex) serves as the connecting medium between the color and
the substratum. Its invention is ascribed to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich
on March 5, 1856. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and Echter exist in
the Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich.
STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and skopein, to see). An optical instrument,
for representing in apparent relief natural objects, &c., by uniting into one
image two plane representations of these objects as seen by each eye sepa-
rately. The first w^as constructed and exhibited by Prof. Charles Wlieatstone
in 1838. Since 1854, stereoscopes have been greatly improved, and are now
exceedingly cheap. In the U. S. the production both of stereoscopic picture?
and instruments has increased enormously (1859-67), and these articles form
an important and popular article of trade.
STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennec, of Paris, by rolling a quire of paper into a
kind of cylinder, and applying one end to the patient's chest and the other to
his own ear, perceived the action of the heart in a much more distinct manner
than by the immediate application of the ear. This led to his inventing the
stethoscope, or " breast-explorer ;" the principle of which, now termed
*' auscultation," was known by Hippocrates.
STORMS. In Gulf of Mexico, 173 persons lost on Last Island (a summer re-
sort), Aug. 10, 1856.
STREET RAILWAYS, in England, previously established by G. F. Train in New
York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, Aug. 30, I860, and at
Bayswater, London, March 23, 1861. A street railway bill was rejected by the
House of Commons in April, 1861. Several of these railways existed for a
time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but were all taken up in 1862.
STRIKES. The tailors of London struck for increase of wages in April, 1834.
The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place in 1853. A general
strike among the shoe-makers of New England, continued for several months,
1859-60.
STRYCHNIA. A poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 1818 by Pelletier
and Caventou in the seeds of the strychnus ignatia and nux vomica, and also
in the upas poison. It is so virulently poisonous that half a grain blown into
the ihroat of a rabbit occasions death in four minutes ; its operation .s accom-
panied by lock-jaw. Much attention was given to strychnia in 1856, during
the trial of Palmer for the murder of Cook.
SUEZ CANAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red Sea and the
Bay of Pclnsium was brought forward by M. De Lesseps in 1857. The
Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, and Austrian governments are in favor
of the scheme, which is at present opposed by the British. The cost is esti-
. mated at £8,000,000.
SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH. Originated with Prof. Morse, who first tested it
STTPPLEMENT, 1S51-67. 119
in New York harbor, 1842. The first suggestion of Atlantic telegraph ia
said to have been made by him in 1843. Professor Charles Wheatstone in
1840 drew plans of a projected submarine telegraph between Dover and
Calais. In 1847 Mr. J. W. Brett submirted a similar plan to Louis Philippe
without success ; but in 1850 he obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to
make a trial. This took place on Aug, 28, 1850, but failed. New arrange-
ments were soon made, and on a scale of greater magnitude ; and the tele-
graph was opened, Nov. 13, 1851. On that day, the opening and clo.^ing
prices of the funds in Paris were known on the London Stock Exchange with-
in business hours. Guns were fired at Dover by means of electric sparks
communicated from Calais. In 1860 there were in operation 1,954 miles of
submarine telegraph, exclusive of the Atlantic. Atlantic. A plan to unite
Europe and America by the electric telegraph was attenipted to be carried
out Dy a company in 1857 and 1858, chiefly promoted by Cyrus W. Field, of
New York ; with the concurrence of the British and American governmenta.
2,500 miles of wire were manufactured and tested in March, 1857. The lay-
ing it down commenced at Yalentia, in Ireland, on Aug. 5. The vessels em-
ployed were the Niagara and Susquehanna (American vessels), and the Leop-
ard and Agamemnon (British vessels). After sailing a few miles the cable
snapped. This was soon repaired ; but on Aug. 11, after 300 miles of wire
had been paid out it snapped again, and the vessels returned to Plymouth. In
1858 a second attempt to lay the cable failed, through a violent storm on
June 20-21 ; but the third voyage was successful. On Aug. 5, the junction
between the two continents was completed by the laying down of 2,050 miles
of wire from Yalentia in Ireland to Newfoundland. Tlie first two messages,
on Aug. 5, were from the Queen of England to the President of the United
States, and his reply. The event caused great rejoicing in both countries ;
but unfortunately the insulation of the wire became gradually more faulty,
and on Sept, 4 the power of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased. The
grand celebration in New York of the (supposed) completion of this enter-
prise, Sept. 1, 1858. In 1865, another attempt to lay a cable was made. A
new one was manufactured 2,300 nautical miles long, and 2^ times stronger
than the old one. Diameter, a little more than an inch. It was coiled in the
mammoth ship Great Eastern. The expedition started July 23, 1865 from
Yalentia Bay. 1,200 miles were successfully laid when suddenly the cable
parted, in water 2^ miles deep. 4 attempts to grapple it were made, but the
cable could not be raised to the surface without much stronger wire ropes.
The ships returned to England, but the enterprise was not given up, A new
company was formed at once, called the " Anglo-American Telegraph Com-
pany": capital, £600,000, A more perfect cable was constructed, and the
Great Eastern started again with it, July 13, 1866, On the 27th she reached
Heart's Content, Newfoundland, with the cable in perfect order. The r.ews
•was received with great enthusiasm in both countries, and ovations tendered
to Cyrus W. Field, the American, to whose energy the success was in great
part due. The Great Eastern returned to the spot where the cable of 1865
parted, and after many attempts it was discovered Sept, 2, 1866, and con-
tinued to the American side : making two cables across the Atlantic; one of
the cables was injured near the Newfoundland shore in May, 1867, but was
soon repaired, and both cables have now been in constant use for 13 months.
(Aug. 1867.) The cable from Key "West to Cuba successfully laid
August, 1867, by a New York Company. More than sixty submarine
cables have been completed to this date, the most important are these :
120
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
Time
Laying.
1851...
1853...
1854...
1855'.*.*.
1856...
1857...
1858*.!!
1859...
«
1860".'.*
a
1861*.'.'.
1862'.'.*.
1863*.'.'
1865'.*.'.
1867....
Length
Geographical Position. in
Miles.
Dover to Calais 27
Dover to Ot-tend 60i
.Sweden to Denmark 12
Italy to Corsica 110
Italj'to Sicily 5
Newfoundland to Cape Breton 85
Across Norway Fjords 49
Cevlon to Hiiidostan 30
England to Holland 140
England to Hanover 280
South Australia to King's Island 140
Ceylon to Hindostan 30
England to Denmark 368
Folkstone to Boulogne 24
Malta to Sicily 60
Liverpool to Holyhead 25
Acioss Bass's Strait 240
Dacca to Pegu 116!
Barcelona to Port Mabon 180
Cape San Antonio to Iviza 76
Toulon to Corsica 195
Holyhead to Howth (near Dublin) 64
Malta to Alexandria 1,535
New Haven (England) to Dieppe 80
Fortress Monroe to ('ape Charks 23
England to Holland ISO
Sardinia to Sicily 211
Persian Griilf to Kurruchee (Hindostan). 1,450
Sweden to Prussia 55
Corsica to Leghorn 66
Across Puget Sound 32
Valeiitla to Newfoundland 1,804
Valentia to Newfoundland (completed
from 1S65, about) 1,864
Newfoundland to Cape Breton 85
Key West to Havana 191
Con-
ductors.
4
'Time in Opera
iion. to July,
186 1 about.'
16 years.
14 "
14 «
13 "
12 '«
11 "
10 "
10 «'
9 «•
8 "
8 "
8 «
8 "
8 «
7 "
7 "
7 "
6 « ♦
6 "
6 "
6 "
5 "
5 «
4 "
6 '•
2 '«
18 montbB.
14 '«
11 "
SUGAR. The following is the official statement of the amount of sugar im
ported into this country from 1851 to 1860:
Value of Sugar. Duty paid.
1851 $13,478,700 $4,043,600
1852 13,977,300 4,183,200
1853 14,168,300 4,250,500
1854 11,604,600 3,481,300
1855 13,284,600 3.989,400
1856 21,255,100 6,"388,500
Value of Sugar.
1857 $41,596,200
1858 18.9i6,600
1859 28,345 300
1860 28,931,100
Dutv paid-
$12,478,800
4,557,200
6,802,800
6,943,400
$57,118,700
Total Ten years.. $205, 567,800
The sugar crop of Louisiana last year was valued at $24,988,000. The
average for five years has been $17,000,000 (1861). In New York state in
1865, 9,635,200 pounds of maple-sugar were produced. Pennsylvania pro-
duces 2,500,000 pounds a year. The sorghum-sugar plant has lately been in-
troduced from China, and sugar produced from it in considerable quantities.
Sugar from beet-root is also pronounced a success. 10,000 pounds were
manufactured in Livingston county, Illinois, in 1867.
SUNDAY LAWS. (p. 547.) In the state of New York, the laws against selling
liquors, and against certain theatrical performances on Sundays, have caused
much discussion, and some resistance, chiefly on the part of the German and
Irish population, but are still enforced (1867).
SUNDAY SCHOOLS. See Education and Sabbath Schools.
SURNAMES. See Sirnames. (p. 548.)
SUSPENSION BRIDGES, (p. 548.) See Bridges.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67.
121
SWEDEN, (p. 549.)
Death of Bernadotte, whose son
Oscar, ascends the throne,
Marcus, 1844
Treaty of alliance with England
and France Nov. 21, 1855
Banishment decreed against
Catholic converts from Luther-
aniem Oct. 1857,
SWITZERLAND.
Declaration of neutrality in the '
coming Italian war. March 14, 1850
Mutiny and punishment of the
Swiss mercenary troops at
Demonstration in favor of
Italian Independence.. Dec. 17
Charles XV. (born May 3, 1826),
the PRESENT (1861) king of
Sweden and Norway... July 8,
Heiress : Princess Louisa, born
Oct. 31 1851
185C
1859
Naples ; the confederation for-
bid foreign enlistment.
July and Aug. 1851
TARIFF. A schedule of duties charged by government on goods imported. The
British tariff in 1840 comprised 1,042 articles; the number was reduced (by
s*ir Robert Peel) in 1845 and 1847. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; the
number was greatly reduced in 1860. See Customs Duties.
TAXATION. U. S. Before the rebellion the revenue of the U. S. general Govern-
ment was raised wholly from customs and sale of lands. Subsequently, to
support the war, direct taxation was imposed. The direct taxes in 1865,
amounted to $211,129,529. See Rmenue^ Debt, &c.
TEA, in England, (p. 554.)
Imported in 1850 50,112,384 lbs. I Imported inl857 69,116,000 lbs.
" "1856 86,200,414*' | « "1858 74,222,000"
The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850, amounted to £5,471,641,
and the amount in 1852 was £5,902,433. The duty upon tea had been grad-
ually reduced from 2s. 2\d. to one shilling only per pound, in 1858. In
United States. Value imported in the years ending June 30,
1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859.
$6,930,986 $6,893 891 $5,757,860 $6,777,295 $7,306,916
Amount consumed in U. S.,
1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866.
25,520,000 lbs. 27,468,600 lbs. 26,906,365 lbs. 23,137,546 lbs. 29,953,433 lbs. 29,643,187 lbs,
TELEGRAPH. See Electric Tel. and Submarine Tel.
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES, (p. 555.) Legislation against intemperance in the
U. S. has been attempted in several States. The " Maine Law " passed chiefly
through the influence of Neal Dow, 1851, was adopted essentially by Connec-
ticut (1856), New York (1856) and Massachusetts (1856). It was strongly
enforced in the latter State, although vigorously opposed by many, 1866-7.
It was repealed in Maine, 1856.
TENNESSEE, (p. 556.) Population in 1850, 763,154, and 239,460 slaves; in
1860, 859,528, and 287,112 slaves. Ordinance of " Separation " passed May
6, 1861. The eastern part of the State was noted for its loyalty to the Union
during the war. State debt in 1865, $1,213,700. At the State 'election , Aug.
1, 1867, Governor Brownlow, of the " Union" or Radical ticket, was re-elected
by a majority of nearly 50,000, chiefly made up by the negroes, who voted in
this State for the first time.
TEXAS, (p. 567.) Population in 1860, 416,000, and 184,956 slaves. Ordinance
of Secession from the United States passed Jan. 1861. Debt m 1865, $8,192-
000. After the war, Gen. A. J. Hamilton was appointed Provisional
122 THE world's peogeess.
Governor, by Pres. Lincoln : but at the first election after the restoration,
(1866) a Secessionist, (Throckmorton), was elected. Texas included in 5th
Military District under Sheridan, March, 1867.
THEOLOGY (from the Greek Tlieos, God). The science which treats of the
nature and attributes of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner ia
which they may be discovered. It is generally divided into two heads. 1.
Inspired (including the Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c,); 2. Natural ;
which latter Lord Bacon calls the first part of philosophy. Butler's Analogy
of Keligion (1736), and Paley's Natural Theology (1802), are eminent books
on the latter subject. The "Summa Totius Theologiae" by Thomas Aquinas
(born about 1224), a standard Koman CathoUc work, was printed with com-
mentaries, &c., in 1596.
THESSALONICA. A city in Macedonia (now Salonica). Here Paul preached a.
n. 53 ; and to the church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In consequence
of seditions, a frightful massacre of the inhabitants took place iu 390, by order
of the emperor Theodosius Thessalonica partook of the changes of the
Eastern empire. It was sold to the Venetians by the emperor Andronicus in
1425; taken by the Turks in 1430; burnt July 11, 1856.
TIARA. The triple crown of the pope, indicative of his civil rank, as the keys
are of his ecclesiastical jurisdiction ; and on the death of a pope, his arms are
presented with the tiara alone, without the keys. The ancient tiara was a
high round cap. Pope Damascus II. first caused himself to be crowned with
a tiara, a. d. 1053. John XIX. was the first who encompassed the tiara with
a crown, 1276. Boniface VIII. added a second, 1295; and Benedict XII.
formed the tiara about 1334.
TIMBER-BENDING. Apparatus was invented for this purpose by M. T. Blan-
chard, of Boston (U. S.), for which a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhi-
bition of 1855. A company was formed for its application in England in
1856.
TIMES NEWSPAPER, London. On Jan. 13, 1785, Mr. John Walter published
the first number of the Daily Universal Register^ price 2-|c?. In 1788, the
name of the paper was changed to the Times. Dr. Stodart editor in 1812. Dr.
Barnes was the next editor. On Nov. 28, 1814, the Times was first printed
by steam power. The powerful articles contributed by Edward Sterling gained
the paper the name of the Thunderer. In 1841 the Times vfa.% instrumental
in detecting and exposing a scheme organized by a company, to defraud by
forgery all the influential bankers of Europe. This brought on the proprietors
an action for libel. The jury found the charge to be true, giving a verdict of
one farthing damages, but the judge refused costs. Subscriptions were set on
foot in all parts of Europe to reimburse the proprietors for their immense out-
lay in defending the action. This they firmly declined ; and the money was
expended in establishing Times Scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge, and at
Christ's Hospital, and other schools ; marble tablets also, commemorating the
event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in other places. These were the
greatest honors ever conceded to a newspaper.. In Oct., 1845, the Tiynes ex-
press was for the first time conveyed to India overland, by the agency of Lieut.
Waghorn. Of the number of the Times for Nov. 19, 1852, containing the life
of the Duke of Wellington, 69,000 were sold — the ordinary number being then
86,000 ; the present circulation is stated to vary from 47,000 to 56,000. In
1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their special correspondent to
the seat of war in the Crimea, and in 1857 to India, and in 1861 to the United
States.
SUPPLEMENT, 1851 -6 7. 123
TITHES (p. 560). Abolished in England, 1860.
TOBACCO. In a recent lecture in Eogland, the Dean of Carlisle stnted that in
1865, 33,000,000 pounds of tobacco were consumed in that country, at an ex-
pense of $40,000,000, over $26,000,000 of which went in duties to the govern^
ment In 1821 the average annual consumption was llf ounces to each
person ; in 1853 it had risen to 19 ounces. In France much more is consumed
in proportion to the population, the emperor clearing |20,000.,000 annually by
the government monopoly. In Denmark the annual consumption averages '70
ounces to each person, in Belgium, 73 ounces, and in America, the average is
vastly higher. It is calculated that 2,000,000 tons, or 4,480,000,000 pounds
of tobacco are annually used in the world, at a cost suflBcient to pay for all the
bread corn used in Great Britain. It is boasted that 100,000,000 of the human
race are smokers. In New York city it was stated that there were in 1860,
about 200,000 smokers, each using two cigars daily, making, at an average of
four cents each, the sum of $16,000 daily, or $5,840,000 a year, wasted in
smoking in this city alone. The cost in 186*7 would be at least double. There
■were, in 1860, about 900,000,000 cigars manufactured in N. Y., amounting, at
the same price, to $36,000,000. The total exports of tobacco from the United
States in 39 years (1821-59), amounted to $339,274,520. The production of
tobacco in the northern states has increased wonderfully since 1850. In 1850,
N. Y. State produced 83,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 5,765,000 lbs. ; Conn, produced
in 1850, 1,267,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 6,000,000 lbs. The exports of tobacco from
the U. S. in 1862, amounted to $12,325,356, being almost entirely from the
north. See Treasury Statistics in appendix.
TRACTARIANISM. This term is applied to certain opinions on church matters
propounded in the " Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers were pub-
lished, in England, 1833-41. The principal writers were the Revs. Dr. E.
Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, and I. Williams.
TRANSYLVANIA. An Austrian province ; was part of the ancient Dacia. In
1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the Emperor Ferdinand I.
by the aid of the Turks, His successors ruled with much difficulty till 1699,
when the Emperor Leopold I. finally incorporated Transylvania into the Aus-
trian dominions.
TRAVELLING IN England. In 1707, it took in summer one day, in winter
nearly two days, to travel from London to Oxford (46 miles). In 1817, the
journey was accomplished in six or seven hours. By the Great Western Rail*
way express (63 miles) it is done in 1^ hour.
TREATIES, (p. 565.)
Paris, treaty of (and Eussian war)
April, 1856
Paris (settlement of Neufchatel
affair) May 26, 1857
Zurich (Austria, France, and Sardi-
nia) Nov. 10, 1859
Constantinople, treaty of May 8, 1854
"Wastiington, Reciprocity treaty be-
tween Great Britain and the TJ. S.,
respecting Newfoundland fishery,
commerce, &c July 2, 1854
Of the U. S. (p. 566.)
Treaty with China signed at Tien
Tsin June 13, 1858
Treaty with Japan, negotiated by
Com. Perry, signed March 31, 1854
Another treaty with Japan, by Town-
send Harris, signed June 17, 1857
TRIALS, TJ. S. Noted trial of Aaron Burr, on the charge of treason against
the U. S. in preparing an expedition against Mexico, held at Richmond, May,
Treaty with Mexico, negotiated by Mr.
McLane, but rejected by the tj. S.
Senaie I860
Treaty with Russia for purchase of
Sitka, ratified June 1867
124
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
1807. Burr acquitted. Trial of John Brown for treason against Virginia,
(See Harper''s Ferry). The assassins of Lincoln tried at Washington, 1865.
Trial of Capt. Wirz, for cruelty to Union Prisoners at Andersonville, 1865 :
he was convicted and executed shortly after. Jeff Davis, President of the
Southern Confederacy, admitted to bail in the sura of $100,000, by U. S. Dis
trict Judge Underwood, Richmond Va., May, 1867, to appear before him on
the charge of treason at the succeeding term of the Court. Trial of John
H. Surratt, for complicity in the murder of Pres. Lincoln, lasting about thirty
days, ended Aug., 1867, by the disagreement of the jury.
TRIESTE. An Austrian port on the Adriatic, declared a free port in 1750. It
was held by the French in 1717, 1797, and 1805. Since the establishment of
the overland mail to India, it has risen to great commercial importance
TROWSERS. Distinguished by looseness from " pantaloons," which were orig-
inally cut to sit tight to the leg from thigh to ankle. Pantaloons began to
supersede small clothes during the French revolution ; the loose trowser began
to be worn after 1815 ; and have become as decidedly a normal form of gar-
ment, as were the " breeches " of the last century.
TRUCE OF GOD {Treuga Dei). A terra given to a cessation of the private feuds
and conflicts so general, during the middle ages, all over Europe. The clergy
strenuously exerted their influence for the purpose. A synod at Roussilon, a.
D. 1027, decreed that none should attack his enemy between Saturday even-
ing (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). Similar regula-
tions were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednesday being
chosen for the time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of
the Church, especially the Lateran Council, in 1179.
TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Suspensio^ Bridge, then the
most wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, was constructed about
a mile southward of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge in Wales. The Con-
way Tubular Bridge (1846-8) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and there-
fore requires no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Ste-
phenson and Mr. Fairbairn. The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world
is that over the St Lawrence, Canada (see Bridges).
TUNIS. In July 1856, the Bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms.
The Bey died Sept. 22, 1859 ; and no disturbance ensued on the accession of
his successor.
TURKEY, (p. 571.)
Christians admitted to oflB.ce in Tur-
key June, 1849
The Turkish government refuses to
surrender the Hungarian and Po-
lish refugees on the joint demand
of Russia and Austria Sept. 16,1849
Russia suspends intercourse with
the Porte Nov. 12, 1849
Treaty with France respecting the
Holy Places {which see) .... Feb. 13, 1852
Russian manifesto against Turkey
June 26, 1853
War declared against Eussia (see
Eusso- Turkish War) Oct. 5, 1853
Lord Stratford de Redcliflfe, many
years English ambassador at Con-
stantinople, returned to EngLmd,
Jan.; he is succeeded by Sir. H.
Lytton Bulwer ; accredited July 12, 1858
Massacre of Christians at Jedda
July 25, 1858
Turkish financial reforms begun, Aug. 1858
The first Turkish railway opened
(from Aden to Smyrna) ... Sept. 19, 1858
Base coinage called in ; a fictitious
Turkish coinage begun at Birming-
ham, and is suppressed Oct. 1858
Q-reat agitation for financial reform
Oct. 186£
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 125
TUSCANY, (p. 512.)
The Tuscan army demand alliance
■with the Sardinians ; the grand-
duke refuses, and departs to Bo-
logna ; the King of Safdiuia is pro-
claimed dictator, and a provi-
sional government formed, April
27 ; the king assumes the com-
mand of the army, but declines
the dictatorship April 30, 1859
Prince X;ipoleoii arrives at Leghorn,
addresses the Tuscans, and erects
his standard May 23, 1859
The Tuscan constituent assembly
meets Aug. 11, 1859
It declares against recalling the
house of Lorraine, and votes for
annexation to Sardinia Sept. 1859
Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan,
elected governor-general of Cen-
tral Italy ; he declines, but recom-
mends Buoucompagni, Nov., who
is accepted by the Tuscans, Dec. 8, 1859
The Grand-Duke Leopold IL abdi-
cates in favor of his son Ferdinand
July 21, 1859
TYROL. The eastern part of ancient Rhetia, nowa province, of the Austrian
empire (to the north of Bavaria). It was ceded to the house of Hapsbiug in
1359, by Margaret, the heii^ess of the last Count Tyrol. The province became
an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial house, which
branch came to the throne in the person of Maximilian 11. in 1618. The
French conquered the Tyrol in 1808 and united it to Bavaria ; but in 1809 an
insurrection broke out, headed by the courageous Andrew Hofer, an inn-keeper.
He drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, but laid down his arms at the treaty
of Vienna. He was subsequently accused of treason and shot by the French
at Mantua, Jan. 28, 181(). His family was ennobled by Austria, and a statue
to him was erected at Innspruck in 1834.
UNITARIANS, U. S. Number of churches in the U. S. in 1863, 339 ; minis-
ters, 263 ; members estimated at 30,000,
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, (p. 575.) See America ; and the separate
states, JIaine, &c. See also Chronological Tables, p. 156, &;c.
POPULATION.
1776 2,616,300 11810 7,239,903 11851 23.347,884
1800 5,300,000 ll83l 12,856,171 1 1860 31,649,869
UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE. One of the six points of the charter in England
(see Chartists), was adopted by the French in the election of their president
in 1851, and of their emperor in 1852.
UNIVERSITIES in the U. S. See Colleges. Those of Harvard, at Cambridge,
Mass. ; Yale, at New Haven ; Brown, at Providence, and Michigan, at Ann
Arbor, Mich., and Virginia, at Charlottesville, are the chief institutions called
Universities, but they differ little from the other colleges.
URUGUAY. A republic in South America, declared its independence, Aug. 25,
1825, recognized, Oct. 4, 1828. The President, G. A. Pereyra, elected in
1856, was succeeded in 1860 by B. P. Berro. A civil war broke out in conse-
quence of the invasion of the ex-President, General Flores, June 26, 1863.
In Feb. 1865, Flores became provisional president. Population in 1865, about
350,000.
V
VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, in the North Pacific Ocean, near the coast of Ore-
gon. Settlements were made here by the English in 1781 ; which were seized
by the Spaniards in 1789 ; but restored. By a treaty between the British
government and that of the United States in 1846 this island was secured to
the former. Victoria, the capital, was founded in 1857.
VEHMIC TRIBUNAL {Vehmgerichte). Secret tribunals established in West-
126 THE world's progress.
phalia to maintain religion and the public peace. Their proceedings were
enveloped in a profound mystery. They had their origin in the time of
Charlemagne ; and rose to importance about 1182, when Westphalia became
subject to the Archbishop of Cologne. These courts became very troublesome,
persons of the most exalted rank being subjected to their decisions. The
emperors endeavored to suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16tb
century. SirW. Scott has described them in "Anne of Geierstein."
VENEREAL DISEASE. Lues Venerea^ Morbus Gallictcs. This disease is said
to have broken out in the French army, at the siege of Naples, in 1494,
whence the French term it mal de Naples. In the Netherlands and in Eng-
land it obtained the appellation of mal de France ; though in the latter coun-
try it was known so early as the twelfth century. About the same period, too,
at Florence, one of the Medici family died of it. Most writers suppose, that
the followers of Columbus brought the disorder with them from the new to
the old world, 149:3 ; others maintain that it prevailed among the Jews,
Greeks, and Romans, and their descendants, long before the discovery of
America.
VERMONT, (p. 579.) Population in 1860, 315,827. War expenses, $8,811,600.
The state sent 34,650 soldiers to the army in 1861-5.
VESUVIUS, Mt. (p. 580.) Eruptions in May 1855, May and June 1858, and
June 1859, caused great destruction.
VICKSBURG, Miss., U. S. A town on the Mississippi river, made famous
during the war. It completely blockaded the navigation of the river and its
batteries were impregnable from the water side. After various attempts, Gen.
Grant moved to the south of it, crossed the river from the viesi side and
marched towards the rear of the town, May 1, 1863. He defeats the enemy
at "Port Gibson," " Champion Hills," and " Big Black River Bridge," and
on the 18th reaches the fortifications. He at once invested the place. After
many assaults and constant bombardment, the garrison surrendered July 4,
1863. Number of prisoners, 30,000 ; guns, 220 ; small arms, 70,0<jO. Union
loss during the siege, 545 killed. 3,682 wounded, and 303 missing.
VICTORIA, formerly Port Philipp (Australia), situated between New South
Wales and South Australia, the most successful British colony in that region.
First colony 1804. In 1839, the colony was named Victoria, and its prosperity
brought great numbers to it, and induced much speculiition and consequent
embarrassment and insolvency in 1841-2. In 1851, the province was declared
independent of New South Wales. In the same year a reward of £200 was
offered for the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found near
Melbourne.
VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over the St. Law-
rence, Montreal, erected under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephenson,
and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, was completed and opened Nov. 24, 1859.
It is the greatest work of the kind in the world, and forms part of the Grand
Trunk Railway, which connects Canada and the seaboard states of North
America. The length is about sixty yards less than two English miles, and
about 7i times longer than Waterloo bridge ; the height sixty feet between
the summer level of the river, and the under surface of the central tube. The
cost £1,400,000. On Jan. 5, 1855, the bridge was carried away by floating
ice, but the stonework remained firm.
VILLA FRANCA (in Lombardy). Here the emperors of France and Austria met
on July 11, 1859 (after the great battle of Solferino); on the next day they
signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the treaty of Zurich {which see),
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 127
VINE DISEASE. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys the fruit. The
spores of this o'idium were found in the vineries at Versailles in 184:7. The
disease soon reached the trellised vines, and in 1850, many lost all their
produce. In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zante
and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of the
usual amount. Through its ravages the wine manufacture in Madeira ceased
for several years. Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress oi
the disease, but without much effect. It has much abated in France, but not
in Portugal.
VIOLIN, (p. 683.) The violin is the most expressive instrument, though sur-
passed by many in sweetness, richness, and volume. The best were made at
Oremona about a, d. 1600, by Amiti and Straduarius ; those of the former
excel in sweetness, of the latter in power. They now command enormous
prices.
VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia,
1850, was $530,000,000, viz :— Real estate. 1278,000,000; value of slaves,
$147,000,000 ; other personal estate, $105,000,000. The returns further show
that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read noi
write ! The new constitution of this state, adopted in 1851, iu the 111th arti-
cle has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote who
is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the service of
the United States." Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 slaves.
Id 1860, 1,593,199, including 495,826 slaves. State " seceded," May, 1861.
Soon after the western counties formed a new and loyal State. See West Vir-
ginia. Virginia was the theatre of the most active military operations of the
war of secession, and the state suffered the most from that fearful struggle.
Franchise extended to the colored people 1867, and the state included in the
1st military district under Gen. Schofield. Debt of the old state in 1865, $41,-
061,300.
VISGOTHS. Separated from the Ostrogoths about a. d. 330. The Emperor
Valens, about 369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon the condi-
tion of their serving when wanted in the Roman armies ; and Theodosius the
Great permitted tliem to form distinct corps commanded by their own officers;
In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, and in 410 took Rome. They began
their kingdom of Toulouse, 414; and conquered the Alains, and extended
their rule into Spain, 414, and expelled the Romans in 468 ; and finally were
themselves conquered by the Saracens under Muga, in 1711, when their last
king, Roderic, was defeated and slain in an obstinate engagement. Their fule
in France ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, in 507.
VIVARIUM. See Aquarium.
VOLTAIC PILE, on Battkry. An apparatus which was constructed in conse-
quence of the discoveries of Galvani (see Galvanism). The principle was
discovered by Alessandro Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years pro-
fessor of natural philosophy, at Pavia, and announced by him to the Rova!
Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta
was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon Bonaparte, and was
otherwise greatly honored While young he invented the electrophorus, elec-
tric pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 81. The form of the
Voltaic battery has be(ni greatly improved by the researches of modern
philo.«-ophers. The nitric acid battery of Mr. W. R. Grove was devised in
1839 ; the carbon battery of Mr. Robert Bunsen in 1842. The former is very
128 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
much used in England ; that of Bunsen in other parts of Europe. See El^c
tricity.
VOLUNTEERS, MILITARY, in England. This species of force was formed in
England, in consequence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France,
1Y94, The EngUsh volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600
on Jan. 1, 1804. In May 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the fear
of a French invasion, the formation of Volunteer Corps of riflemen commenced
under the auspices of the government, and by the end of the year many thou-
sands were enrolled in all parts of the kingdom. Volunteers, U. S. See Army,
VULGATE (from Vulgatus, published). A term applied to the Latin version of
the Scriptures, which is authorized by the Council of Trent, and which is attri-
buted to St. Jerome, about a. d. 1834, The older version, called the Italic, is
said to have been made in the beginning of the second century. Critical
editions of the Vulgate were printed by order of Pope Sixtus V. in 1590, and
of Pope Clement V. in 1592 and 1593. (The former was suppressed as imper-
fect). The Latin Bible called the Mentz Bible was printed in 1460.
W.
WAGER OP BATTEL. The trial by combat anciently allowed by law, whereof
the defendant in an appeal might fight with the appellant, and make proof
thereby whether he was guilty or innocent of the crime charged against him.
Repealed by statute 59 George IIL, 1819.
WAGES IN England (p. 685). Harvest men, 185*7, 5s. In United States. In
1866, laws were enacted in some of the states making eight hours a legal day'a
labor, unless otherwise agreed upon by the parties. Under this law, what a
laborer would have received for ten hour's work, he can claim for eight hour's
labor.
WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory). A temple near Ratisbon, erected in 1842, by
Louis, King of Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the great men
of Germany. The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place of Scandi-
navian heroes after death.
WALKING, &c.. Feats in. In England, Capt. Barclay for a wager (on which
many thousands of pounds depended), walked 1,000 miles in 1,000 succes-
sive hours; in forty-two days and nights (less eight hours). His task was
accomplished on July 10, 1809. In May, 1758, a young lady at Newmarket
won a wager, having undertaken to ride 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours, which
feat she performed in little more than two-thirds of the time. Richard Manks,
a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in imitation of Capt. Barclay) to walk
1,000 miles in 1,000 hours ; the place chosen was the Barrack tavern cricket-
ground in Sheffield; he commenced on Monday, June 17, 1850, and com-
pleted the 1,C00 miles July 29, following, winning a considerable sum.
WALTZ. The popular German national dance was introduced into England by
Baron Neuman and others in 1813, JRaiJces.
WAR — Cost of that in the Crimea. The cost to England, for two years,
was $200,000,000. The whole cost is estimated at 1,000 millions of dollars.
Wars of Great Britain (p. 588). War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace
of Paris, March 81, 1856. For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see
those countries respectively. War in the United States. The war of the
rebellion commenced April 12, 1861, by the firing of South Carohna forces on
Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. The battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21,
adverse to the Union army, was decisive of a prolonged conflict. Until the
SITPPLEME?^T, 1851-67. 129
summer of 1863 the Confederates maintained their ground successfully. But
after the fall of Vicksburg, and the battle of Gettysburg, the National army
was almost uniformly Tictorious until the final surrender of the rebels. See
Army, Battles^ Volunte' ?-.s-, &c.
WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold at auc-
tion in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York for $2,300, Feb. 12, 1850.
WATER COLOR PAINTING in England has been raised from the hard dry
style of the last century to its present brilliancy by the efforts of Nicholson,
Copley, Fielding, Varley, and the great Turner; by Pyne, Caitermole, Prout,
&c., within the present century. The exhibition was founded in 1805.
WATERWORKS. The Roman aqueducts were only artificial streams led at a
regular slope from an elevated source, and were enormously expensive. Louis
XIY. erected enormous machines merely to supply ornamental fountains at
Versailles. London is said to have had water-pipes laid in it as early as a. d.
1236, and is now supplied with about 50,000,000 gallons of water a day, by
seven companies, one bringing water from a distance of forty miles. Phila-
delphia was first supplied by works commenced in 1*799, and succeeded by
those at Fairmount in 1819 ; New York by the Crotou Aqueduct, finished in
1844; Boston, first from Jamaica Pond by a company organized in 1795, and
afterwaids from Cocliituate Pond by works begun in 1846, and opened for
use in 1848. See Public Viork^^ Aqueduct.
WAYERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with " Waverley;
or, ' Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1814, and closed with ''Tales of my Land-
lord," four vols., in 1831. The authorship was acknowledged by Sir Walter
Scott, at a dinner, Feb. 25, 1827.
WEST VIRGINIA. On Oct. 24, 1861, the western counties of Virginia voted
to separate themselves from the old state and form a new state called West
Virginia ; admitted to the Union, June 20, 1863 ; capital, Wheeling ; area,
23,000 square miles. Population by census of 1860, 398,200. The new state
sent 31,880 men to the Union army.
WHALE FISHERY. In recent years, by the introduction of petroleum and
other burning fluids, and of gas, the whaling business has become reduced to
much smaller dimensions. Vessels employed in 1858, 600 ships and barks,
19 brigs, 45 schooners, total 195,115 tons; 8,033 tons less than last year,
owing to the increasing scarcity of whales. Imports, 81,941 barrels sperm
oil, 182,223 barrels whale oil, 1,540,600 lbs. bone. Exports, 33,336 barrels
sperm, 19,503 barrels whale, 1,049,466 lbs. bone.
WHIGS. See Tory. In England numerous authors trace the origin of these
designations to various occasions and various epochs. Referring to what is
stated under the head Tory^ it may be here added, that we are told the name
Whig was a name of reproach given by the court party to their antagonists
for resembhng the principles of the whigs, or fanatical conventiclers in Scot-
land ; and the other was given by the "country party to that of the court,
comparing them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. This
distinction of parties arose out of the discovery of the Meal-Tub plot in 1678.
Upon bringing up the Meal-Tub plot before parliament, two parties were
formed: the one being those who called the truth of the whole plot in ques-
tion, and this party styled those who beheved in the plot Whigs. The other
party, crediting the truth of the plot, styled their adversaries, Tories.
WINE, U. S, In 1866, CaHfornia produced 1,252,70^) gallons of wine ; Ken
tueky, 180,000; Indiana, 88,000; New York, 61,00.) ; N. Carohna, 54,000:
lUinois, 47,000 ; Connecticut, 46,000 ; Virginia, 40,000 ; Pennsylvania, 88,000'
9
130
During the year ending June 30, 1866, 9,476,814 gallons were imported into
the U. S.
WISCONSIN, (p. 697.) Population in 1850, 305,391 ; increase in 10 years 90C
per cent. 1860, 768,485, increase in 10 years, 152 per cent.
WITCHCRAFT. Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the country districts
of England. On Sept. 4, 1868, a poor old paralyzed Frenchman died in con-
sequence of having been ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex.
WIVES. See Marriage. In England, by the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes
Act, passed in 1857, the condition of married women has been much bene-
fited. When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial separation ; and
even while in the latter state any property they may acquire is secured to
them personally, as if unmarried. By another act, passed in the same year,
they are enabled to dispose of reversionary interests in personal property or
estates.
WONDERS OF THE WORLD, the Seven. 1. The pyramids of Egypt. 2. The
m;iusoleum or tomb built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen,
3. The temple of Diana at Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of
the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called
the Colossus. 6. The rich statue of Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or
watch tower, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt.
WOOLSACK. The seat of the lord high chancellor of England in the house of
lords is so called from its being a large square bag of wool, without back or
arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was the staple commodity of England
in the reign of Edward III., when the woolsack first came into use.
WORKINGMEN'S COLLEGES, in England. The first was established in
Sheffield, by workingmen. The second in London, by the Rev. Professor
Frederic D. Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854; a third in Cambridge, and in
1855, a fourth in Oxford; all wholly for the working classes, and undertaking
to impart such knowledge as each man feels he is in want of. The colleges
engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a class;
and also to have lectures given. They are highly successful,
WRECKS, (p. 602.) Arctic^ U. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with the
Fe.s^a, French steamer, off Newfoundland ; above 300 lives lost, Sept. 27,
1854. City of Philadel'phia, Liverpool to Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1854. U. S.
sloop of war Albany^ from Aspinwall, Sept. 28, 1854, never heard from.
City of Glasgow^ steamer, with 480 persons on board, disappeared in 1854
Pacific^ Collins steamer, from Liverpool to New York, Jan. 23, 1856, dis-
appeared and never heard of. Johii Rutledge., from Liverpool to New York,
ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost, Feb. 20, 1856. Lyon-
nais, French steamer. New York to Havre, collision with bark Adriatic,
134 lives lost, Nov. 2, 1856. Austria, steamship, Hamburg to New York,
burnt in the middle of the Atlantic; of 538 persons on board, only sixty-seven
were saved, Sept. 13, 185-. Royal Charter, screw steamer, on the Anglesea
coast ; 459 lives lost ; the vessel contained gold amounting in value to £700,-
000, Oct. 26, 1859. Steamer iWa^ara, burned on lake Michigan; 60 fives
lost, Sept. 24, 1856. Central America, steamer; Lieut. Herndon, Aspinwall
to New York, founders, 427 fives lost, and $2,000,000 in gold, S^pt. 8, 1857
Russian line of battle ship in tlie Baltic, founders, all on board, (825) lost_
Sept. 1857. The total number of American sea-going vessels reported during
1869, as lost or missing was 402, valued at $5,599,000, being an increase; over
the previous year of 114 vessels, and $1,12S,()00 in value. Of the whole num
ber, 8 were steamers, 84 ships, 48 barks, 64 brigs, and 198 schooners.
131
Y.
TACHT. The ancient thalamegus or navis luaorice was a vessel for pleasure,
like the modern yacht. The English are very found of yachting. Their
yachts are commoniy cutter-rigged, and with one mast. Yachting has come
into vogue in the United States only since about 1830. The American yachta
are sloops or schooners. The yacht America modelled and built by the re-
markable genius George Steers, of Xevv^ York (d. 1856, aged 35), beat all the
English yachts in a regatta at Cowes, Aug. 22, 1851. She was a schooner,
with her greatest breadth abaft the beam, and with "hollow lines" forward.
A yacht race from New York to Cowes, Isle of Wight, Dec, 1865, between
three New York yachts, Henrietta, Vesta, and Fleetwiiig ; Henrietta winner by
seven (?) hours.
YANKEE. The derivation of the word is generally accredited to the Indian
pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese. In New York
it is applied to the New Englanders ; in the South to all Northerners ; and in
Europe to all Anglo-Americans. In a curious book on the Round Towers of
Ireland, published some years ago, the origin of the term Yankee Doodle, was
said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki douniah, or " Inhabi-
tants of the New World." Layard in his " Nineveh," also mentions Yankhi-
dunia as the Persian name of America.
YORKTOWN. This place was fortified by the rebels, and withstood the siege of
Gen. McClellan, from April 4 to May 5, 1862, when it was evacuated ; 71 spiked
guns were found in the works.
YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS. U. S. First one under this
name founded in Boston, Jan. 10, 1852 ; in N. Y. city, June 80, 1852. They
are now (186*7) established in many of the principal cities. At a general con-
vention of Young Men's Christian Associations, at Montreal, in June, 1867,
215 associations in the United States and Canada were represented.
ZOLLVEREIX. [Customs' Union.) The name given to the German commercial
union, of which Prussia is the head. It began in 1818, and was gradually
joined by nearly all the German states, except Austria. On Feb. 19, 1853, an
important treaty of commerce and navigation, between Austria and Prussia to
last from Jan. 1854 till Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the other states of the
ZoUverein gave in their adhesion on April 6, 1853.
ZOUAVES AND Foot Chasseurs. When the French established a regency at
Algiers, they hoped to find the employment of native troops advantageous, and
selected Zooaoiias, a congregation of Arab tribes, famous for daring and t^kilful
courage. In time numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic French-
men, joined the regiments, adopting the costume, &c., and eventually the
Africans disappeared from the ranks, and no more were added, they having
been fiequently guilty of treachery. The French Zouaves formed an important
part of the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5.
ZURICH, (p. 608.) Conference of the representatives of Austria, France and
Sardinia, held at Zurich (after the truce of Villa Franca), August 8, 1859, and
continued several months.
ZUTPHEN, IN Holland. At a battle here in 1568, between the Spaniards and
the Dutch, the amiable Sir Phihp Sidney, author of the " Arcadia." was kil.ed.
He was serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the earl of Lei-
cester.
BUKEAU OF STATISTICS, U. 8. TREASUEY DEPARTMENT.
I Few the following statistics we are indeltted to the coiurtesy of Hon. Alexander Delicas
Director of the Bureau.]
CUSTOMS Duties Keckived in 1866.
* During the Quarter ending March 31, 1866 $46,645,597.83
* " " June 80, " 46,175,132.33
* " " Sept. 30, " 50,843,774.24
f " " Dec. 31, " 37,803,027.54
$181,467,531.94
♦ Official. t Commercial and Financial Chronicle, March 30, 1867.
SHIPPINGr Statistics: Tonnage of the United States.
Begistered.
EnrolUd and Licensed.
Tear.
Sail.
1860,
2,448,941
1861,
2,540,020
1862,
2,177,253
1863,
1,892,899
1364,
1,475,376
1865, 5
1865, I
old,
1,031,465
new
482,110
1866,!,
old,
341,619
1866, \
new
, 953,018
Steam.
97,296
102,608
113,998
133,215
106,519
60,539
28,469
42,776
155,513
Sail.
2,036,990
2,122,689
2,224,449
2,660,212
2,550,690
1,794,372
730,695
443,635
1,489,194
Steam.
770,641
774,596
596,465
439,755
853,816
630,411
338,720
114,269
770,754
Total.
Tonnage.
5,353,868
5,539,813
5,112,165
5,126,081
4,986.401
3,516,787
1,579,994
942,299
3,368,479
EXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York during the year ending
June 30, 1867:
Domestic.
In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels.
Foreign.
In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels.
Total
Gold Bullion,...
Gold Coin,
Silver Bullion,.
Silver Coin, ....
Total,
2,753,954
none.
1,183,580
none.
307,181
1,490,761
8,724,081
19,902,626'
8,911,857
3,658,974
2,958,854 41,197,538
COFFEE Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consur ption of coffee in the
United States during the years ending December 31, .861, 1862, 1863, 1864,
1865, and 1866 :
Tear. Pounds. Tear.
1861, 187,046,000 1864,
1862, 88,990,000 1865,
-863, 79,720,000 1866,
Pounds.
lOa 087,000
128,146,000
159,915,840
UNITED STATES TEEASURY STATISTICS.
133
See page 68, Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66. The quantities given
for the first five years are substantially those named in the Annual Report of the
New York Chamber of Commerce for 1865-66.
The quantity for 1866 is taken from the Supplement to H. E. Moring's Monthly
Coffee Circular, 1867.
[ON Statistics.
Production,
Exported.
Average Price
Tear.
Bales.
Pounds
Bales.
per pound.
1860-61,
3,656,086
3,126,622
17.42 cents.
1861-62,
est.
4,800,000
5,064,564 — say
12,000
42.15 "
1862-63,
est.
1.500,000
11,384,986 = say
26,000
71 08 "
1863-64,
est.
'500,000
10,830,534 = say
25,000
$111.14 "
1864-65,
est.
300,000
6,607,186 = say
15,000
75.75
1865-66,
2,214,476
1,554,744
44. •'
1866-67,
est.
1,900,000
est.
1,500,000
32.5 "
The figures relative to production, except for 1866-67, were derived from
Neil Bros. & Co.'s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1866, The receipts at all
ports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and
the total exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall &
Zerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12,
1867, as 1,809,500 bales.
The number of pounds exported are taken from Table 19, page 349, Finance
Report., 1866, The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,528,-
489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Kev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the
exports for 1860-61, including stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales.
TEA Statistics, Statement exhibiting the consumption of tea in the United
States during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865,
and 1866 :
Year. Or ten, Japan. Black. Total.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
1861, 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,00
" 27,468,600
26,906,365
23,137,546
29,853,433
29,643,187
See Reports of Revenue Commission., 1865-66, pp. 53, 55. The above are
estimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in
New York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery's Tea Cir-
cular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 30,000,000
pounds.
The Pacific States are not included in the above, except for 1866, nor is any
allowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one
pound per capita.
1862,
13,871,600
13,597,000
1863,
14,490,680
12,415,685
1864,
13,564,295
9,573,251
1865,
18,874,199
10,979,234
1866,
OBAC(
JO Statistics.
Year.
Production.
Exported.
Average prici
Pounds.
Leaf, pounds.
Manuf'd, lbs.
Total.
per lb., Leaf
1861,
est. 200,000,000
est. 160,000,000
14,783,363
174,783,363
9. cents.
1862,
136,736,596
est. 107,000,000
4,071,963
111,071.963
11.9 "
}f^^
276,850,870
est. 112,000,000
7,025,248
119,025,248
14.9 "
1864,
197,460,229
est. 110,000,000
8.586,494
118,586,494
14.85 •«
1865,
185,316,953
est. 149,000,000
7,294,165
156.294,165
12.6 "
1866,
est. 330,501,500
190,826,248
6,515,709
197,341,957
13. «
134 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
The production for 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1866 is given as found in the Ke-
ports of the Department of Agriculture. The estimated production for 1866 is
taken from ihe Tobacco Circular of M. Rader & Son.
The quantities of leaf tobacco exported are estimated from the returns of
commerce and navigation for the years 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865. The
quantities of leaf for 1866, and of manufactured tobacco for each year specified,
are taken from the returns of commerce and navigation for those years.
In 1862, the production of only twenty-one States is given, Kentucky and
the disloyal States being omitted. In 1863, 1864, and 1865 Kentucky is included,
and in 1866 all the States.
WHEAT Statistics
Years.
s.
Production.
Exported.
Av. Price per bu
Bushels.
Wheat, bushels.
Flour, bbls.
at New York.
189,993,500
191,068,239
171,695,823
159,522,827
151,999,906
31,238,057
37,289,572
36,160,414
23,681,712
9,937,152
5,579,103
4,323,756
4,882,038
4,390,055
3,557,347
2,604,542
2,183,050
$1,18 to $1.46
1.30 to 1.50
1.33 to 1.53
1.48 to 1.83
2.22 to 2.70
1.86 to 2.76
1862,
1863,
1864,
1865,
1866,
No returns of the production of 1861 are to be had, although inquiry was
made at the Department of Agriculture.
The figures relative to production in 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 are
taken from the Monthly and Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture,
and embrace 22 States and Nebraska Territory, except 1866, which embraces 29
States and Nebraska Territory. There being no returns from California in 1864
and 1865, tlie crop for each year is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels, which is
believed to be a low estimate, the crop for 1863 being 11,664,203 bushels. A
barrel of flour is considered as equal to 5 bushels of wheat.
PAINTING.
135
PAINTING. Clirooological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged in
Schools and Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement oi
the Nineteenth Century.
{From BelVs Edition of Bredoxo's Tallies of Universal History.)
1. Flokentine School. — Style elevated and bold, seeking rather to be admired than to
plea.se; sometimes gigantic; neglects coloring and grace— 1240, Cimabue; 1726, G-iotto; 1211,
Andrea Taffi; 1400, Massolino; 1402, Massacio; 1491, Filippo Lippi ; 1432, Andrea Yerrocliio,
Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo; 1445, Leoxardo da Vinci; 1469, Bartolomnieo
di San Marco; 1471, Baldassarre Per uzzi; 1474, Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; 14S4, Dominico
Beccafumi; 1488, Andrea del Sarto; 1493. Jacopo Carrucci da Ponturmo; 149 >, Del Kosss-'*
1500, Perino del Vaga; 1509, Daniel da Volterra; 1510. Francesco Salviati; 1510, Giorgio Vassari ;
1545, Antonio Tempesta; 1559, Luigi Cardi; 1563, Francesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo Rosselli;
1696, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garo-
foli; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti; 1695, Giovan' Geroniino Servandoni; 17U2,
Pompeo Battoni.
2. KoMAN School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical
study of the antique and of nature ; heads of the most sublime beauty ; coloring and chiaro
oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturicliio ; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; I4S3, Raffnel ;
1488, G. F. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Romano ; 1528, Frederico Barocci; 1529, Taddeo Zucchero ; 154^3,
Frederico Zucchero; 1589, Dominico Feti; 1594, Nicholas Poussin; 1597, Giovan' Lorenzo
Bernini ; 1599, Andrea Sacchi ; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claude of Lorraine ; 1602, Cerioz/' ■
1605, G. B. Salvi, called II Sassoferrato ; 1613, Gaspard Doghet, called Poussin or Guaspre^
0.616, Luigi Scaramuccia; 1617, Francesco Eomanell ; 1623, Giacinto Brandi ; 1623, Filippo
Lauri ; 1625, Carlo Maratti ; 1634, Ciro Ferri ; 1694, Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Eaffael Mengs.
a Venetian School. — Faithful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent
coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique ; this
school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini; 1431. Andrea Mantegiia; 1478, Giorgione ; 1477,
Titian (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore); 1480, G. A. Eegillo; 1485, Sebastiano del Piombo; 1510,
Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Eobusti, called II Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinati; 1522, Andrea
Schiavone; 1528, Geronimo Muzziano; 1532, Paolo Cagliari ; 1535, Giuseppe Ponta; 1539, Dario
Varotari; 1540, Felice Eiccio; 1540, Jacopo Palma (II Veccbio); 1544, Jac Palma; 1549, Giov.
Contarino; 1660, Maria Tintoretta; 1561. Leonardo Corona; 15S6, Tiberio Tiiielli; 1590, Aless.
Varotari; 1600, Aless. Turchi; 1635, Giov. B. Langetti; 1642, Andrea Pozzo ; 1656, Franc.
Trevisani; 1659, Sebast. Eicci; 1666, Ant. Balestra; 1672, Eosa Alba Carriers : 1075.
Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 1682, G. B. Piazztta; 1687, Ant. Canaie; 1693, Giov. Bati
Tiepolo ; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari.
4. Lombard and Bolognesk Schools. — Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having founded
a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these two Schools
are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and voluptuous (though
perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his colo"-
in<'. Tibaldi and the Carracci introduce a more elevated character of design, and many of their
pifpils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Correggio. 1450, Francesco Franco ;
1490, F. Primaticcio; 1494, Correggio Antonio Allegri ; 1495. Polidori Caldari ; 1504. Fr. Maz-
zuol'i ; 1522, Pellegrino Tibaldi : 1546. Camillo Procaccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Amerigi, called Car-
ravaggio; 1555, Ix)dov. Caracci: 1557, Agostino Caracci; 1560, Annibale Caracci :' 156i', Bartol.
Schidone; 1575, Guido Eeni, called Guide; 1576. Lionello Spada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini; 157S,
Francesco Albano; 15S0, Giacouio Cavedcne: 15S1, Doin. Zampieri, called Domenichiiio; 1581,
Giov. Lanfranco; 1588, Frances Gessi ; 1590, G. F. Barbieri ; 1597, Lodov Lana; 1600, Mic. Ang.
Colonna: 1606, Grimaldi ; 161S, Giorg. And. Si%-ani ; 1612, Simone Caniarini; 1624, P.Fran.
Mola ; 1628, Cignani ; 1633, P. F. Carol! ; 16-43, Lodov. Quaini ; 1643, Ant. Franceschini : 1654,
Gais. del Sole;" 1657, Fer. Galli Babiena; 16 5, Guis. Maria Crespi; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani;
16T1, Donato Creti ; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti ; 1691, G. P. Paninl.
(Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. These nations are not regarded as having founded
general Schools; their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools. Neapol-
itan.—The painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat affected.
Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310 ; Fil del Tesauro, 1320 ; 1500, and Sabbatani ; 1560, Guis
Cesare d'Arpino; 16uO, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi; 1613, Matteo Petri; 1615, Salvator
Eosa; 1631, Luca Giordana; 1657, Fran. Solimene; 1661, Nundo Ferajoli ; 1679, Sebast. Cone;-.,
1693, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in design. — ^1400, Nich. da Vottri ; 1527, Cam-
biasi- 1544. G. B. Pagsrt; 1557. Bern. Castelli ; 1581. Bernardo Strozzi ; 1590 Gio. Carlone; 16161,
Benedetto Castiglione; 1625, F. M. Borzoni; 1639, G. B. Gauli; 1664, Greg. Ferrari ; 1654. Bart
©uidoboni; 1660, II Molinaretto; Spaniards. — These painters have esi)ecially imitated the
Venetian School, and often display its brilliant coloring.— 1400, Alouso Berragentc ; 1487, Bl^s«
136 PAINTING.
dePrado; 1519, Morales; 1528, Luis de Vargas ; 1532, J. F. Ximenez de Navarete ; 1550, Pabli
de las Eovias; 1589, Joseph Eibera; 1599, Don Diego Velasquez de Silva; 1601, Alonso Owno,*
1610, Henrique de las Marinas; 1G13, Bartolme Esteban deMurillo; 1617, Franc. Eizzi; 1681,
Matias de Torres; 1G40, Pedro de Nunez: 1640, Juan de Alfaro: 1651, Juan C. Falco: 1668, P.
di Pietri.)
5. German School. — This School having never had a common point of union, bears no
general and distinctive character; it produces, in tlie different styles of painting, rival artists
to the great masters of Italy and of th« Netherlands. 1297, Th. de Matina; 1357, Theo. de
Prague; 1367, N. Wurmser; 1479, Albert Diirer; 1402, Lucas Muller: 1498, Hans Holbein;
I.';, 5, Lucas Cranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmor; 1550, Christ. Schwartz ; 1556, John Van Aachen;
J564, J. Rottenhammer ; 1570, J. Lys; 1574, Adam Elzlieimer; T593, Sam. Hoftnann ;
1600. J. W. Bauer; 1606, Jo. Sandrart; 1611, Ch. Loth ; 1616, Govaert Flink : 1618, P. Van der
Faes; 1619, J. Spilberg: 1621, Leb. Stopkopt; 162.'5, J. Linsrelback; 1631, J. Hen Eoos ;
1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher ; 1640, Ab. Micnon ; 1647, M. S. Merian ; 1648. Godfrey
Kneller; 1666, G. P. Ruggendas; 1668, J. E. Hiiher: 1G69, Anna Waser; 1685, Balthasar
Denner; 1689, Fr. P. Ferg; 1698, J. E. Eiedenger ; 1709, Brinkman; 1712, O. W. E. Dietrich;
1728, Eaffael Mengs ; 1730, Solomon Gessner.
6. Flemish or Belgio School. — This School excels in coloring and in the faithful imi^
tation of nature, but does not always exiiibit sufficient nobleness of design; it produces
eminent artists in every style ; that to whicli Teniers has affixed his name had its birth in
this School; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, wa3 founded in 1510, but
there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1442.— 1306, Eubert Van Eyk;
1370, John Van Eyk; 1450, Quentin Messis ; N9;», Ber. V. Orley ; 1499, J. de Mabuse ;
1553, Peter Knock; 1520, Frank Floris; 1534, Mar de Vos; 1536, J Straden ; 1540, F. Por-
bus; 1546, B. Spranser; 1548, C. Van Mander; 1.550, H. Steenwvck; 1555, Denys Calvart ;
1556, Otto Venius ; 1569, P. Van Breusjhel : 1570, P. Neefs ; 1573, S. Frank ; 1576, Fr. Sneyders;
1577, Peter Paul Eubens ; 1580, David Teniers; 1594, James Jorrlaens; 1599, Anthony Van
Dyk; 1602, Philip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1613, J. Van Artois ; 1618, Gonzales
Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen; 1664, Simon Varelst ; 1668, G. P. Vanbruggen ; 1672, Ab.
Breughel ; 1742, Henry de Coort
7. Dutch School. — This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence
of the chiaro oscuro; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi-
nutest details. Tlie style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School
1467, Erasmus; 1494. Luke of Leyden ; 1498, Martin Hemskerk ; 1518, An. Moro ; 1564,
Ab. Bloemart; 1579, Sol de Brey; 158.5, Cornelius Poelenber? ; 1596, Leo Bramer ; 1600, J.
D. de Heein; 1600, John Wynants; 1606, Albert Cuyp ; 1606, Paul Eembrandt van Eyn ;
1608, Gerard Terbivro:; 1610, Adrian Van Ostadc ; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, Gabriel Met-
zu; 1620, Philip Wouvermans; 1624, Nicholas Bereham; 1625, Paul Potter; 1681, Ludolph
Bakhytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde; 163.5, Jac. Euysdael, Hobbema; 1635, Fran, Mierirs; 1636,
John Steen ; 1637; Van den Hevden ; 163S, Adrian van der Velde; 1640, Karel du Jardin;
1664, John Weenix ; 1669, Adrian van der Werf ; 1682, John Van Huysum.
English Painters. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools;
excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. — 1480, Hans Holbein ; 1543, F.
Zucchero; 1572. Inigo Jones,; 1601, P. Oliver; 1609, S. Cooper; 1610, W. Dobson ; 1620, Eic.
Gibson; 16J9, John Greenhill; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke Cradock ; 1677, James
Thornhill; 1697, William Hogarth; 1714, Eich. Wilson; 1723, Joshua Reynolds; 1727, Thom.
Gainsboroug:h ; 1733, Sawrey Gilpin; 1734, P. J. de Loutherbourg ; 1735, David Allan; 1788,
Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James Northcote; 1748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748,
Philip Eeinagle ; 1751. William Hamilton ; 1752, Wm. Beechey : 1755, Thom. Stothard ; 1759,
Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie; 1764, Geo. Morland; '1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1.774.
Edward Bird ; 1776, John Constable ; 1786, Will. Hilton ; 1787, Geo. Hen. Harlow ; , Tho-
mas Daniell; 1785, David Wilkie; 1786, E. B. Haydon ; , A. W. Calcott; 1789, W. Etty.
8. French School.— The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the differ-
ent Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics: they are in general more
successful in composition and design than in coloring, It is emancipated from the degradation
and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brlin by Vien, and become the most numer.
ous and ilouris'hing school of all.— 1490, Fran. Primaticcio ; 1496, Eosso de Eossi ; 1502, J. Cousin ;
1582, Simon Vouet; 1594, Nicholas Pousin ; 16i)0, Claude Lorraine; 1600, Le Valentin; 1600,
James Blanchard; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Sebastian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur ;
1619, Charles le Brun ; 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 1644, John Jouvenet; 1657, Joseph Vivien
1667, Nicholas Bertin; 1667, Anth. Rivally; 1684, Ant Watteau ; 1688, Francis Le Moine; 1699
Noel N. Coypel; 1700, Chas. Natoire; 1794. F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Viea
1729, J. B. Deshays; 1756, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1567, A. L. Girodet.
DICTIOMEY OF DATES.
CHIEFLY FROM THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN ; WITH REVISIONS AND ADDITION*
ABSEYS AND MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near
the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one.
An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, a. d. 305.
The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland waa
in the fifth century : see Clogher, Elphin, Down. The first in Scotland was
in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see
Bangor. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet
in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands
of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in
Eng-land by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414. — Salmon. The revenues of
193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to £2,653,000
These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry
VIII. 1539. See Monasteries.
ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in
later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance,
and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following :—
He again abdicates in favor of the Bo-
naparte family. See Spain. May 1, 1808
Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to
take the crown of Spain, . June 1, 1808
Of the same (by flying before the British
OfHenry IV. of Germany, . . 1080
Of Stephen II. of Hungary, sumamed
Thunder, 1114
Of Albert of Saxony, .... 1142
OfLestusV. of Poland, . . . . 1200
OfUladislausin. of Poland, . . 1206
Of Baliol of Scotland, .... 1306
Of Otho of Hungary, .... 1309
Of EricIX. of Denmark . . 1439
OfEric XIII. of Sweden, . . .1441
Of Charles V. Emperor, . . . 15-56
Of Christina of Sweden, . . . 1654
Of John Casimir of Poland, . . . 1669
Of James II. of England, . . , 1688
Of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland, . 1704
OfPhilipV. of Spam, ... 1724
OfVictor of Sardinia, . , . . 1730
Of Charles of Naples, .... 1759
Of Stanislaus of Poland, . . . 1795
from Madrid), 7 , July 29, 1808
Of Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1810
Of Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813
Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814
Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, 1821
Of Pedro of Portugal, . . May 2, 1826
Of Charles X. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830
Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831
Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving
the kingdom), . . . May 26, 1834
OfWilliam I. of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1810
Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager
and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 1840
Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 1848
Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March 22; 1848
Of Ferdinand L emperor of Austria,
Dec. 2, 1848
Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia,
Aug. 1819
OfVictor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1802
Of Francis H. of Germany, who becomes
emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804
Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his
son, .... March 19, 1808
ABELARD and HELOISE. Their amour, so celebrated for its passion and
misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. d. 1118, when Helolse (a canon's daugh-
ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suflfering an ignominious in-
jury, became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of
a^ief which never left his heart, in 1142. HeloYse begged his body, and had
7
146 THE world's progress. [aca
it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, with the view of reposing
in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love,
and died in 1163. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French
Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been subsequently broken up,
they were finally removed to the burying-ground of P6re La Chaise, in 1817.
ABORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the nation
conducted by Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His-
tory. Their posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings ;
iind Rome was built in their country. They were called Aborigines, being
txisqtie origine, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. Tb*
word signifies without origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally
applied to any original inhabitants.
ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe-
dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the
British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18,
1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au-
gust 1, 1798. See Nile.
ABRAHAM. Era or. Used by Eusebius ; it began October 1, 2016 b. c. To
reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months.
ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread,
and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104.
St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite, to 112 ; and Kenti-
gern, commonly called St. Mungo. lived by similar means to 185 years of
age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without
meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days
by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A woman of Nor-
mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrus de Albano. Gilbert Jackson,
of Carse-grange. Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind,
1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on
the sixteenth. 1789. — PhiUips. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four
years from all food and drink, 1799. — Hufeland's Practical Journal. Ann
Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, supposed to have been
an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808.
At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived
two years without meat or drink ; Aug. 1840 ; his imposture was afterwards
discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See
instances in Hatter's ElementcB Physiologic; Cornaro ; Pricher's Surgical
Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting.
ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine,
flesh, and marriage ; and Avere a community of harmless and mild ascetics.
They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho-
rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in a. d. 170.—
Bo.'isuet.
ABYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation,
which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on the 29th August, old
style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days.
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and
125 days.
ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and
the arts, are of early date. Academia was a shady grove without the walls
of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato
first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378
. B. c. — Sta7iley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex-
andria about 314 B. c. Theodosius the Younger and Uharlemagne are also
4CH J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
147
named as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckius
mentions 550. of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical
academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne, in 1135. Academies
were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal S(?Siety
of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal
academies : —
Marseilles, Belles- Lettres, 1726.
Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719.
Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759.
Naples, Rossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560 i
Sciences, 1695 ; Herculmieum, 1755.
New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814.'
Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682.
Padua, for Poetry, 1610; Sciences, 1792.
Palermo. Medical, 1645.
Paris, Sorbonne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu-
sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663;
Archhecture, 1671; Surgery, 1731 ; Mili-
tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796.
Parma, the Innominati, 1550.
Perousa, Insensafi, 1561 ; Filir^iti, 1574.
Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732;
the School of Arts, 1764.
Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806.
Rome, Umoristi, 1611; Fantascici^ 1625;
Infccondi, 1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi^
1690 ; English. 1752.
Spain, Royal, 1713 ; Military, 1751.
Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles- Lettrea
1753 ; Agriculture, 1781.
Toulon, Military, 1682.
Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778.
Turkey, Military School, 1775.
Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720.
Venice, Medical, &c., 1701.
Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780.
Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Sur-
gery, 1783 ; Oriental, 1810.
Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753.
Woolwich, Military, 1741.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
1780.
American Philosophical Society, 1769.
Ancona, of the Caglinosi, 1 624.
Berlin, Royal Society, 1700; of Princes,
1703 ; Architecture, 1799.
Boloffna, Ecclesiastical, 1637 ; Mathematics,
1690 ; Sciences and Arts, 1712.
Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626.
Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682.
Brussels, Belles-Lettres, 1773.
Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750.
Copenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742.
Cortona, Antiquities, 1726.
Dublin, Arts, 1749 ; Science and Literature,
1786; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823.
Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754.
Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612.
Florence, Belles-Lettres, 1272 ; Delia Crus-
ca, 1582 ; Antiquities, 1807.
Geneva, Medical, 1715.
Genoa, Painting, &c.,1751 ; Sciences, 1783.
Germany, Medical, 1617 : Natural History,
1652 ; Military, 1752.
Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760.
Lisbon, Histoiy, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779.
London : its various Academies are de-
scribed through the volume.
Lyons, Sciences, 1700 ; had Physic and Ma-
thematics added, 1758.
Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History,
1730 ; Painting and the Arts, 1753.
Manheim, Sculpture, 1775
Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704.
ACCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and
without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century
that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis. after
Wetstein. ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in
Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by
other grammarians in the various languages.
ACHAIA. This country was governed by a race of kings, but even their names
are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Achseus. the son of
Xuthus, 1080 B. c. The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the
iEtolians until about 284 b. c. The Achaei were descendants of Achaeus,
and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera-
clidse drove them thence, they retired among the lonians. expelled the na-
tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, .^gira, .^Egeum, Bura. Tri-
taea, Leontium, Rhypae, Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patrae, Dymas, and Phara?.
The Achaean league, . . b. c. 281
Fortress of Athenaeum built, . . 228
Defeat of the Achaeans by the Spartans,
and Lysiades killed, . . 226
Battle of Sallacia, . . .222
The Social war begun, . . 220
The Peloponnesus ravaged by the Mio-
lians, . . . . 219
Aratus poisoned at Mgmva. . . 215
Battle ofMantinea; Philopcemen defeats
the Spartan tyrant Mechanidas, . 206
Alliance with the Romans, . b. c. 2( )
Philopcemen defeated by Nabis, in a na-
val battle, .... lyi
Sparta joined to the league, . ISl
Tne Achaeans overrun Messenia with
fire and sword, . . .182
The Romans enter Achaia, 165
Metellus enters Greece, . . 147
The Achaean league dissolved, . 146
Greece su>^jected to Rome, and named
the province of Achaia, . 146
• Now extinct
148 THE world's PilOGrtESS. [ ADA
The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that
of the Achjean league ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance
to it in their confederacy.
ACIOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and
the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere,
was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by
Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by
Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about
A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700.
Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook
Taylor, in 1714 ; and further i>erfocted by D'Alembert, Eulcr, Bgrnoulli, and
La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound.
ACRE, St. Jkan d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192. after a
siege of two years, with the loss of 6 arclibisho})S, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500
barons, and 300 000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 'Chris-
tians perished. 1291. This capture; was rendered memorable by the n.urder
of the imns, who had mangled tlieir f;ices to repress the lust of the Infidels.
Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Syd-
ney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable
siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27. 1799, when, baffled by
the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore Bonaparte relin-
quished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to
the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832.
It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet
under Sir Robert Stoi)ford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours,
the Egyptians losing upwards of 2 000 in killed and wounded, and 3,000
prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 1840.
See Syria and Turkey.
ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and
accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Paus. in
Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2 000 years, was destroyed
in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Asphi. The Acropolis of Mycenae was
marked by terraces and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high
towers, each ai/ ^he distance of fifty feet. — Euripides.
ACTIUM. Battlk of, between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side,
and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the fate
of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Caesar ; fought Sept. 2, 31 b. c.
This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate
upon Cgesar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman
empire is commonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con-
queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair.
>NCTRESSES. Women in the drama appear to have been unknown to the an-
cients ; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said t©
have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Eng-
land, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the-
atre at court. — Theat. Bing.
ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated; 16 John, 1215. See Par-
liament. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has been
annually large although varying considerably in every session. Between
the 4th and lOth of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 443
rep<;aled in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr.
Peel ^afterwards Sir Robert) : of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at
large and 225 to Ireland solely.
ADAMITES, a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. a
AUM J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
149
130. The} assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that
if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chief
was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it
was not necessary to confess Christ. — Euscblus. This sect, with an addition
of many blasphemies, and teaching from the text '' increase and multiply,''
was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named
Tandeme, who, being followed by 3.000 soldiers, violated females of every
age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian. named Picard,
again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they
spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle ; Pojrdon.
ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, sin^
the formation of the government: —
First Administration ; — 1789 to 1797 ; — 8 years.
0.=orge Washington,
John Adams,
Thomas Jefferson,
Edmund Randolph,
Timothy Pickering,
Alexander Hamilton,
Oliver Wolcott,
Hemy Knox,
Timothy Piclcering,
James M'Henry,
Samuel Osgood,
Timothy Pickering,
Topeph "Habersham,
Edmund Randolph,
William Bradford,
Charles Lee,
Virginia,
Massachusetts,
Virginia,
do.
Pennsylvania,
New York,
Conned icut,
Massachusetts,
Pennsylvania,
Maryland,
Massachusetts,
Pennsylvania,
Georgia,
Virginia,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia,
April 30,1789
do. 1789
Appointed.
Sept.
Jan.
Dec.
Sept
Feb
Sept.
President.
Vice President.
Jan.
Jan.
2G, 1789 )
2. 1794 > Secretaries of S' ate.
10, 1795 S
11, 1789 I Secretaries of the
3, 1795 \ Treasury.
12, 1789 )
2, 179r
27, 1796
Sept. 26, 1789
Nov. 7, 1791
Feb. 25, 1795
Sept. 26, 1789
Jan. 27, 1794
Dec. 10, 1795
Secretaries of War.
Post Masters Gen.
Attorneys General
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789.
Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791.
Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 3d do. 1793.
»^onathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795.
John Adams,
Thomas Jefferson,
Second Administration ;
Massachusetts,
Virginia,
Timothy Pickering,
John Marshall,
Oliver Wolcott,
Samuel Dexter,
James M'Henry,
Samuel Dexter,
Roger Griswold,
George Cabot.*
Benjamin Stoddart,
Joseph Habersham,
Charles Lee,
Jonathan Dayton,
Theodore Sedgwick,
1797 to 1801 ;— 4 years.
March 4, 1797 President.
1797 Vice President.
Appointed.
Pennsylvania, {continued in office.) ? Opp^etaries of Stat«
Virginia, May 13, 1800 \ »ecretanes oi ^taw
Connecticut, (continued in office.) ? Secretaries of the
Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 \ Treasury.
Maryland, (continued in office.) \
Massachusetts, May 13, 1800 \ Secretaries of War.
Connecticut, Feb.- 3, 1801 S
INIassachusetts, May 3, 1798 / Secretaries of the
Maryland, May 21, 1798 \ Navy.
Georgia, (continued in office.) Post Master Gen.
Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney General.
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
New Jersey, 5th Congress, 1 797.
Massachusetts, 6th do. 1799.
Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809 ;— 8 years.
Thomas Jefferson,
Aaron Burr,
George Clinton,
James Madison,
Samuel Dexter,
Albert Gallatin,
Virginia, March 4, 1801 President.
New York, do. 1801 ) ,.- „ -Or-^dAov^tm
New York, do. 1805 \ ^^^^ Presideatt.
Appointed.
Virginia, Marcn 5, 1801 Secretary of SJate.
Mass. (continued in office.) ) Secretaries of ths
Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 \ Treasury.
Mr. Cahot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established ir 1798.
150
THE W O R L D S TE OG R ESS.
[ ADM
Henry Dearborn,
Benjamin Stoddart,
Robert Smith,*
Joseph Habersham,
Gideon Granger,
Levi Lincoln,
John Breckenridge,
Caesar A. Rodney,
Nathaniel Macon,
Joseph B. Varnum,
Nathaniel Macon,
Joseph B. Varnum,
Massachusetts, March 5,] 801 Secretary of War.
Md. {continued .n office.) i Secretaries ol the
Maryland, Jan. 26, 1S32 \ Navy,
Georgia, (continued in office.) / Post Masters Ge-
Connecticut Jan. 26, 1892 \ neral.
Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 i
Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 > Attorneys General.
Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801.
Massachusetts, 8th do. 1803.
North Carolina, 9th do. 1805.
Massachusetts, 10th do. 1807.
FotTRTH Administration:
James Madison,
George Clinton,
Klhridge GeiTy,
Robert Smith,
James Monroe,
James Monroe,t
Albert Gallatin,
George W. Campbell,
Alexander J. Dallas,
William Eustis,
John Armstrong,
James Monroe,
William H. Crawford,
Paul Hamilton,
William Jones,
Benj. W. Crowninshield,
Gideon Granger,
Return J. Meigs,
Caesar A. Rodney,
William Pinkney,
Richard Rush,
Vice Prcsitjea'j
1809 to 1817 ;— 8 yetire.
Virginia, March 4, 1809 President.
New York, 1809, {died April 20, 1812) ,
Mass. 1813, idied Nov. 23, 1814) <
Appointed.
Maryland, March 6, 1809 )
Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 > Secretaries of States
Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 ^
Pennsylvania, {continued in office.)
Tennessee
Pennsylvania,
Massachusetts,
New York,
Virginia,
Georgia,
South Carolina,
Pennsylvania,
Massachusetts,
9, 1814
Oct. 6, 1814
March 7, 18U9
Jan. 13, 1813
Sept. 27,1814
March -2, 1815
March 7,1809
Jan.
Dec.
12, 1813
Secretaries of the
Treasury.
Secretaries of War.
r Secretaries o. the
19; 1814 s ^^'^y-
Connecticut, {continued in office.) ) Post Master? Ge-
Ohio, March 17, 1814 \ neral.
Delaware, {continued in office.) i
Maryland, Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys General.
Joseph B. Varnum,
"Jenry Clay,
Henry Clay,
Langdon Cheves,
Henry Clay,
Fifth
James Monroe,
Danie D. Tompkins,
John Q,. Adams,
William H. Crawford,
Isaac Shelby,!
John C. Calhoun,
Benj. W. Crowninshield,
Smith Thompson,
Samuel L. Southard,
Return J. Meigs,
John McLean,
Richard Rush,
William Wirt,
Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814
Speaks? s of the House of Representatives.
Massachusetts, Uth Congress,
Kentucky,
Kentucky,
South Carolina,
Kentucky,
12th
13th
14th
do.
do.
do.
1809.
1811.
1312.
1814.
1815.
Administration ;— 1817 to 1825 ; —8 years.
Virginia, March 4, 1817
New York, do. 1817
Appointed.
Massachusetts, March 5, 1817
Georgia, March 5, 1817
Kentucky, March 5, 1817 )
South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1817 (
Massachusetts, {continued in office.)
New York, Nov. 30,1818
New Jersey, Dec. 9, 1823
Ohio, {continued in office.)
do. Dec. 9, 1823
Pennsylvania, {continued in office.)
Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817
President.
Vice President.
Secretary of State:
Secretaiy of Treaa
Secretaries of Wai.
Secretaries of the
Navy.
Pos^, Masters Ge-
neral.
Attorneys Genera.
* Robert Smith was appoiited Attorney General, and Jacob Crowninshield, of MassachusetiA.
Secretary of the Navy, on tne 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these appointments ; and
Mr. Smith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jefferson's a<Jini«
aistration.
t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of War.
* Isaar Shelby declined the appointment.
adm]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
151
ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) contirmed.
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
Kentucky,
Kentucky
Henry Clay,
Hem-y Clay,
John W. Taylor,
Philip P. Barbour,
Henry Clay,
New York,
Virginia,
Kentucky,
15th Congress,
I6th do.
do.
17th
18th
do.
1817.
1819.
1820.
1821.
1823.
•John Q,. Adams,
John C Calhoun,
Henry Clay,
Richard Rush,
James Barbour,
Peter B. Porter,
Samuel L. Southard,
John McLean,
William Wirt.
John W. Taylor,
Andrew Stephenson,
Seventh
Andrew Jackson,
John C. Calhoun,
Martin Van Buren,
Martin Van Buren,
Edward Livingston,
Louis McLane,
John Forsyth,
Samuel D. Ingham,
Louis McLane,
William J. Duane,
Rosfer B. Taney,
Levi Woodbury,
John H. Eaton,
Lewis Cass,
John Branch,
Levi Woodbury,
Mahlon Dickerson,
William T. Barry,
Amos Kendall,
John McP. Berrien,
Roger B. Taney,
Benjamin F. Butler,
Sixth Administration;
Massachusetts,
South Carolina,
1825 to 1829;-
March 4, 1825 President,
do. 1825 Vice President.
Appointed.
Kentucky, March 8,1825 Secretary of State.
Pennsylvania, March 7,1825 Sec'yoflheTreas'y
Virginia, do. 1825 ? o„(,^p,oHp'5 of W ir
New York, May 26,1828^^^"®^^"^^''^^*^*
New Jersev, (continued in office.^ Sec'y of the Navy.
Ohio, {continued in office.) Post Master Gen
Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney GeneraL
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
New York, 19th Congress, 1827.
Virginia, 20th do. 1828.
Administration ;— 1829
Tennessee,
South Carolina,
New York,
New York,
Louisiana,
Delaware.
Georgia,
Pennsylvania,
Delaware,
Pennsylvania,
Maryland,
New Hampshire,
Tennessee,
Ohio,
North Carolina,
New Hampshire,
New .Jersey,
Kentucky,
Kentucky,
Georgia,
Maryland,
New York,
to 1837 ;— 8 years.
March 4, 1829
do. 1829 (
1833 ^
Appointed.
March 6, 1829^
1831 I
1833 f
1835 1
March 6, 1829 i
1831 I
1833 y
1833
ia34j
March 9, 1829 (
1831 (
President.
Vice Presidents.
Secretaries of State,
Secretaries of the
Treasury.
Secretaries of War.
March 9, 1829 ;
183n
18.34 ^
March 9,1829;
1835 S
March 9, 1829 i
1831 > Attorneys General
1834 S
Secretaries of the
Navy.
Post Masters Ge-
neral.
Speakers of the House of Representatives,
Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 21st Congress, 1829.
Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 22d do. 1831.
John Bell, Pennsylvania, 1835
Eighth Administration ;— 1837 to 1841 •
Mirtin Van Buren,
Richard M. Johnson,
John Forsyth,
Levi Woodbuiy,
Joel R. 1 oinsett,
Mahlon Dickerson,
Jamcs K. Paulding,
Amos Kendall,
John M. Niles,
Benjamin F Butler,
Felix Grunvly,
Henry D. Gilpin,
James K. Polk,
Robert M. T. Hunter,
years.
New York, 1837 I'resident.
Kentucky, 1837 Vice President.
Appointed.
Georgia, (continued in office.) Secretary of State.
New Hampshire, (continued in office.) Sec'y of Treasury.
South Carolina, 1837 i
New Jersey, (continued in office.) > Secretaries of Wat
New York, 1838 S
Kentucky, (continued in office.) ? Post Masters Ge-
Connecticut, 1840 ( neral.
New York, (continued in office.) 5
Pennsylvania, > Attorneys GeneraL
Pennsylvania, 1839 )
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
Tennessee,
Virginia.
19».
152
Tin: WORLD S TROGKESS
[ ADii
ADMINISTRATIONS (Unitf.d S/AXios) continued.
Ninth Admiivisxration;— 1841 to 18i5,
William II. Harrison, Ohio,
Died one month aftc .' inauguration, and
John Tyler,
Samuel L. Southard,
Willie P. Maniium,
Virginia,
New Jei'sey,
North Carolina,
Daniel Webster,
Abel P. Upshur,
Thomas Ewing,
Walter Forward,
John C. Spencer,
John Bell,
John C. Spencer,
George E. Badger,
Abel P. Upshur,
David Henshaw,
Francis Grander,
Charles A. WickiifTe,
John J. Crittenden,
Hugh S. Legare,
Jolin Nelson,
John White,
John W. Jones,
-4 years.
1941
1841
1841
1^1
Appointed.
1841
Massachusetts,
Virginia, 1841
Ohio, 1841
Pemisylvania, 1841
New York, 1841
Tennessee, 1841
New York, 1841
North Carolina, 1841
Virginia, 1841
Massachusetts, 1841
New York, 1841
Kentucky, 1841
Kentucky, 1841
South Carolina 1841
Maryland, l&ll
Speakers of the House of Reepresentatives.
Kentucky,
Virginia,
Tenth Administration ; —1845 to 1849 ;— 4 years.
James K. Polk, Tennessee, 1845
George M. Dallas, Pennsylvania, 1845
Appointed.
James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, 1845
Robert J. Walker, Mississippi, . 1845
William L. Marcy, New York, 1845
George Bancroft, Massachusetts, 1845 /
John Y. Mason, Virginia, 1847 *
Cave Johnson, Tennessee, 1845 '
John Y. Mason, Virginia, 1845 \
Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, 1847 <
John W. Davis,
Robert C. Winthrop
Speakers of the House of Representatives.
Indiana,
Massachusetts,
Preside tt.
Vice Presi lent,
became acing Pres.
I Acting V. Pres. and
\ Pres. Senate.
Secretaries of Stat*,
Secretaries of tit*
Tieasuiy.
Secretaries of War.
Secretaries of the
Navy,
Post Masters Gea
eral.
Attorneys Genera.'.
1841
1843
President.
Vice President.
Secretary of State.
Secretary ofTreas.
Secretary of War.
Secretaries of the
Navy.
Post Master Gen.
Attorneys General.
1845.
1847.
Eij:venth Administration;— 1849 to 1853;
Zachary Taylor, Louisiana,
years.
1849 President.
Millard Fillmore,
John M. Clayton,
William E Meredith,
William B Preston,
George W. Crawford,
Thomas Ewing,
Jacob Col lamer,
Reverdy Johnson,
Howell Cobb,
New York,
Delaware,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia,
Georgia,
Ohio,
Vermont,
Maryland,
Speaker of the House
Georgia,
1849 Vice President.
Appointed.
1849 Secretary of State.
1849 Sec'y of Treasury.
1849 Sec'y of the Navy.
1849 Secretary of War.
1849 Sec'y of Interior.*
1849 Post Master Gen.
1849 Attorney General.
of Representatives.
1849.
ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, from the
accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor-
ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : —
KING henry viii. I Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . ?559
Bishop Fisher and Earl of Surrey . 1509 Lord Audley, chancellor; archbishop
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 | Cranmer . . . . 535
* A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849.
JSote. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adminis-
trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents,
were corifirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Seiiatw
»f ^e United States." Am. Almanac^ &c.
M I
DrCTIONARY OF DATES.
153
Ane j^rd Cromwell (earl of Essex) . 153i
Uuice of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and
bishop Gardiner . . . 1540
Lord Wriothesley, earl of Hertford . ]544
KING EDWARD VI.
The earl of Hertford, continued
John, duke of Northumberland . 1552
ftUEEN MARY.
Bishop Gardiner
1553
aUEEN ELIZABETH,
Sir Nicholas Bacon . . . 1558
Sir William Cecil, afterwards lord
Burleigh; chief minister during al-
most the whole of this long reign
Earl of Leicester, a favorite . . 1564
Earl of Essex . . . .1538
Lord Burkhurst . . . 1601
KING JAMES. I.
Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset)
Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North
ampton. . . . ,
Sir R. Carr, created viscount Roches
ter, a^*ericards earl of Somerset
Sir Ge./rge Villiers, created earl, mar
nuess, and duke of Buckingham
1608
1615
KING CHARLES I.
Duke of Buckingham continued
Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628
Archbishop Laud, earl of Strafford,
lord Cottinston . . . 1640
Earl of Essex . . ,' . 1640
Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641
[The civil war commenced, and all
went into confusion.]
KING CHARLES II.
Edward, earl of Clarendon . . 1660
Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 1667
Lord Ashley, Lord Arlington, Sir T.
Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford . 1667
Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created
earl Shaftesbury, and Sir Thomas
Osborne .... 1673
Sir Thomas Osborne . . . 1674
Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, earl
afterwards marquess of Halifax, sir
William Temple . . . 1677
Duke of York, and his friends , 1682
KING JAMES II.
Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel,
sir George afterwards lord .Jeffries 1685
Lord .Jeffries, earl of Tyrconnel, lord
Bellasis, lord Arundel, carl of Mid-
dleton, visct. Preston . , 1087
KING WILLIAM III. AND dUEEN MARY II,
Sir John, afterwards lord Somers, lord
Godolphin, earl of Danby, after-
wards duke of Leeds, «&c. . . 1688
The earl of Sunderland, &c. . .1695
Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of
Halifax, ear! of Pembroke, viscount
LoQsdale, earl of Oxford, &c. . 1697
Q,TTE"N ANNE.
lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord
Pembroke, duke of Buckingham
Duke of Marlborough, &c, . . 17liu
Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dukcb
of Marlborough and Newcastle . 171/?
R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171f''
Earl of Rochester, ord Dartmouth,
and Henry St. John, esq. afterv:ards
visct. Bolingbroke ; lord Harcourt . 17U
Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 17l«
KING GEORGE I.
Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury,
marquess of Wharton, earl oi Or-
ford, duke of Marlooroueh. visct.
Townf-hend, &c. . ' . . J\\
Robert Waipole, esq. . . . \l\l
James, afterwards earl Stanhope . 1713
Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . x716
Robert Waipole, esq. afterwards sir
Robert and earl of Orford . . 17?1
KING GEORGE II.
Lord Carteret, lord Wilmingtt.i, lord
Bath, Mr. Sandys, &c. . , 1742
Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl
of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 174ci
Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, duke
of Bedford, &c. . . . 174t)
Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob-
inson, Henry Fox, <fec., lord Anson 1754
Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt,
earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756
[Dismissed in April, 1757. Restored in
June, same year.]
William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple,
duke of Newcastle, &c. . . 1757
KING GEORGE III.
Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke
of Bedford .... 1761
Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville,
sir Francis Dashwood, «&c. . '. 1762
Right hon. George Grenville, earl of
Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of
Bedford, &c 1763
Marquess of Rockingham, duke of
Grafton, earl of Shelburne, &c. July 1765
Duke of Grafton, hon. Chas. Towns-
hend, earl of c;hatham, «&c. Aug. 1766
Duke of Grafton, right hon. Frederick,
lord North, <fec. . . Dec. 1767
Lord North, lord Halifax, &c. . . 1770
Lord North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stor-
mont, lord Hillsborough, lord St.
Germain, &c. .... 1?/-J
Marquess of Rockingham,right hon'ble
Charles James Fox, &c. Mar. 30, 1782
Earl of Shelburne, William Pitt, lord
Grantham, &c. . July 10, 1782
Duke of Portland, lord North, Mr. Fox,
&c. (The Coalition Ministry. See
" Coalition.") . April 5, ]783
Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Gower,
lords Sidney, Carmarthen, andThur-
low, right hon. W. W. Grenville,
Henry Dundas, lord Mulgrave, duke
of Richmond, &c. . Dec. 27, 178?
Mr. Pitt, lord Camden, marq. of Staf-
ford, lord Hawkesbury, &c. . . 178^
Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, duke of Leeds,
lord Camden, &c. . . . 179(»
Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, earl of Chat-
ham, lord Loughborough, &c. . 179^
ID4
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
1 aDI
Mr. Put. duke of Portland, lord Gren-
ville, Mr. Dundas, &c. . . 1795
Mr. Pitt, earJ of Westmorland, earl
of Chatham, lord Grenville, «fec. . 1798
Right hon. Henry Addington, duke of
Portland, lord Hawkesbury , lord Ho-
barf,, lord Eldon, &c. . , Mar. 17, 1801
Mr. Pitt, lord Melvilb, rt. hon. George
■ Canning, lord Ilan-owby, loi-d West-
morland, duke of Portland, Mr. Dun-
das, <fcc. . . May 12, 1804
Lord Grenville, lord Henry Petty, earl
Spencer, rt. hon. William Wind-
ham, Mr. Fox, lord Erskine, rt. hon.
Charles Grey, lord Sidmouth, «fec.
(See ''AH the Talenls.") Feb. 5, 1806
Duke of Portland, Mr. Canning, lord
Hawkesbury, earl Camden, right
hon. Spencer Perceval, &;c. Mar. 25, 1807
Duke of Portland, earl Bathurst, lord
vicount Castlereagh, lord Granville
Gower, &c 1808
Mr. Perceval, earl of Liverpool, mar-
quess Wellesley, viscount Palmers-
ton, Mr. Ryder,' &c. . . Oct. 1809
REGENCY OP GEORGE, PRINCE OF WALES.
Mr. Perceval, the earl of Liverpool,
&c. continued.
Earl of Liverpool, Earl Bathurst, visct.
Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, Mr.
Ryder, earl of Harrowby, right hon.
Nich. Vansittart, «fcc. June 8, 1812
KING GEORGE IV.
Earl of Liverpool, viscount Sidmouth,
Mr. Vansittart, &c. continued.
Rt. hon. George Canning, lord viscount
Goderich, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Stur-
ges Bourne, &c. . April 10, 1827
Viscount Goderich, duke of Portland,
right hon. William Huskisson, Mr.
Herries, &c. . . August 11, 1827
Duke of Wellington, right hon. Robert
Peel, earl of Dudley, viscount Mel-
ville, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Goul-
bum, Mr. Herries, Mr. Grant, &c.
January 25, 1828
Duke of Wellington, earl of Aberdeen,
sir George Murray, lord Lowther, sir
Henry Hardinge, &c., (Mr. Huskis
son,visc Palraerston, Mr. Grant, earl
of Dudley, &c. retiring) May 30, 1828
KING WILLIAM IV.
Duke of Wellhigton and his cabinet,
continued.
Earl Grey, viscounts Althorpo, Me^
bourne, Goderich, and Palmerston,
marquess of Lansdowne, lord Hol-
land, lord Auckland, sir James Gra-
ham, &c. . . Nov. 22, 1$3C
[Earl (irey resisns May 9, but resumes
office May 18,' 1832.]
Viscount Melbourne, viscount AJthorp,
lord John Russel, viscts. Palmerston
and Duncannon, sir J. C. Hobhouse,
lord Howick. Mr. S. Rice, Mr. Pou-
lett Thomson, «&c, . July 14, 1834
Viscount Melbourne's administration
HJ-,^:tou: trie duke of Wellington
.aices the helm of state provisionally,
waiting the return of sir Robert Peel
from Italy . . Nov. 14, 1834
Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington,
lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen,
lord Ellenborough, lord Rosslyn,
lord Wharncliffe, sir George M urray,
Mr. A. Baring, Mr, Herries, Mr.
Goulburn, &c. . Dec. 15, 1831
Viscount Melbourne and his colleagues
return to office . April 18, 1835
Q,UEEN VICTOKIA.
Visct. Melbourne and the same cabi-
net, continued.
Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839
Sir Robert Peel receives the queen's
commands to form a new adminis-
tration. May 8.
This command is withdrawn, and lord
Melbourne and his friends are rein-
stated . . . May 10, 183^
Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington,
earl of Aberdeen, earl of Hadding-
ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr.
Goulburn, &c. . Aug. 7, 1841
Lord John Russell's administration
July 6, 1846
AD^IIRAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed
by Henry ITI. 1223. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, had
been previously the commanders of their own fleets. The first was appointed
in France, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of
great distinction, and was first given to William de Leybourne by Edward I.
in 1297. — Spelman ; Rijnier.
h OMIRAL LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank waa
created by Richard II. in December 1385 ; there had been previously iilgh
admirals of districts — the north, west, and south. See Navy.
ADMIRALTY, Court of, erected by Edward IH. in 1357. This is a civil court
for the trial of causes relating to maritime afiairs.
ADRIANOPLE Battle of, which got Constantino the empire, was fought July
3, A.T>. 323. Adrii nople was taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1360;
and it continued to be the seat of the Turkish empire tiU the capture of
Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of the most distinguished of the
sultans, and the jne who took Constantinople, was born here in 1430. —
vovj Di ;tionary of dates. 155
Priestley. Adrianople was taken by the Russians, Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was
restored to the sultan at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey.
iI>RIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea
was instituted in a.d. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married
the Adriaticum Mare, by dropping a ring into it from his bucentaur, or state
barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state,
and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, for
the first time for centuries, in 1797.
ADULTEEF, ancient laws against it. Punished by the law of Moses with
the death of both the guilty man and woman. — Leviticus xx, 10. This law
was repealed, first, because the crime had become common ; and secondly,
because God's name should not be Mable to be too often erased by the ordeal
of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged
to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not. — Calmet. Lycurgus
punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans
tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had no formal law against adultery ;
the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it,
and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own chil-
dren.— Lenglet. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery
were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England
the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil
action for a money compensation. — Lord Mansfield.
•AlDULTERY, English Laws against it. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress,
and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. —
Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It w»s punished
by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping
her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, withouo
distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — Sto'we.
The ears and nose were cut off under Canute 1031. Ordained to be punished
capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650 ; but there is
no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained
whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man
were unmarried, and several suffered under it, 1662. — Hardie. At present
this ofience is more favorably viewed ; to divorce and strip the adulteress
of her dower, is all her punishment among us ; but in Romish countries they
usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery. — Ashe.
ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of
the Nativity ; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest
Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after. Advent was
instituted by the council of Tours, in the sixth century,
ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of
merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension
of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296.
This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign
of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation
in 1564. — Anderson.
K f -^VERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now pubHshed, they
were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty
of 50Z. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to
be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754.
— Statutes. The advertisement duty was formerly charged according to the
number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 3s. Qd., and in Ireland
at 2s. 6(i. each adi ertisement. The duty was further reduced, in EnglaniJ
to \s. &d., and in Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833
156 THE world's PRtGRESS. T AFF
^DILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b.c. There were three degree.^
of these officers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices
of the peace. The plebeian rediles presided over the more minute affairs ol
the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all
the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people.— Farro.
iENIGMA. The origin of the senigma is doubtful : Gale thinks that the Jews
borrowed th(jir eenigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The
philosophy of the Druids was altogether jenigmatical. In Nero's time the
Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing
truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond is
an elegant specimen of the a^nigma : —
Hie jacet in tomba, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda;
Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet.
iEOLIAN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Kircher, 1^53 ;
but Richardson proves it to have been known at an earlier period than his.
time. — Dissertation on the Customs of the East. There is a Rabbinical story
of the aerial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night,
was played upon by the north wind. — Banich.
AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole calls him, has
been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The
ancient speculations about artificial wings, whereby a man might fly as well
as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that
hydrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The
true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers Mont-
golfier, 1782. — See Balloon.
<ESOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist the supposed inventor
of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 b.c. .^Esop's
Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables and apologues of wits
both before and after his own time, conjointly with his own. — Plutarch.
^TOLIA. This country was named after ^tolus of Elis, who, having acci-
dentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos. left the Peloponnesus,
and settled here. The inhabitants were very little known to the rest of
Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sy)arta, when they assumed a con-
sequence in the country as the opposers and rivals of the Achseans, to whom
they made themselves formidable as the alhes of Rome, and as its enemies.
They were conquered by the Romans under Fulvius.
The iEtolians begin to ravage the Pelo- i Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other
ponnesus . . . B.C. 282 cities, and destroy with fire all the
They dispute the passage of the Mace- | country they invade . B.C. 201
donians at ThermoftyTse . .223 ! They next invite the kings of Macedon,
Acarnania ceded to Philip as the price
of peace .... 218
Battle of Lamia; the iEtolians, com-
manded by Pyrrhus, ai'e defeated by
Philip of Macedon . . .214
With the assistance of allies, they seize
Oreum, Opus, Tribon, and Dryne . 212
They put to the sword the people of
Syi'ia and Sparta, to coalesce with
them against the Romans . . 195
They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Dem?-
trias in Thessaly . . .194
Their defeat near Thermopylae . .193
They lose Lamia and Amphissa . 192
Made a province of Rome . . 146
eFFINITY, Degrees of. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred v/as
prohibited by the laws of almost all nations, and in almost every age.
Several degrees were prohibited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Leviti-
cus, chap, xviii. In England, a table restricting marriage within certain
near degrees was set forth by authority, a.d. 1563. Prohibited marriages
were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in
1603. All marriages celebrated within the forbidden degrees of kindred are
declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will. IV. 1836.
iGR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 157
AFFIRMATION of the QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an oath
in England a.d. 1696. The affirmation was altered in 1702, and again altered
and modified December 1721.
AFGHANISTAN. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in
India, January 5, 1842. — See India.
AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient
world, and the greatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham. It
was conquered by Belisarius in a.d. 553 et seq. In the seventh century, about
637, ilie Mahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa ; and their descend-
ants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great part of the present popu-
lation. See the several countries of Africa through the volume. Among
the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be men-
tioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768 ; Mungo Park, who made
his first voyage to Africa, May 22. 1795 ; and his second voyage, January 50,
1804, but from which he never returned. See Park. Richard Lander died
of shot-wounds (which he had received when ascending the river Nunn) at
Fernando Po, Jan. 31. 1834. The African expedition, for which parliament
voted 61,O00Z., consisting of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steam-ships,
sailed in the summer of 1841. The vessels commenced the ascent of the
Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the
crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Albert having
ascended the river to Egga 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28, The expedi-
tion was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hard-
ships, Oct. 17.
AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An associ-
ation in Exeter, which was formed in 1588, gave rise to this company. A
charter was granted to a joint stock company in 1618 : a third company was
created in 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; and another formed by let-
ters patent in 1672. and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the pre-
sent company, 23 Geo. H. 1749. See Slave Trade.
AGE: Golden Age, Middle Age, &c. Among the ancient poets, an age was
the space of thirty years, in which sense age amounts to much the same as
generation. The interval since the first formation of man has been divided
into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages ; but
a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the
order assigned by the poets inverted — the first, being a time of ignorance,
would be more properly denominated an iron, rather than a golden age.
Various divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians :
by some the space of time commencing from Constantino, and ending with
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called
the middle age ; the middlo is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of
the world may be reduced to three grand e])ochs. viz., the age of the law of
nature, from Adam to Moses ; the age of the Jewish law, from Moses to
Christ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year.
AGINCOURT, Battle of, between the French and English armies, gained by
Henry V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14,000 were taken
prisoners the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the
dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen,
and men more numerous than the British themselves. Among the slain
were the dukes of Alengon, Brabant, and Bar. the archbishop of Sens, one
marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct, 25, 1415.
~Gol-i smith.
AGRA, Fortress of. termed the key of Hindostan. surrendered, in the war
with the Mahrattas, to the British forces, Oct. 17, 1803. This was once ths
158 TllF world's progress. I ALI
most sp ondid of all the Indian cities,, and now exhibits the most magnificent
ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here ; his
palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous ; Agra then con-
tained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See \Iau-
soleums.
A.GRARIAN LAW, Agraria Lex. This was an equal division among the Ro-
man people of all the lands which they acquired by conquest, limiting the
acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to gain
the favor of the citizens, 486 b.c. It was enacted under the tribime Tibe-
rius Gracchus, 132 b.c. ; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom o(
Rome under Julius Cfesar. — Ltvy ; Vossius.
A G RICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period im-
mediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was,
perhaps, coeval with their early plantation and government. Of the agri-
culture of tlie ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it
was among them the art of sowing corn began ; and the Cretans, Sicilians,
and Egyptians lay claim, the last with most probability, to the honor.
Brought into England by#the Romans, as a science, about a.d. 27.
AGYNNIANS. This sect arose about a.d. 694, and alleged that God forbade
the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority
upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now
flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public
there since 1814.
AIR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the
first cause of every thing created, 530 b.c. The pressure of air was discov-
ered by Torricelli. a.d. 1645. It was found to vary with the height by Pas-
cal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time, have
illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experi-
ments, and numerous inventions have followed from them ; among others,
the air-gun by Guter of Nuremburg in 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by
Otho Guericke at Magdeburg in 1650, and improved by the illustrious Boyle
in 1657 ; and the air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London,
about 1756. See Balloon.
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Peace of. The first treaty of peace signed here wa*(
between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comt6, but
retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. The second, or
celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary,
Spain, and Genoa. By this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in
1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713,
of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in
1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the
part of England by John Earl of Sandwich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct.
7, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia,
assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Cha-
Delle, and a convention signed, October 9, 1818. The sum then due from
France to the allies was settled at 265,000,000 francs.
ALABAMA. One of the United States ; most of its territory was included in
the original patent of Georgia It was made a part of the Mississippi ter-
ritory in 1817 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population Ie
1810 was less than 10 000 ; in 1816. 29 683 ; in 1820, 127,901 ; in 1830,
308,997 ; in 1840, 590 756, including 253,532 slaves. Exports of the State in
1840 amounted to $12 854 694 ; imports, to $574 651
ALBA. Founded by Ascanius, 1152 b.c. and called Longa, because the city
fi.s tended along th ; hill Albanus. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and wa
4I.B I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 159
g<;verned by a race of kings, the descendants of jEneas. Wheu A.muliuf»
dethroned his brother, he condemned Dia, tlie daughter of Numitor, to a
life o? cehbacy, ^j obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal,
therein y to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however,
ftustrated; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of
twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to
be th'-own into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants
were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by
Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and
called tbem Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed
LAipa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled
by a she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of
Dia and Numitor, 75iB.c., and the next year founded Rome. — Varro.
ALBAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once
the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Caesar was
the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban,
who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf-
fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled
the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse-
cution raised by Diocletian, June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was
erected here to his memory by Offa. king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's
was incorporated b)^ Edward VI. 1552.
ALBAN'S, ST.. Battles of. The first between the houses of York and Lan-
caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI.,
of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered
no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists
under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen
Margaret of Anjou, who conquered : in this battle 2500 of the defeated army
perished; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1461.
ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New- York, founded by the Dutch in
1623, and by them named Beaverwyck; capitulated to the Enghsh in 1664,
and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and
Albanj^, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,856 :
in 1830, 24,238; in 1840, 33 721.
ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan-
guedoc, and at Toulouse ; they opposed the disciples of the Church of
Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon
de Montfort commanded against them, and at Bezieres he and the pope's
legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the
Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded
the chief people, drovvTiing the governor's wife, and murdering other
women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17 000
men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England, See Waldenses.
ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called b>
Julius Csesar, on account of the challty cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion
of the country, 54 b.c. The Romans conquered it. and held possession about
400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots.
Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun-
try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornw-all and Wales ; the
Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a
mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See
Britain. — New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir
Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ; explored by Vancouver in
1792.
A.T.BUERA, Battle of, bitween the French, commanded by marshal Soult
160 THE world's PUOGRESa. [ ^^*'
aud the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord
Beresford, May 16, 1811, After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement,
the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant
achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men
previously to their retreat.
ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the
transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a
universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be
had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood: yet
few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after
Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the
first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it
oflf because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had
this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost 1 The Arabians
are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by
Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else
but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus,
about A.D. 410. — F'ab. Bib. Grcss. A license for practising alchemy with all
kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rijmer's
Fad. Doctor Price, of Guildford, pubhshed an account of his experiments
in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to
the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white pow-
der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain
of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ;
but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783.
ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet :
it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans
believe, inimitable \)y any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin.
It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras,
a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing
this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes-
torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God
sent it to their prophet by the Angel Gabriel : it was written about a. d. 610.
— See Koran, Mahometism, Mecca, &lq,.
ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and
among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as
distinguished persons, on account of the experience their age had given
them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro-
vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to a. d. 882. After the Danes
were settled in England, the title was changed to that of earl, and the Nor-
mans introduced that of count, which though different in its original signifi-
cation, yet meant the same thing. Henry HI. may be said to have given
its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in tho
United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor.
AliE AND WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for-
mer where the soil, OAving to its quality, would not grow grapes. — Tooke^
Pantheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 b. c. Herodotus as-
cribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis. the wife
of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very early learned the process of pre-
paring a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the Egyptians. —
Tacitus. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wes-
sex. Booths were set up in England a.d. 728, when laws W( re passed for
their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale
and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles
II., 1660. See Beei\ Wine..
ALG J DICTiOiVARY OF DATES, !6i
aLEMANNI, or All Men, (z. e. men of all nations, , a body of Suevi, defeated
by Caracalla, a, d. 214. On one occasion 300 000 of this warlike people art
said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus, at the!
head of 10,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans aud
Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. — Gibbon.
ALEXANDF]R, Era of, dated from the deaih of Alexander the Great, Novem-
ber 12, 323 B. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation
was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in conse-
quence, the year 1 a. d. was equal to 5503. lliia computation continued to
the year 284 A. D., Avhich was called 5786. In the next year (285 a.d.),
which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date ])e-
came 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, uohich see. The date is-
reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and
after that time by subtracting 5492.
ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by
Alexander the Great. 332 b. c. ; taken by Cfesar, 47 b. c, and the library of
the Ptolemies, containing 400 000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered
oy the Saracens, whtn the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was
totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for
six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph
Omar, a. d. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures
of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by tlie
Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas-
sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memoral^le
battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria Avas again taken by
the British, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by
them. Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Syria and Turkey.
AliEXANDRlA, Battle of, between the French, under Menou, who made the at-
tack, and the British arm3^ under Sir Ralph Abercrombie. amounting to about
15 000 men, which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The
British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded.
ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by
Alexander of Paris and since called after him, Alexandrines, about a. d.
1164. — Nouv. Diet. Pope, in his Essay on Crliicisvi, has the following well-
known couplet, in which an Alexandrine is ha])pily exemplified: —
" A needless Alexandrine ends the song,
Tha^ like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-long."
ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used and by whom, is not precisely
known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about a. d. 170 ; he is said
to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and
into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra-
ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym-
bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into
general use. — Moreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of tha
doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668.
AXGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman province,
44 B. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the
kSpaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he
seized the government, a. d. 1516 ; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tur-
key.— Prirsiley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most
powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet
and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was
reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacific measures
with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European pow-
ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 \ and of Spain, in 1775
162 THE WORLD'S TROGRESS.
ALfil
1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by the British fleet, mder lord Exmoulh,
Aug. 27, 1816, wlien a new treaty followed, and Chrisiian slavery was abol-
ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and
Duperre, after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed,
and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry
announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834.
Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which
the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836.
General Damremont attacked Constantina {which see), Oct. 13, 1837 ;" since
when various other engagements between the French and the natives, havo
taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, De( . 22,
1847. See Morocco.
A.LI, Sect op. Founded by a fanivus Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma-
homet, (having married hit daughter Fatima,) about a. d. 632. Ali was
called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God, always victorious ;" and the Persians
follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho-
metans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of remark,
that the first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman. and
Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his religion,
and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the '• cut-
ting s word « of "God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody impos-
tor's faml.y was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease.
Ali was assassinated in 660.
ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to a. d. 1377. When
they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to bo half foreigners, if
they so desired. 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or
handicraft by retail, 1483.
ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, a. d. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows,
in the Protestant church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints
and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned.
The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the
year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very
remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a
great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were
connected with popular feeling or tradition.
ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest
instances, of which Blair gives Psalrti Ixxx. ver. 8, 16. as a specimen. Spen-
ser's i^acn't: Queene is an allegory throughout; Addison, in his Spectator,
abounds in allegories ; and the Pilorim's Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is per-
fect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich :'n allegory.
ALLIANCES. Treaties of, between the high European Power? . See Coalition,
Treaties, &c.
Alliance of Leipsic . . April 9, 1631
Alliance of Vienna . May 27, 1657
Alliance, the Triple . . .Tan. 28, 1668
Alliance of Warsaw March 31, 1683
Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689
Allianco, the Hague Jan. 4. 1717
Allance, the Quadruple . Aug, 2. 1718
Alliance of Vienna March 16, 1731
Alliance of Versailles . May 1, 1756
Germanic Alliance . .July' 23. 17S5
Alliance of Paris . . May 1 6! 1795
Alliance of Petersburg April 8^ 1805
Austrian Alliance . March 14, !812
Alliance of Sweden . March 24 1812
Alliance of Toplitz . Sept. 9. 1S13
Alliance, the Holy . Sept. 26, 1815
ALMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen-
dars were anciently m use. Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri-
tish Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs.
. Michael Nostrodamus. the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the
style of Merli?!, 1566. — Dufresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were
Poor Robin's Almancc
. 1G52
Lady's Diary
, . 170&
Moore's Almanac
. 1713
Season oa the Seasons
. . 1735
Gentleman's Diary
. 1741
Nautical Almanac ,
. . 1767
Poor Richard's Almanac, (Franklin's,
Philadelphia) . . . . 1733
4LUj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 163
A.LMANACS, co7itinued.
Jobn Somer's Calendar, written in Ox-
ford 1380
On« in Lambeth palace, written in . 1460
FirfJt printed one, published at Buda . 1472
First printe.! in England, by Richard
Pynson .... 1497
Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1533
Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . ''644
Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold.
The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until
1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this
company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was
abolished in England, 1834.
ALMEIDA, Battle of, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com-
manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was
defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas-
se)ia to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him ; but the route
of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation.
ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and
wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c. — Blair. But Josephus
affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though
this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the
Pka^nician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks aupha, and
abbi-eviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived
from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought
the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol-
lowing : —
A, B, r, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, n, P, 2, T, T.
Those letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char-
acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the
Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented
the double characters, 0, X, *; E about 1224 b. c. ; and Simoni'des added Z,
T, H, X2, about 489 b. c. — Arundellan Marbles. When the E was introduced
is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters
till 399 B. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small
letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets
of the difierent nations contain the following number of letters : —
English .
French
Italian
Spanish
ALPHONSINE TABLES • Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com-
mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the
Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000
crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface^
written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252.
AI«TARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti-
tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. c. He introduced among the Greeks
the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. — Hero-
dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 186 ;
and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar
in Britain was in 634. — Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed
churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup-
ported their use.
ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rdcha, in Syria, about a. d. 1300 ;
it was found in Tuscany, in 1460 j was brought to perfection in England, Id
. 26
German .
. 26
Greek .
. 24
Turkish .
. 33
.23
Sclavonic
. 27
Hebrew
. . 22
Sanscrit
. 50
.20
Russian .
. 41
Arabic
. 28
and
.27
Latin .
22
Persian
. . 32
Chinese
. 214
l64 THE WORLl S PROGRESS. [ AM2
1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum
is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and
to whiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulj Oiu-
ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; but it is usually obtained
by means of ore called alum slate.
AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru,
Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com-
panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and
gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called
Maranon.
A MAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend-
ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having
made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their
enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under-
went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female
state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri-
mony was a shameful servitude ; but to perpetuate their race, .hey, at stated
times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qumtus Citrtiui,
They were conquered by Theseus, about 1281 b. c. The Amazons were con-
stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more
force, their right breasts were burned oil", whence their name from the
Greek, non and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the
Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with
him. in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior; three hundred
females were in her train. — Herodotus.
AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to
another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun-
tries they have great and peculiar jorivileges ; and in England, among others,
they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas-
sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a
lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their
protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas-
sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa-
dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them
to be imprisoned three months and the other fined. May 12, 1780. — Phillips.
AMEER. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a
medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c.
Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of
the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails
among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer-
ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king-
dom; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in
favor of each opinion.
AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself In that language it means
true, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im-
plies, so Be it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally
used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer.
AMENDE HoNORABLF,, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first
an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the
offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped
off a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into
court and was obliged to pray pardon of God. the king, and the country. Deatli
or lianishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used for
making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party.
AMM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 1 6S
AMERICA: See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno-
ese, better known as Christopher Columbus, a.d. 1492, on the 11th of Octo«
ber, on which day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands.
This grea"^' navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east-
ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci ( Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ;
and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named.
Newlbundiand, the first British colony
in this quarter of the worldj discover-
ed by Cabot, and by him called
Prima Vista 1497
Virginia, the first English settlement
on the main land . . . 1607
New England, the second, by the Piy •
mouth company . , .1621
New York, settled by the Dutch . . 161^
[For other occurrences, see Tabular
Views — United jSlates. See also
separate states, Maine, &c.
AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast
portion of the Western World, had the largest aii«d richest share of it. When
they landed in Peru, a. d. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called
Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but the^ were soon
subdued by their invaders imder the command of Francis Pizarro. The
cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be
a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted
its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence
in 1810 ; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the
people in July. 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending
chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke
of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United
States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823, et scq. ;
and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Brazil, Colombia, Lima, Peru, &c.
AMERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of
776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This
did not include authors of mere pamphlets, which would have swelled the
number three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very
moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo-
logy. Sermons, &c.. 259; Poetry, 57 ; History and Biography, 80; Politics
and Law. 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are
repeated.]
AIVIETHYSTS. When this <5tone was first prized is not known ; it was the ninth
in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name
Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according
to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water.
One worth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a dia-
mond in lustre valued at 18 000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemmarum.
Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755, — Burns.
AMIENS. Peace op, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain; the
preliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbury and
M. Otto, on the part of England and France. Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive
treaty was subscribed on March 27. 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for
England. Jose})h Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpen-
ninck for Holland.
AISIMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot; they invaded the
land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated
* Las Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spania rds while pursuing their conquests, records
many instances of it that fill the mind with horror. In .Jamaica, he says, they hanged the unre-
sisting natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them
throw the Indian infants to their dogs for food! "1 have heard them," says Las Casas, "borrow
the limb of a human being to f?ed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter ol
another victim to the lender !"
166 THE world's progress. [ ASA
by Jephthah, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul,
with an intention to put out the right eye of aU those they subdued, but
Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van-
quished ; and Antiochus the Great tookRabboath their capital, and destroyed
all the walls, 198 b. c. — JosepJms.
AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by
Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul-
sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends :
having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with
two branches of olive. 409 b. c. — Hume's Essays.
AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictycn, for
the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council,
which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some c:'ties
of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 b. c. Other cities in process
of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons.
and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty.
— Siildas.
AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Ciesar
and Curio: the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in
full senate " Oinnluni mulierum virum, et omnium viro mm viuliei-em.'" In the
Roman amphitheatres which were vast round and oval buildings, the people
assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi-
bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one
of stone, under Augustus Csesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built
A. D. 79; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi-
theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes.
AMSTERDAINI. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its
building, as a city, wa'i commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange was
built in 1634 ; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world
in 1648 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that
time. It is built upon 13.659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is,
for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel
in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince
invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were
admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was
restored in November, 1813. See Holland.
AMULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The
Egyptians had a great variety; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians.
Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the
passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Plinv.
Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood
of the true cross, about a. d. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion
and a.strology. and even in modern times by medical and other sciences —
witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and
sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe.
ANA BAPTISTS. This sect arose about a. d. 1525, and was known in England
before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi-
asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap-
tists of Munster (who are. of course, properly distinguished from the existing
mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriv-
ance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in
spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster
they called Mount Zi-on and one Mathias. a baker, was declared to be the
king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and
A.NG J DICTIOJNARY OF DATES. 167
they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Miinster was
taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The
anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than tlia
not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the
representatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689.
ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain,
named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 b. c. The
odes of Anacreon are much prized ; their author lived in a constant round
of diunkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in hi^
eight^'-tifth year. — Stanley's Lives of Uie Poets.
jVNAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mcry,
the name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to our
Saviour. " Quid est Veritas?" we have this admirable anagram, ''Est vir qui
adest." The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in
the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — Henault.
ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews : the ana-
thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. W«
have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (sec JosJiua vi. 17)
Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. t>uch ecclesias-
tical denmciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza-
beth's reign. — Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica-
tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic
countries to this day. — Ashe.
ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philoso-
phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of
medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratus and Hero-
philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy : they were the first
to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to
brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living-
criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied
with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and, until lately, the bodi«s
of executed ci'iminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical
plates were designed by Vesalius, about a. d. 1538. The discoveries of
Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680.
— ['''reind's History of Physic.
ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many
of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus-
terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun-
ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept-
able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi-
nal. The order first arose in the fourth century.
ANCHORS FOR SHIPS are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the
Tuscans — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the
Scythian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The
anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will
weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost .£450. — Phillips.
A NEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in-
vented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind
to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds.
A NGEIJC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a. d. 456. The
Angelici were instituted by Arigelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople,
1191 I'he Anselicof, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa
Torolli, A. D 1534.
158 THE world's progress. [ant
ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some
will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; otliers, before
all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cave'.
Hist. Literat. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have ro-
cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies.
ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing
four pennjAveights, and was valued at 6s. M. in the reign of Henry VL, and
at IO5. in the reign of Elizabeth, 15G2. The angelot was an ancient gold
coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hand.-^
of the English, in the reign of Henry VL, 1431. — Wood.
ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made
to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible,
as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the
Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book
printed on angling, appeared in 149G. Isaac Walton's book was printed in
1653.
ANIMAL IMAGNETISM. This deception was introduced oy father Hehl, at
Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had
its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards.
It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means o^ sympa-
thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the
patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features
of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose
eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina-
tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor-
tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn.
ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil-
lage near Sleswick^ called An glen, whose population joined the first Saxon
freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a
kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs,
Ufta, assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See
Britain.
ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews,
Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first
notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr.
Burnet.
ANNO DOMINI ; in the year of our Lord ; used by the Christian Avorld, and
abbreviated a.d. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of
our Saviour and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See
Era. Charles III. of G<n'many was the first sovereign who added "in the
year of our Lord " to his reign, in 879,
ANTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north
or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and
64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French
and American Exploring Expeditions, under D Urville and V/ilkes. respec-
tively on the same day, Jan. 19 1840; a coincidence the more singular, as
the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was
coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy,
fell in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the
year 1830.
A^TEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of
people in the ancient world, or ^vorld as it existed previous to the Flood,
reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions, in the year of the world
1482. Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at tht"
ANT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. i69
end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from these, allowing
them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, wouM
rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable
of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and
then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu-
ries that preceded the Flood : —
I. .
. 10
V.
. 2,560
IX. .
. 6.55,360
xm. .
. 167,142,160
II.
. . 40
VI. .
, . 10,240
X.
. 2,621,440
XIV.
67] ,088,640
III. .
. 160
vn. .
40,960
XI. .
10,485,760
XV. .
2,684,354,460
IV.
640
VIII.
163,840
xn.
. 41,943,040
XVI.
. 10,737,418,213
This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen,
by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, whith, at the highest
estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions.
\N'THEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose, were
the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. —
Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386. — Baker.
Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose
into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches
in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565.
ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the
world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by
Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus.
Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of
other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea
Islands, &c.
ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients
to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo-
men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in
eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes
types xbr printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to
its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is suffi-
cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle.
We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro-
cesses, about 1410. — Priestley.
ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538.
The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold
that crimes are not crimes when committed by them, that their own good
works are of no effect ; that no man should be troubled in conscience for
sin, and other equally absurd doctrines.
ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b. c. In one
day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once
the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Chris-
tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers
attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation
5492 years b. c.
VTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti-
podes existed, about 368 b. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate ol
pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain-
ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east
of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes
island. — Brookes.
ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc-
tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption
of the Goths into Italy, in a. d. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have
existed in Ireland 700 years b. c. ; but this has very little pretensions to
a
170 THE world's PROGhESS. [ APO
credit. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, Stowe, and
others, in 1572. — Spelnian. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for
a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from
favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it re-
ceived its charter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish its
discoveries, &c., under the title of Archccologia, in 1770. The Society of
Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780.
ANTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New- York,
an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer
estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846,
See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases thera
from prison, Jan. 27, 1847.
ANTI- TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been
the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the
second century. T:iis doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it
was adopted by Lailius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. — See Arians, Socini-
atis, and Utiitarians.
ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a. d. 517. Its fine exchange built
in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma,
in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars
caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The
remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street,
was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which
he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war
between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolu-
tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the
Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel,
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief,
Oct. 27, 1830, General Chasse surrendered the citadel to the French after
a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium.
APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about
A. D. 95. — Irenceus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic,
and others to John, the presbj^ter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many
churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the
sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by
Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from
the time of Justin Martyr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in
A. D. 139.
APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are
neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history
of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon,
but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged
by the council of Trent, held in 1545, et seq. — Aske.
A POLLIN ARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who
taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; thai his
flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent
down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel;
that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &g
Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378.
APOLLO, Temples of. Apollo, the god of all the tine arts, of medicine, music
poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost
every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid
temple was at Delphi, built 1263 b, c. — See Delphi. His temple at Daphnae,
ara] dictionary of dates. 171
built 434 B. c, during a period in which pestilence raged, was burn^ iu a, d.
362, and the Christians accused of the crime. — Lenglet.
APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of behef of the Chrisiian faith, called the
Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while
after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship
was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the
Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church of
England at the period of the reformation, in 1534.
APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the
second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who w^as burned alive at Parma, a. d,
300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled
hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit-
ual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of
Rome, and predicting its downfall.
APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, oy which they
raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the
East were the first who paid divine honors to tlieir great men, and the
Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and
humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. — Herodian.
This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augus-
tus, in favor of Julius Caesar, b. c. 13. — TUlemont.
AITEAL OF MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of
murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt
or innocence. In 1817. a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have
been violated and murdered by Abraliam Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed
his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed; but the appellant
(the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped,
April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from off the
statute book, 59 George III., 1819.
APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early
business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they
valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at
the price appraised. 1282.
APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation,
but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having
introduced Januarius and Februarius before it 713 b. c. — Peacham.
AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by
Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the
sacrament, and used nothing but water.
AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct,
which was therefore called the Appian-v)ay , about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of
every kind were among the wonders of 'Rome.—Livy. There are now some
remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and
beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles
long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupen-
dous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and
126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805.
AQUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of
England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a
principality in 1862, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke
of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this
duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI,
ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians
made no figure in history till a. d. 622, when, under the new name of Sara-
172 THE world's progress. [arc
cens. they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro-
phet, and made considerable conquests. — PriesUcy.
AUBELA, Battlk of. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the
Great and Darius Codomanus. which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b. c.
The army of Darius consisted of 1.000.000 of foot and 40,000 horse; the
Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse. — Arrian
The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis. and Babylon,
which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster-
ling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed
to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. — Plutarch.
K RC ADIA. The people of this country Avere very ancient, and reckoned them-
selves of longer standing than the moon; they were more rude in theii
manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley
surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, ru
being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery
Ihey honored him as a god 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose
history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of military glory,
although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of
other states. — Eu^tathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by (Eno-
trus into Italy, 1710 b.c. and the country in which it settled was afterwards
called Magna (rrcBcia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Idevi.
AUCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha-
nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly
coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into
England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-TTsk ; but
soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can-
terbury, A. D. 596.
ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England,
and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the fii'st or eldest dea-
con, who attended on the bishop, without any power; but since the council
of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest,
though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to
A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an
appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532.
ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful ouinion of the poet Clau-
dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was
offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu-
nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the
earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded
by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by
Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on whicb
was written " Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and
Philip threw back the arrow with these words: "If Philip take the town,
Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word.
ARCHERY IN England. It was introduced previously to a. d. 440, and Ha
rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bowj*
of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which killed
the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England
in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy,
Poitiers, and Agincourt. were won chiefly by archers. The usual range o\
the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, it
is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the
houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich-
ard II. 1397. — Stflwe. The citizens of London were formed into companiea
of arclrers in the reign of Edward III. : they were formed into a corporat*
k.3.G ] DICTTONARY OF DATES. 173
body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henrv YIIL 1538.
— Northoulis History of London.
A.RCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the
best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature
in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a. d. 114) and Constantino
were magnificent.
ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 b. c. Their
King, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials^
for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 e.g. The ait
passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came
into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged
during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the
ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known by elliptic arches
and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from
the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not
fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603.
A.RCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern
ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con-
tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this
dignity, 1070 b. c.
ARCOLA. Battle of, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the
Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of
this bloody conflict. Avhich was fought for eight successive days, was the
loss on the part of the Austrians of 12 000 men, in killed, wounded, and
prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns.
ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and
some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first
Englishman Avho attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576.
"Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a
number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted
to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin'' s Bay. For the subsequent
and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan,
Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., see North-West Passage.
AREOPAGITtE. a famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be-
cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c.
- Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areas pagos, the
///// of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur-
der of Hallirhotius, Avho had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever
causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine
speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg-
ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions.
ARGENTARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought iu
Alsace, between the Alkmauni and the Romans, the former being defeated
by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a. d. 37S,
— Dufresnoy.
ARGONAUllC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of
Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship
in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the
figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason
was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition
on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first
heroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its
builder, 1263 b. c. — Dufresnoy.
A'RGOS. This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 b. c, or 1080 years b©
1 74 THE world's progress. [ ARK
fore the first Olympiad. — Blair. The nine kings from the founder wer«
called InachidcB, of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to
the country. When the Heraclidae took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c,
1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards »
republic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of Greece. — Eurii. '
Inachus founds the kingdom
Phoroneus reigns sixty'years . 180"
Apis reigns thirty-five years . . 1747
The ■
Hypermnestra, who saved her hus-
band, while her forty -nine sisters sa-
crificed theirs. (See Flambeaux) B.C. 1425
Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose life
had been preserved by his wife, de-
throne? Danaus . . , . ! 125
Reign of Abas ... 1384
Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri-
sius 1361
Bellerophon comes to Argos ; the pas-
sion for him of Sthenobcea . . 136i
Rebellion of Acrisius .... 1344
Perseus leaves Argos, and founds My-
cenae (which see.) .... 1313
The city of Argos built by Argus, son
ofNiobe 1711
Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his
father, and reigns .... 1641
Reign of Triopas; Polycaon seizes
part of the kingdom, and calls it af-
ter his wife, Messenia . . 1-552
Reign of Crotopus .... 1506
Sthenelus reigns .... 1485
Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474
Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of
Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a. d. 1686. It was
lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826.
Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present
and first king, January 25, 1833. See Greece.
ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny v^e
divinity of Christ: they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned
by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the
reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carried
into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the
Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence
arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve-
tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de VHeresie.
ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty.
It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 b. c. The
oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his
Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used
A. D. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of
Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine
digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan —
introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050 — into Eng-
land. 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters,
is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in
England on arithmetic {de Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Dur-
ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier
in his Rabdologia, in 1617.
ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being
the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c.
But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck
th(!re with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this
place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in
breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about
a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told,
three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for
birds, and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, but came near the
figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a
door in the first floor, and a great window in the third.
h RK ANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase
It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union
in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves
AAM ] DICTIOI'ARY OP DATES. 17.1
AJIMADA. The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con-
sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C'
volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel,
July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten
fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put
to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and
Graveiines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral
Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obhging
the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis«
persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North
Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement,
and 5,000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland,
and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The
English lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hume.
ARMAGH, See of, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by
St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444.
ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers,
against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780; but
its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty
ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow-
ers. December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral
bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British
cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den-
mark before Copenhagen, Ajjril 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was
obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to
the empire of the sea; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved.
ARMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 234T
B. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar-
menia, fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original wor
shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis. to whose
priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters,
prior to marriage. — Martiii's Memoires sur VArmenie.
City of Artaxarta built . . B.C. 186
Tigranes the Great reigns . . 93
He is called to the throne of Syria, as-
sumes the fastidious title of " King of
Kings," and is served by tributary
princes . . . . .83
Artaxias is deposed . . B. c. 30
He is restored to his throne, and dies. —
Blair -1
Reign of Venones . . a. d. 16
Zenon reigns . . . .18
Tigranes IV. reigns
Tigranes defeated by Lucullus . 69 He is cited to Rome, and deposed . 37
Again defeated, and lays his crown at Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power
the feet of Pompey . . 66 i paramount in Armenia . 62
His son, Artavasdes, reigns . . 54
Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju-
lius Caesar . . . .43
Artavasdes assists the Parthians against
Marc Antony ... 36
Antony subdues, and sends him loaded
with silver chains to Egypt, to grace
Armenia i-educed to a Persian province
under Sapor . . . 365
Subdued by the Saracens . . 687
Irruption of the Turks . . 755
Agam made a Persian province, under
Uffan Cassanes . . . 1472
Subdued by Selim H. . . 1522
his triumph . . . .34 Overrvin by the Russians . . 1828
The Armenian soldiers crown his son, Surrender of Erzeroum . July 1829
Artaxias .... 33 (See Syria.)
ARMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a, d, 552 : the Ecclesiastical
year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years
and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August
10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre-
spondence with Europeans.
ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a
manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their
176 THE world's progress. [ akm
natural position and motion, the whole being comprised in a frame It is
said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 b. c.
ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption,
and generally espousfe the principles of the Church of England : especially
asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil poweis.
They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as tbeii necessity^ in
securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles L favored the doctrines ol
the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland
and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618.
Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. — Brandt.
ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the
twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban-
ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order
at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote
colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum-
biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798 — and again in 1808.
ARINTOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other iefence 'han
the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron
armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons
was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the
well-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacikcs. This latter continued till the Anglo-
Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy
cavalry were covered with a coat of mail. Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen
had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid
about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used,
not only for battle, but for mourning Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry
VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500.
Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of
Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem-
orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. — Meyrtck.
ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace,
battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles
were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the
Phoenicians. See the various weapons through the volume.
ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of
fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing
army were formed by Saul, 1093 b. c. — Eusehius. One of the first standing
armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The
first standmg army, existing as such in modern times, was maintained in
France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by
Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles 11.
1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following
armies: Spain 150.000 men ; Great Britain. 310 000; Prussia. 350.000; Tur-
key, 450.000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, 560.000; and France. 680,000.
ARMY. BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King-
dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums vot«d
for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returD.s and other oflScial
records :
17C0, Time of war ; troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men . . eum vote J jE7,847,OO0
1800, War ditto 168,000 men . . ditto 17,973.000
1810, War ; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 26.748!000
181.5, Last year cf the war . . . ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39;i50,000
1820, Time of peace ; war incumbrances . ditto 89,100 men . . ditto 18,253,000
1830, Peace ditto 89,300 men . . ditto 6,991,000
In 1845, the array, of all ranks numbered 100,011 men: and the sum voted
was jC 4,487 753. See Militia and Volunteers.
ASS I DICTIONARY CF DATES. 177
AUTILLERY. The first piece was a small one. contrived by Schwartz, a Ger-
man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery
V was used, it is said, 'by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege ot
1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy. in
1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the
battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first
employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1S77.-^ Voltaire. Cast in
England, together with mortars for bomb-shells by Flemish artists in Sussex,
1541^. — Rijvii's Fadera. Made of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne,
1728. See Iron.
ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was
composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic,
arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society
of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of
Arts to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics,
M as instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and
of its first president lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the
artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this
society, and was re])eated there for several years, till, in process of time, the
Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art-
ists was instituted May 21. 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April
19, 1824. — See British Museum ; British Institution ; National Gallery, <^c.
ARUNDELIAN MARBLES ; containing the chronology of ancient history from
1582 to 355 B. c. and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of
87 statues. 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the Isle of
Paros, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord
Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. 'i'he characters are
Greek, of which there are two translations : by Seidell, 1028 ; by Prideaux,
1676. — See Kidd''s Tracts ; and Porson's Treatise, 1789.
ASCALON, Batti.e of ; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris-
tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other
infidiels. No less than 40.000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of
battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Rymer.
ASH- WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent
until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix 111. , in a. d. 487,
first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the
number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink-
ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of
Dies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was
abolished, "as being a mere shadow, or vain show."
ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceamis
and Tethys. and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world
peopled ; here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the
greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of
the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon.
ASPERNE, Battle of, between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles,
and the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809. and two following days. In
this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000
men, and the loss of the French was more than 30,000 : it ended in the defeat
of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that he
had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat
endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial eflfect on
the subsequent prosecution of the war.
ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles-
bury and others to assassinate king WiUiam in., near Richmond, Surrey, ai
8*
178 THE world's progress. [ ASS
he came ftom Imnling-. The object of the conspiracy was 1o have been con*
summated February 15, 1695-6, but for its' timely discovery by Prendergast.
— Hist. England.
ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria,, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans,
settled in Persia, in a. d, 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land
among the mountains of Lebanon, They murdered the marquis of Mont-
ferrat in 1192 ; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; the khan of
Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in
1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed the
title of '^Ancient of the Mountains^
ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for fur-
nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves, — Burke. It
began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the
treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furiLsh
4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to
Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea.
ASSIGN ATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the
revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At
one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions
of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen-
dencies.— Alison.
ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the
Virgin Mary, Avho, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her
corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mary is reported to
have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted
in 813.
ASSURANCE. See Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius
ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Caesar, a. d. 43. It is certain that assu-
rance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concern-
ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it appears to have been known in
Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a
precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries ; but the
first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth,
1601. — Molineaux's Lex Mercatoria.
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire— that of Bacchus
wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the
Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the
union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter
founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last-
named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace,
with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all
perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy-
rians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — IjengUt.
The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. Babylon and makes it the seat of her
6 ; xi. I.— Blair - - B.C. 2247 <iomimon.~Lenglet -_ b. c. 2017
The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 " •
Astronomical observations begun by
the Chaldeans - - - 2234
Belus reigns 55 years. — Usher - 212^
Ninus, son of Bolus, reigns m Assyria,
and names his capital after himself - 2069
Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having
subdued the Armenians, Persians,
Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab-
lishes what is properly the Assyrian
monarchy, of which Nineveh was the
seat of empire. — Blair ■ - 2059
Samiramie enlarges and embellishes
Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia,
and India. — Lenglet - - • 1975
The Arabs seize Nineveh • - - 1937
Belochus, the last king of the race of
Ninus. — Blair - - . . 1446
He makes " his daughter, Artossa, sur-
named Semiramis II., his associate
on the thi'one • - - - 1433
Belatores reigns .... 1421
*****
The prophet Jonah appears m <jm
streets of Nineveh —Blair - • 840
Nineveh taken by Arbaces - . 896
AST ]
THE WORLD'S PROtJRESS.
1/V*
A^SSYRIA, Proper. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul
the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 e.g., and
the kingdom continued until 621 b.c, whenSarac, or Saraanapalus II.. heing
besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death,
and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda-
napalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh was then razed to the ground,
and the conquerors divided Assyria.— ^Zatr. It was finally conquered by
the Turks in 1637 a. h.— Priestley.
Sennacherib invades Judea, ard his ge-
777 neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa-
lem, when the angel of the Lord in one
night destroys 180,000 of his army.—
- 770 Isaiah xxxvii. - b. c. 711
[Commentators suppose that this mes-
senger of death was the fatal blast
740 known in eastern countries by the
name of Samiel.]
Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes
Babylon.— jy/G/r - - - 690
He invades Judea — Blair ■ • - 677
721 Holofernes is slain by Judith • - 677
Saosduchinus reigns. — Usher • -667
713 Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621
PV.ul raised to the throne, about the
year.— Blair ■ • B.C.
He invades Israel, but departs without
drawing a sword.— JS/atr; 2 Kings
XV. 19, 20 ■ - ■
Tielath-Pileser invades Syria, takes
Damascus, and makes great con-
quests ....
§halmanezer takes Samaria, transports
the people, whom he replaces by a
colony of Cutheans and others, and
thus finishes the kingdom of Israel.
—Blair . . - . -
He retires from before Tyre, after a
siege of five years. — Blair
ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence
was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in
vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Henault. The
early history of astrology in England is very little known : Bade was addicted
to it, 700; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated
the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the
humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the
Stuarts w^as the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made
ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this
period ; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting
his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 161:7. — Ferguson.
ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of
Babylon, about 2234 b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad-
vanced in Chaldasa under Nabonassur ; it was Imown to the Chinese about
1100 B. c. ; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed
at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth,
and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Further
discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, ana
believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c. Hipparchus began
his observations at Rhodes, 167 b. c. — began his new cycle of the moon in
143, and made great advances in the science, 140 b. c. The precession of
the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov-
ered, \)Y Ptolemy, a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during
which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800 ;
and was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain,
but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography.
The Alphonsine tables (which see) were
composed - - - A. i). 1284
Clocks first used in astronomy, about - 1500
True doctrine of the motions of the pla-
netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530
The science greatly advanced by Tycho
Brahe, about - - - - 1582
True laws of the planetary motions, by
Kepler 1619
Telescopes and other instruments u.-ed
in astronomy, about • - - 1627
The discoveries of Galileo were made
about . . - . -1631
The transit of Venus over the sun's disk
first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 a.d. 1639
Cassini draws his meridian line, after
Dante.— See Bologna ■ - - 1655
The aberration of the light of the fixed
stars discovered by Horrebow - 1659
Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669
Map of the moon constructed by He ve-
lius 1670
Motion of the sun round its own axi.s
proved by Halley - - . 1678
Discoveries of Huygens - - . i68fi
Newton's Principia published, and th«
180 THE world's progress. [ayb
ASTRONOJNIY continued.
system as now taught incontrovertibly
established ■ - - a. d. 1687
Catalogue of the stars made by Flam-
stead ..... 1688
Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by
Cassini - - - - . 1701
Aberration of the stars clearly explained
by Dr. Bradley . - - -1737
Celestial inequalities found by La
Grange 1780
Dranus and satellites discovered by
Herschel, March 13.— See Georgium
Sidus - . - .1781
Mecanique Celeste, published by La
Place 1796
Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan 1 • 1801
Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, March 28 • 1802
Juno, by Harding, Sept. 1 - - - 1804
Vesta, by Olbers" - - - 1807
Neptune, by Le Verrier - . - 184(3
United States astronomical expedition
to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut.
Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 1849
The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from
lis than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles;
so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of
them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course
thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from
the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but
the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that
their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par-
ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four
hundred years ago. — Objects of Science.
ASYLUMS, OR Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for
those who, by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them
obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for
this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens,
to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus
built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the
coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high,
that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy-
lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be Avhat it would ; of which very
ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were
secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salis-
bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens,
the Savoy, Clink. Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This
security was abolished a. d. 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed
until the reign of George L — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries.
ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard-
ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 333 and 351.
Athanasius. who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution
at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for
them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by
most authorities to have been written about the year 340; but it is affirmed
by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen-
tury.— Du Pin.
ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi-
nosa, a foreigner, was its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini
publicly taught atheism in France, and Avas condemned to be burnt at Tou-
louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and
had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled
to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciares, because
they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men
of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England
we have had writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe. "Though a small
draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will
certainly bring him back again *i0 the belief of a God." — l^rd Bacon. " Si
4TT ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 181
Dieu n^existait fas il faudrait Vinventer ;" If a God did not exist, it would
be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire.
ATHENE A. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of
Minerva. One of them was called Panathenaea, and the other Chalcea ;
they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseua
afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people
of Athens, the first every fifth year, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch.
\\ HEN^UM, A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and
philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated
Athenaea were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great
beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125.^
Tilleiiio tit's Life of Adrian.
Al'HENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent
ruins yet attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor.
The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned
in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge
took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or
Noah's flood^i that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two
hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by
whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first
state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising a period of 487 years^
but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous ; in its second
state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in
its third state by seven decennial archons, whose inile extended over 70 years,
and. lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years.
Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized
themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and
perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short
space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to
distinguish Athens in a more peculiar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes
of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204,
and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro-
vince of European Turkey; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece,
and the seat of its legislature, established under King Otho I., January 25th,
1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from
B. c. 1556 to B. c. 21.
ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere,
stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79
B.C. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630;
its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by
Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was
ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish ,
and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737.
ATTAINDER, Acts of, have been passed in numerous reigns: two witnesses
\z cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred,
unless the jtarty accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 William III.
1694-5. — Blackstoiie. The attainder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in
Lincoln 's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689,
Tlie rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king
James 11. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were
reversed in subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least
intrresting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (wi i
was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819.
ATTILA, suriiamed tiie " Scourge of God,'' and thus distinguished for his con-
quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, a. d. 447. He invaded the Ro-
i82 THE world's phogress. [auc
man empire with an army of 500,000 Huns, and laid waste all the province*
He died on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico
about A. D. 453. — Goldsmith.
ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters
patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for
the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims
concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bills
agaJQst the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was WilHam de
Gisilham, 7 Edward I. Vll^.—Beaison.
ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward III.'s reign was under 400
for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the
practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and
restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng-
land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and
practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 "-practis-
ing Imcyers^' in the United States is given in the Lawyer's Directory^ 1850.
ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite
which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was
described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In
the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ;
a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy.
AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was
about 1700, by Eiisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of
the goods he. had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779.
AUERSTADT, Battle of. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French
and Prussian armies, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns,
and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on
every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri-
soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French
emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his
memorable Berlin decree. — See Berlin Decree.
AUGSBURG CONFESSION of FAITH. The confession of articles of faith
drawn up at Augsburg by Mulancthon, and by him and Luther presented to
the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first
consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed
to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax-
ony, his son, and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession,
which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs-
burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg.
AUGSBURG, League of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland
and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea-
ties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 1686. — See Munster and Ni-
meguen.
AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds,
long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals
and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 b. c. There was a com-
munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and
other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is
named, was the inventor of augury by birds, — Vossius. The augurs of
Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and
flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy.
AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of
Augustus Csesar, from whom it was named in the year 8 b. c, because in
this month he was born, was created consul, or chief magistT-ate thric*'
tOb \
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
\6^
t*iiiniphed in Rome, subdued Eg-ypt to the Roman empire, and made ac
end of til 3 civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from
March.
A.USTERLITZ, Battle op, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by
the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle. Alexander of Rus-
sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded
exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards^
150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive vic-
tory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec, 26,
same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2. 1805. See Presburg.
AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea,
New Britian, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Oi
a population of twenty-two millions, the native inliabitants are not supposed
to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have
been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro-
vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act
to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834,
New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con-
nected with Australia have lately been formed in London.
AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun-
gary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about a. d,
1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire^
Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in
the German language implies.
Rodolpli, count of Hapsburs, seizes
Austria from Bohemia, anci makes
himself archduke - - - 1273
Revolt of Switzerland from the house
of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. - 1307
Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to
three crowns — the imperial, and
those of Hungary and Bohemia; his
family still possess the empire, - 1438
Burgundy accrues to Austria by the
marriage of Maximilian with the
heiress of that province . - 1477
Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip
I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara-
gon and Castile - - - 1496
Charles V., reigning over Germany,
Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain,
the Neiherlands. and their dependen-
cies, abdicates, and retires from the
world, leaving his German dominions
to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain
and the Netherlands to his son, Philip
II. — See :S]/ain - - - 1557
The Protestant princes of Germany,
being oppressed by the house of Aus-
tria, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol-
phus of Sweden, and this leads to the
treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648
Leopold I reigns. — See Germany • 1658
Accession of Francis, duke of Lorraine,
who marries the celstrated queen of
Hungary, Maria Thevi^a. daughter of
the deceased emperor, Charles VI. - 1745
Reign of Joseph II. - - - 1765
Religious toleration granted - - 1776
The emperor controls the pope - 1782
Raign of Leopold II. - - - 1790
Reignof Francis II. - - -1792
Austria becomes a distinct empire, and
Francis II. of Germany takes the title
of I. of Austria - Aug. 9, 1804
The emperor issues his declaration
against France - - Aug. 5, 1305
Napoleon, after many victories, enters
Vienna - - - Nov. 14, 1805
Vienna evacuated by the French,
Jan. 12, 1806
They again capture it - May 13, 1809
But 'restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809
Napoleon marries the archduchess
Maria Louisa, the daughter of the
emperor - - April 1, 181C
Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814
Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815
Death of Francis I., and accession of
Ferdinand - - March 2, 1835
New treaty of commerce with England
{ July 3, 1838
Ferdinand is crowned with great splen-
! dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1838
Tumult at Vienna, agitation for le-
forms ; Metternich resigns and flies ;
freedom of the press and nationar
; guard granted by the emperor
1 March 13- lit**
j The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo-
lition of the censorship and conven
i tion of the states; the people demand
I more, and are refused March 18, '■'
Milan revolts, and contends successfully
I with the soldiery - March 23, "
1 Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en-
tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia
I March 23, '
: Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion.
March •
, The emperor retires to Innsbruck
i May 13, "
j Austrian army under Radetsky holds in
j check Charles Albert of Sardinia, m
' . Lombardy - - May — "
Is defeated and driven to Mantua May 29. *
184 THE world's progress. [ A20
AUSTRIA, contimied.
Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates; his oroiher,
summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ;
May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph
Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 184&
blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution
Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 184i
detsky - - - June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great
Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " slaughter, and sacks it March 30, "
The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days
Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, ' •
minister of war, killed by the mob ; Haynau takes command of the Aus-
the diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June — , '*
measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment
new ministry ; the emperor flies June 11, "
Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, "
The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren-
six miles of Vienna - Oct. 11, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, "
Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions.
mander-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c.
sieges Vienna, 17th; bombards the
city and masters it Nov. 2, ''
Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran-
cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of
Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic
Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head
of that body.
AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property.
AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of
a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ;
and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand
victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman
Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this
kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian religion (!) and in
vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames,
1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Aske.
AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat
was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several
times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was
restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to
France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of
that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815.
AXE, WEDGE. WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari-
ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to
have been invented by Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is
ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c.
AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata-
lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled
by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with
beech-trees, and he called it therefore Fayal; another abounding in sweet
flowers, and he therefore called it Flores; and all full of hawks, and he
therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took
place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757.
Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed
the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St.
Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island
called Sabrina gradually disappeared Dec. 1812.
BAC ] Die ;iONARY OF DATES. 18S
B.
BABEL, THE ToTVEB OF, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b c. Tht temple of
Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the
world ; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one
f f them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of
the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deified
after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither
the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there
honored with the company of the god. — Blair.
BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Ehzabeth,
for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bab-
ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his
own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the
queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to
this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would
accept of him as a husband. 1586.
BABYLON, Empire of, founded by Belus. supposed to be the Nimrod of holy
writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 b. c. — Lenglet. Ninus of
Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assy-
rian empire, by uniting the two soveieignties, 2059 b.c. According to
Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ;
according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has
adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by
Ninus, B.C. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de-
throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby-
lonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 b. c. — See Assijria.
The tower of Babel built - b. c. 2247
The kingdom of Babylon begins
Ashur builds a city, afterwards called
Nineveh
The astronomical observations are be
gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans. —
Blair ; Lenglet
Belus, king ot Assyria, extends his em-
pire over the neighboring states, de-
feats the Babylonians, and makes
them tributary. — Usher
2245
2245
2234
and names his capital after himself,
Nineveh.— Lenglet ■ • B. C. 2069
Babylon taken by Ninus - - - 2059
The Assyrian empire ends - - 820
Belesis governs in Babylon - - 766
Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680
Nebuchadnezzar reigns - • - 604
He takes Jerusalem, —Lenglet - - 587
He is driven from among men - - 569
Babylon taken by the Medes and Per-
sians, under Cyrus - - - 538
2124
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, ■ Taken by Darius. — Usher - - 511
The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world; and
in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidae. Its
greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it
was but a desolate wilderness ; and at present the place where it stood is
scarcely known to travellers. — Rollings Ancient Hist.
BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in
Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called
Diomjsla, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under
the name of Bacchanalia.
BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried
men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at
" certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars.
and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After
twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England. 121. 10s.
for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695
Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants,
in 1785,
BACKGAMIVON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game
(decidedly -^ne of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 e.g. It is
/86 THE world's progress. [ BRl
stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the '
Concj[uest. — Henry.
BADAJOS, Siege of. This important barrier fortress had surrerdered to the
French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel-
lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following.
This victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it
obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder,
to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom.
BADEN, House of, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I, duke of Zah-
ringen, who died a. d. 1074. From Christopher, who united the branchea
of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden-
Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in
the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire.
BADEN, Treaty of, between France and the emperor, when Landau was
ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate; it
was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confederation,
in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua-
ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his
people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right
of public meeting. Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur-
rection at Carlsruhe ; — the grand Duke flees, May 13. 1849. Insurrection
subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849.
BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The
nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions
of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state-
ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article Nortk West
Passage.
BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d.
762 — taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It
has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the
Turks.— ^Zazr.
BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and
Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece ol
Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a
bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander, Nero is said to have played
upon a bagpipe, a.d.51,
BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus.
San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the llth Octo-
ber, 1492. — The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized
for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur-
rendered to Captain Rogers.
BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies
were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward
I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken
away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and JMary
and in later reigns.
BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire-
reve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for
counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the'
name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the name was changed to sheriff, 1548, There
are still some places where the chief-magistrate is called bailiff, as the high
bailiff of Westminster. The term Bum-bailijf is a corruption of bound-bailiff,
every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good b^
havior, — Blackstone.
BaL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 187
BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and
control ambition ; the x^rinciple is said to he a discovery of the Itahan poli-
ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France—
Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power
was fir>st recognized by treaty October 24, 1648.
BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons.—
Turner. Andhelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro-
duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might
sing who could." — Bede. Alfred sung ballads. — Malrashury. Canute com-
posed one. — Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV ;
but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues,
vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner.
BALLADS, NATIONAL. " Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may
make the laws." — Fletcher of Saitoun. A British statesmar, has said, " Give
me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com-
mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule
public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all
your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence."
The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those
of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ;
Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833.
BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One
performed at the interview between Hen. Vlil. of Eng. & Francis I. of France,
in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520. — Guicciardini. In the next century,
they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts
of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore
a part in one, 1664,
BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave
the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by
MM, Montgolfier, in 1783, whenRozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended
at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier and M. Remain perished in an attempted voyage
from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire. June 14, 1785. At
the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the
enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794.
Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by
a parachute, Sept. 21 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of
23,000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night,
and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre-
cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819.
BALLOON, The Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions,
and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants
of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that
place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and,
after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the
duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836.
BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United
States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of thg
Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a citv
in 1797. Population in 1790. 13 503 ; in 1810, 35,583 ; in 1830, 80,625 ; in
1840, 102 313, including 3.199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city
commemorates its successful defiiuce against the attack of the British under
general Ross. Sept. 12, 1814.
BALTIMORE, Battle of. between the British army under general Ross and
the Americans; the British in niak'-g sm attack upon the town were unsuo
1 88 THE world's progress. [ BaS
cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss ;
the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814.
BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, ol
whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still
reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected
in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower oi
London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles T.
laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the, mint, in 1640.
The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold,
which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to
the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths
in Lombard-street, Avho were provided with strong chests for their own vahv
able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. —
c of Venice formed -
■ 1157
Bank of Hamburgh
. - 1619
c of Geneva
1345
Bank of Rotterdam
-1635
c of Barcelona
- 1401
Bank of Stockholm
. -1688
V of Genoa
1407
Bank of England
- -694
k of Amsterdam
- 1607
Bank of the United States •
1791 and 181«
BANK OF ENGLAND, (See preceding article.) originally projected by a mer
chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con-
sideration of 1,200 OOOZ., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov-
ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up
to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same
authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank,
and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were
at 20 per cent, discount ; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bank
bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ;
small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25,
1797, when notes of one and hoo pounds were put into circulation. Silver
tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the
head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current.
Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction
had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea-
sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser-
voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir-
culation is as follows : —
- JE26,803,520
- 27,174,000
- - 20,620,000
- 18,215,220
- . 17,231,000
The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion iu
the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c.
are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted,
" that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons,"
6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many ot
the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces-
ter, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c.,
all formed since 1828. See Funds.
BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, first one estabhshed 1791. Cap. S10,000,000.
— A new one with cap. of S35, 000,000, 1816. The act of Congress rechar-
tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of
the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi-
dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasury, (W. J.
Duane the late secretary having refused to sign the order,) Sejtt. 23, 1833.
Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon-
gihility assumed by the president unconstitutional, &c., introduced by Mr
In 1718 (earliest account)
- £1,829,930
In 1815
1778 -
- 7,030,680
1820
1790
- 10,217,000
1830
1800 -
- 15,450,000
1835
1810
. 23,904,000
1840
aiP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 1 8^
Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter on
their journal the president's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834.
Noted resolution of the Senate " expunging " from their journals their reso-
lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Sub-Treasury Bill passed
Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9, 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by
Pennsylvania, March 29, 1836 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for
establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa-
tiyes Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16» Another bill for a
" Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of aV
Ihe Cabinet, except Mr. Webster.
BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng«
land and New- York, May 10 — 16, 1837 ; — legalized for one year by legisla-
ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended sanse
month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841.
BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VTII,
1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, 1 James I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ;
and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt
may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before
the commissioners. May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused
a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in
gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons
becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their
seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court,
passed October 1831. — Statutes at Large.
NUMBER OP BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
1700 -
1725 .
1750
1775- -
According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826.
there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses,
comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy
to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list.
This was. however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented
commercial embarrassment and ruin.
BANNOCKBURN, Battle of, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and
Edward H. of England ; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and
that of Edward of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The
English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which
he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The
rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 50,000 English were
killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour.
BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing,
and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage.
The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galil-
ean church, about a. d. 1210 ; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the
church of England to this day.
BAPTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised b;y
all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner
of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptht, as being the first that publicly
baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan,
and was baptized by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in
rivers ; but in the reign of Constantino, a. d. 319, in great cities they built
chapels, or places specially to baptize in, which in the eastern countries was
38 1 1800
- 1339
1830
- 1467
416 1810 -
- - 2000
1835 -
- - 954
432 1820
- 1358
1840
- 1308
520 1825 -
. - 2683
1844 -
- - 1064
l90 THE world's PRC GRESS. [_ BAS
by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they
use sprinkling-; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it;
our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon.
BAPTISTS, OR Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by theii
opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a, d. 1525, but much
earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in
the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in
1635. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led
the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732. — See Anabaptists.
fi ARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother
plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was,
with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl-
borough, 2 Cliarles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental
visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit-
ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed,*
by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every
thing in its peregrination. Oct. 1781. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two
great fires. May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou-
sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831.
The history of Inkle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re-
corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island.
BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b.c. In
England, bar bers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the
barbers pole until lately used b}'^ them was a burlesque imitation of the
former sign
BARBER-SURGrEONS, Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that
of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company wa.s
formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated,
1st Edward IV. 1461. Tiiis union of profession was dissolved by a statute
of Henry VIII
BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain,
and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the
Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo,
among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the
English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets.
They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost
down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in
the tiftti , The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish
sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See
Ballad!^.
BARNET, Battle of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed-
v\"ard IV gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War-
wick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. — Brooks.
BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle
uf suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's
abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and
made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena.
Wiieel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1695;
marine in 1700.
BARONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in
England was Vavasoiir, which, by the Saxons was changed into T/iane, and
by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his-
tory of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned
to parliament ; but such is the deficiency of public records, that the firs<
bat] dictionary of dates. 191
precept to be fbund is of no higher date than the 49th Henry HI., 1265. The
first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beauchamp,
created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first sum-
moned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, and com*
pelled him to sign the great charter of our hberties, and the charter of the
forests, at Runnymcde, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles 11. granted a
coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete
armor in the reign of Henry III. — Beatso7i.
BARONETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here-
ditary: instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created
in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625.
BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I.
about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng-
land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King^'s Counsel, Ser-
g-eanis, &c.
BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel-
ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait was entered
on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55°
below zero of Fahrenheit.
BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre of St. This dreadful massacre in France com-
menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24,
1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were
murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at
the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother.
The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even
as regarded the female and the infant.
BASTILE OF PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in
1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383.
It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be-
came the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It
was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in
vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France
between the years 1587 and 1594; yet it was pulled do\^n by the infuriated
populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution.
On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other
officers Avere seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had
their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having
fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets.
"The man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known,
died here, November 19, 1703. — See Iron Mask.
BaTAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East
Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred
here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by
the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison
surrendered, Aug-. 8, 1811.
BATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Maecenas into Rome, TLa
thermse of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The
marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules
in those of Caracalla. — Strabo.
BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of
England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was takm of William's
chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roll ; and among these chiefs
the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were div
tributed, 1066.
192
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[BAl
BATTLE, Wager of, A trial by combat, formerly allowed bj English laws,
where the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant,
and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal of
murder, Asliford v. Thornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818,
the court allowed that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of
battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had
first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer
was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this
mode of trial, 5^0 George III., 1819. — Statutes at large.
li ATTERTN'G-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some
of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 b. c. These
ponderous engines by their own weiglit exceeded the utmost effects of our
battering cannon. — hesaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a batter-
ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to re-
building the new edifice in 1675.
BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regu-
lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol-
dier's vigilance by giving him a watch-word. — Lenglet. The following are
the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in gc^neral history, and
are those also that are most commonly referred to :
Actium (^the empire of Rome is con
jirvied to Augustus) -
Aibela {Fall oj Persia)
Ahoukn {Turks)
Acre {Siege commenced)
{Sir Sydney Smith)
(storming of)
Adriaiiople {Constantine)
Albuera
Alford ( Covenanters) -
Alexandria {Abercrombie)
(Abercroi/ibie)
31
- - 331
A. D.
.Tuly 26, 1799
Mar. 18, 1799
May 27, ibid
Nov. 3, 1840
- 323
May 16, 1811
.July 2, 1645
Mar. 21, 1801
Mav 17, 1799
Aug. 27, 1816
July 4, 1830
- - 1643
Oct. 25, 1415
Jan. 20, 1S4G
April 4, 1707
Aug. 27, 1841
Aug. 5, 1811
- - 1421
Aug. 13, 1792
Nov. 19, 1796
Sept. 3, 1191
Sept. 23, 1803
Oct. 14, 1806
Aug. 24, 1796
Dec. 2, 1805
Mar. 11, 1811
July 26, 1829
Sept. 12, 1814
June 25, 1314
April 14, 1471
Mar. 6, 1811
May 20, 1813
Mar. 19, 1794
- - 1456
1717
Bennington (Amer ^ Brit.) - Aug. 1777
Bergen - - - Apri'l 13, 1759
Sept. 19 and Oct. 2, 1799
■[Sergen-op-Zoona {taken) - - 1747
- Mar. 6, 1814
Bewsina - - - Sept. 7, 1812
Alsiers {Exmouth)
— ^ {French)
Aklerton Moor
Agincou rt
Atiwal {India)
Almanza,, in Spain
Amoy ( City taken) -
Almeida
Anjou, or Breagne -
Antoign -
Areola
Ascalon {Richard I.)
Assaye ( Wellesley) -
Auerstadt
Augsburg
Austerlitz
A. D.
Berwick ... . 1378
Bilboa {British legion) Dec. 21, 183,6
Blackheath ( Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497
Blackrock {Amer. 4* Brit.) - Dec. 3. 1813
Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24, 1814
Blenheim {Marlborough) Aug. 2, 1704
Borodina - - - Sept. 7, 1812
Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 1485
Bothwell Bridge, Scotland - - -1679
BQvne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690
Bo Vines {French and Germans) - - 1214
Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, 17-94-
Brandywine - - - Sept. 11, 1777
Brechin, Scotland - - - 14.52
Brenau {Azistrians and Bavarians) - 1743
Breslau - - - Nov. 22, 1757
Briar's Creek - - - - 1779
Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814
Bridgewater {Americans and British)
July 25, 1814
Buena Vista {Amer. atid Mexicans)
Feb. 22, 1847
Buenos Ayres {Popham) - June 21,
( Whitelock) July 6,
Bunker's Hill - - June 17,
Busaco - - • Sept. 27,
B ro wnsto wn (Canarfa) - Aug. 8,
Balkan, passage of the
Baltimore
Bannockburn
Bamot {Edward IV.)
Bautzen
Bayonne
Belgrade
Cannae ( Victory of Hannibal)
Carthage {taken by Publius Scipio)
Choeronea ( Tolm,idas) •
{Philip) .
{Sylla)
Cnidos {Lysander killed) -
Cranon, in Thessaly
Cyzicum
Calais taken
Calcutta {India)
Camden {Amer. Sf Brit.)
{Amer. Sf Brit.)
1806
1807
1775
1810
1812
B.C.
216
146
447
338
Campo Santo
Canton {Bogue forts taken)
Castel Nuovo
Casiella
- 322
- - 406
A. 9.
Jan. 7, 1558
Tune 1756
Aug. 16, 1786
April 25, 1781
- 1743
Feb. 26, 1841
Sept. 29, 180(5
Apul 1.3. 1813
^J
DICT.ONARY OF DATES.
193
BATTLES, continued.
Cassano {Prince Eugene)
Castlebar {French) • - Aug. 28,
Castiglione - - July 2,
Castii'lon, in Guienne - - -
Cliarleroi . . . .
Charteroi Fleurus - • June 17,
Charleston {taken by the British)
May 12,
Chepultepec {Am.S^Mex.) Sept. 12-14,
Chippewa - July 5 and 2.5,
Ciudad Rodrigo {invested) June 11,
— {stormed) - Jan. 19,
Cloniarf, Ireland
Constantina {Algiers) - Oct. 13,
Contreras {Amer. and Mexicans)
Corunna, {Moore) - - Jan. 16,
Cowpens {Amer. Sf Brit.)
Craney island {Ajuericans and Brit.)
June 21,
Cressy {Ich Dien) -
Culloden {Pretender) ■
Cunnersdoi-f -
Detroit {surrendered) -
Dettingen (George //.)
Dresden -
Dreux. in France -
Drogheda {taken by storm)
Dumblain {Sheri_f-Muir) -
Dunbar -
{King of Scots taken)
, Siege of, - - -
Dungan Hill - - - July 10,
Dunkirk - • - Sept. 7,
Dunsinane - - - -
Durham, Nevil's Cross
Eastport {Americans and British)
July
Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23,
Erie, Fort - - - Aug. 15,
Erzeroum ( Turks and Prussians) -
Eutaw Springs
Evesham
Eylau
Fairfield {Amer. S^ Brit.)
Falkirk, (WaWace)
Aug. 25,
April 16,
Aug. 12,
Aug. 16,
Aug. 26,
Nov. 12,
Sept. 3,
July 22,
Flatbush, L. I. {Am. ^ Brit.) Aug. 27,
Sept. 9,
Feb. 17,
April 30,
July 9,
Jan. 22,
June 4,
June 14,
Flodden
Fontainebleau •
Fontenoy
Fort du Q.uesne -
French Town, Canada
Friedburg
Friedland
Granicus -
Germantown -
Gisors {Dieu et mon droit)
Guilford
Halidon Hill, Berwick •
Halle {Bernadotte) -
Hanau ( Wrede)
Hastings {Conquest)
Hexham ( Horki
Hochkirchen
Hohen linden
Mar. 16,
July 19,
Oct. 17,
Oft. 29,
Oct. 14,
defeated) May 15,
- Oct. 14,
Nov. 3,
Ipsus {Antigonus slairi)
l?sus (110,000 Persians slain)
A. D.
1705
1798
1796
1453
1690
1794
1780
1848
1814
1814
1812
1812
1039
1837
1848
1809
1781
1813
1346
1746
1759
1812
1743
1813
1562
1649
1715
1650
1296
1337
1647
1793
1054
1346
1814
1642
1814
1745
1781
1265
1807
1779
1298
1776
1513
1814
1745
1755
1813
1745
1807
B. 0.
- 334
A. D.
Oct. 4, 1777
1198
1781
1333
1806
1813
1066
:464
-.758
1800
B. C.
301
333
Aug. 4,
Feb. 8,
Jamac
Jemappe
Jena -
Ket and Warwick
Killiecrankie, Scotland
Kowno •
Krasnoi
Leuctra -
Mar. i
Nov. ti
Oct. 14,
July 27,
Dec. 14,
Nov 16,
Laffeldt {Duke of Cumberland) - -
Landshut {Prussians and Austrians)
{Austrians) - April 21,
Langside - - May 13,
Leipzic - - - Oct. 16,
Le panto {Greeks) ■ • May 9,
Lewes - - - May 14,
Lexington {Amer. revolution) April 19,
Ligny
Lincoln
Lisle {taken by the Allies)
Lissa ....
Lodi
Long Island -
Lutzen -
Lutzingen ( Gustavus slain)
June
Feb. 2,
May 19,
Dec. 5,
May 10,
Aug. 27,
May 2,
Mantinea {Epaminondas slain)
Muada, in Spain • - - -
McHenry, Fort {Americans and Brit.)
Oct. 13,
Malplaquet {Marlborough)
Manheim - - - May 30,
July 12,
- Sept. 23,
May 29,
. Jan. 31,
June 14,
Mantua -
Marengo -
iNIarignan, Italy
Marston Moor
Mexico
Milan
Minden
- Sept. 15,
July 3,
Sept. 12-14,
April 27,
Aug. 1,
Mittau {Swedes and Russians)
Mockem - - . April 1,
- - . Oct. 14,
Mohartz, Hungary • . - -
Molwitz - - . April 10,
Monmouth {Amer. ^ Brit.) ■ June 28,
Monterey {Mexico) - Sept. 24,
Montmorenci - - Aug. 10,
Moodkee, India - Dec. 18,
Morea ( Castle surrenders) Oct. 28,
Moscow {burnt) - Sept. 4,
Moskwa - - - Sept. 7,
Moscow {retaken) - Oct. 22,
Narva ( Charles XII. of Sweden)
Naseby - - - June 14,
Newark - . - - -
Newbury .... -
{second battle) - Of,t. 20,
New London {burnt by the British) -
New Orleans - - Jan 8,
Niagara, Fort - - - Nov.
Nisbet - - - May 7,
Norfolk {burnt by the British) June
Northallerton, {or the battle of the
Standard)
1792
1806
1549
1639
1812
1812
B. C.
370
A. D.
1747
1745
1809
1568
1813
1829
1264
1775
S15
1141
1217
1708
1796
1757
1776
1813
1632
B. c.
363
45
A.D,
1814
1709
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1800
1515
1644
1848
1799
1759
1705
1813
1813
1687
1741
1778
1846
1759
1845
1828
1812
1812
1812
1700
1645
1644
1613
16-M
1731
1815
1813
1402
1779
1138
194
THE WOR . D'S progress.
IE,-
BATTLES, continued.
Ndrwalk (burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22,
Novi iSuwarrow) • Aug. 16,
... Jan. 8,
Ogdensburg (.British and Americans)
Feb. 22,
Oporto - - - May 11,
Otterburn ( Chevy Chase) -
Oudenard (.Marlborough) July 11,
Pharsalia . . . .
Philippi (Roman Republic ends)
Palo Alto (1st of Amer. 6r Mex.) May 8
Parma (Auslrians and French)
(Suwarruw) ■ - July 12,
Patay (Joati of Arc and the English)
Pavia (French and lustriuns) Feb. 24,
Pensacola (taken b'/ general Jackson)
Nov. 20,
Peierwarden - - Aug. 5,
Pfaffendorf - • - Aug. 15,
Pink-ey - - - Sept. 10,
Plattsburg (Americans and British)
Sept. 11,
Poitiers
Prague -
Sept. 19,
Nov. 9,
May 6,
Jan. 2,
July 8,
Dec. 26,
July 28,
June 16,
Princeton (Amer. 8f^ Brit.)
Pultowa ( Charles XII. )
Pultusk -
Pyrenees
ftuatre Bras
ftuebec (or the plains of Abraham)
Sept. 13,
(death qfMontgomery)Dec. 21,
- - - April 28,
ftueenstown (Amer. Sr Brit.) Oct. 13,
Ramilies (Marlborough) ■ May 23,
Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9,
Rosbach - - - Nov. 17,
- - - Nov. 5,
Sackett's Harbor (Americans and
British) . . . .
Salamanca - - - July 22,
San Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4,
Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender)
Oct. 17,
Savannah (taken by the British)
Dec. 29,
Schwerdnitz - • Aug. 16,
Sedgemoor - • • July 5,
Seidlitz (Poles) - - Mar. 31,
Sempach - • - July 9,
Seringapatam ....
( Tippoo reduced) -
( Tippoo killed) May 4,
Shrewsbury - - July 21,
Skenesborough • - July 7,
Smolensko - - - Aug. 27,
A. D.
1779
1799
1800
1813
1809
1308
1708
B. C.
48
42
A.D.
1846
1734
1799
1429
1525
1814
1717
1760
1547
I
1814
1356
1620
1757
1777
1709
1806 I
1813
1815 i
1759 I
1775 !
1760 :
1812 ''
1706 !
1846 I
1382 I
1787 I
1813 I
1812
1813 I
A. O.
Sobraon (India) • Feb. IC, 1846
Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1542
St. Albans ( York and Lancaster) • 1455
(second) - - - • 1461
St. Denis (Montmorenci) • • 1567
St Dizier, France - • Jan. 27, '814
St. Sebastian -. - May £,1836
Stamford - - - Mar. 13, 1470
Stony Point (taken by the Americans) 1779
Stratton (poet Waller) - May 16, 1643
Talavera de la Reyna - July 27, 1809
Tarragona - - • Jan. ai, . 812
Tewkesbury - - May 4, 1471
Thames (A/merica'^fi and Brit.) Sept. 1313
Thermopylae (G7ee/i:s) - July 13^ 1822
Tirlc-nont (French and Allies) ■ 1705
Toplitz (Austrians and Prussians) - 1762
- • Aug. 30, 1813
Tournay - - ■ May 8, 1793
Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793
Toulouse - • • April 10, 1814
Towton . • - Mar. 29, 1461
Trenton (Amer. ^ Brit.) ■ Dec. 26, 7, 1776
Turin (French and Germans) • 1706
Ulm - - . - June 21, 1800
(surrendered) • Oct. 29, 1805
Valenciennes - - May 23, 1793
Yarna. (surrenders) • Oct. 11, li!25
Vera Cruz (taken by Amer. Gen. Scott)
March 27, 1847
Villa Franca
Vimiera ( Wellington)
Vitioria, Spain
1777
1778
1762
1685
1831
1386
1791
1791
1799
1403
1777
1812
Wagram
Wakefield
Wai'saw
April 10, 1812
Oct. 21, 1808
. - 1702
June 21, 1813
July 5, 180g
Dec. 31, 1460
Oct. 10, 1794
Nov. 8, ibid
Sept. 8, 1831
(taken)
Washington (bwmt by the British)
Aug. 1814
Waterloo . - June 18, 1815
White Plains (Amer. ^ Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776
- Nov. 30, ibid
Wilna (Poles) - - June 12, 1831
Worcester - - Sept. 13, 1642
(Charles II.)* - - - 1651
Wyoming massacre - - July 1778
York (Canada) captured by Ameri-
cans - - - April 27, 1813
York Town (surrender of Cornwallis)
Oct. 19, 1781
B. C.
Zama (Scipio and Hannibal) - - 202
Zela.(Caisar: veni,vidi,vici) - 47
▲ . D
Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) • 1697
Zurich 1799
BAVARIA, House of. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century.- this
house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel-
phian family ; Henry Guelph was made duke Jf Bavaria by Conrad IL. em-
peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch, waa
made duke in 1179 : and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was
* This battle and defeat of ('harles put a period to the civil war in England.
K. B.— Many of the above battles are described more fully under laoh name.
BB- J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 195
erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805 ; and obtained by
the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and
German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This
kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham-
ber recommends freedom of the press, &c., by almost unanimous vote, Oct.
17, 1817. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress,
Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich; the king abdicates in favor of
his son, MaximillianlL, March 22, 1848.
KINGS OP BAVARIA. I 1825 Louis, 13th October ; — abdicated,
1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I March 22, 1848.
tor, created king. | 1848 Maximilian II.
BA^EUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by
Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest,
from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of
William, 1066. — Bapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered
by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compart-
ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to
the Norman court, and ending with his death at Hastings ; it is now preset Jed
in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Striclcland.
BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This
weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670.
According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in
1603, " with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter
with so formidable a novelty."
BAZAAR, OR Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar
of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has
several times held 30,000 men in order of battle.
BE AlDS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by
Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in
Roman Catholic devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased
persons for the repose of whose souls a certain nuni)3er of prayers were re-
cited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. — Butler.
BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them.
The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with
the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their
beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the
time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the
beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn
by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews.
In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, a. d. 1066, until
the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The
Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few
years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave,
was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force.
BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the
battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724: her beard
measured 1^ yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy
beard, and her whole body covered with hair. — Diet, de Trevoux. The
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard.
In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard.
"BEAUVAIS, Heroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the women
under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin-
guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege, July 10,
1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of
196 THE world's progress. [ BET
Beauvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of their deliv?;ranca
— Henau'it.
BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at
the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry XL say, in a mcment
of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I, who have not about me
one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon
Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral
of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when
he cried out, " I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any
other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans-
actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but
not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed
him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a
groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in
1220; and were taken up and burned in the reign of He nry VIII. 1539. —
Stoive.
BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the
skins of beasts. — Wkittaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and
Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after-
wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used
in tlie royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen-
tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers.
BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in
his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the
thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty
paid on " ale called here.'' one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a
penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in
1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Breviers.
BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun-
dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus,
in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was
admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on
bees, 741 b, c. There are 292 species of the bee, or apis genus, and 111 in
England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England :
they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since
spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. — Hardie^s
America.
BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. MargrafF first produced
sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent
sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo-
naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery of
sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea.
BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in
1207. The '• Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modern
times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they
could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec-
cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a
branch of the order in 1311.
BEHEADING— or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor-
mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by
William the Conqueror, 1074. when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North-
ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. — Sal'„ton^s Ch'>-on
English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particu-
DEL J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
197
larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., and Mary, when even women of the noblest
blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.*
BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus-
sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents
of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about
thirty-nine miles, 1728.
BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands,
and anciently the territory of the Belgse, who were conquered by Julius
Caesar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1369 ; formed
into a kingdom in 1831.
Became an acquisition of the house of
Austria .... 1477
CVarles V annexed the Netherlands to
the crown of Spain - - -1556
Seven provinces, under William, prince
of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny
of Philip II.; freed- - - 1579
The ten remaining provinces are given
to the archduke - - - 1598
These again fall to Spain - - - 1648
Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714
And three to France - - - 1748
Austrians expelled ; but their rule after-
wards restored - - - - 1789
The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792
United to France - Sept. 30, 1795
Placed under the sovereignty of the
house of Orange - - -1814
The revolution commences at Brussels
Aug. 25, 1830
The Provisional Government declares
Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830
The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the
Dutch aire driven to the citadel, from
whence they cannonade the town,
Oct. 27, 1830
Belgian independence acknowledged
This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian
question ; by the decision of which, the treatj^ of November 15, 1831, was
maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs,
offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in-
admissible.
BELGRADE, Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which
the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade
was taken by Solyman, 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from
whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in
1717 {see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks.
It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, in
1790.
BELGRADE. Siege of. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was under-
taken in May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the
Turkish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought,
in which the Turks lost 20.000 men ; after which Belgrade surrendered
Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges.
by the Allied Powers, announced by
VanderWeyer - • Dec. 26, 1&30
Duke de Nemours elected kmg; but
his father, the king of France, refuses
his consent - - Feb. 3, 1831
M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent
of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831
Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected
kmg - - July 12, 1831
He enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831
The king of the Netherlands recom-
mences the war - Aug. 3, 1831
[France sends 50,000 troops to assist
Belgium, and an armistice ensues.]
A conference of the ministers of the five
great powers is held in Loncjon, which
terminates in the acceptance of the
24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 18.31
Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter
of Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832
The French army returns to France
Dec. 27, 1832
Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much
mischief ensues - - April 6, 1834
Treaty between Holland and Belgium,
signed in London - April 19, 1839
' Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey,
beheaded, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury — the latter remarkable for hei
resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to
do it; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur-
sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, aftei
mangling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughtej
of George, duke of C;larence, and la.st of tb«» royal line of Plantagenet. May 27, IbiX.—Hume..
198 THE world's progress. [ BEW
BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE ; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish
churcli, used in excommunication, which see.
BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the belles-
lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto. Latiiii,
and other learned men in different countries, about a. d. 1272. — Gen. His/.
Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Fan-
tana. Literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England, about
tliis time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza-
beth, and flourished in that of Anne.
BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor o
them, about 569 b. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the
potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna-
ces of the Romans.
BELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. Tho
responses of the Dodonaean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strolw.
The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted
by bells. — Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop cf Nole, in Campagna,
about A. D. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II.,
king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of tho
bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our king Egbert
commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church.
Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a defence, by ring'
ing them, against thunder and lightning, about 900. First cast in England
by Turkey tel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im-
proved the invention, and caused the flrst tunable set to be put up at
Croyland abbey, ^Q^.—Stowe.
Great Belief St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 I St. Peter's, at Rome - • lbs. IS,'!' 7
Great Tom of Lincoln - • 9,894 Great Bell at Erfurth • • 28,2i;^4
Great Tom of Oxford - • - 17,000 | St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow - - 127 ,6.6
Bell of the Palazzo, Florence - 17,000 | Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772
The last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal
alone is valued, at a very low calculation, at i;66,565 sterling. In its fusion
great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive oflferings by the
people.
BELLS, Baptism of. They were early anointed and baptized in churches. —
Du Presnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were
baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity,
&c., in 1501. — Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap-
tized by the name of Duke of Angoul^me, in 1816. On the Continent, in
the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious
solemnity. — Ashe.
BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the
first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in
the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark-
able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread
over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it
possessed over other religious communities, about a. d. 1100. The Bene-
dictines appeared early in England ; and William I. built them an abbey on
the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066.
William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes, in
Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi-
nated Bened'ctine dames. — Leigh. Of this order, it is reckoned that there
have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishopij, 4600
bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 king« 41 queens, and S600 .sainU
Their founder was canonized. — Baronius
BEN J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
199
BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century; till then
the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should
become vacant in the space of six months were given by pope Clement VII.
to his nephew, in 1534. — Notltia Monastica. The number of benefices in
England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10.533. and the number ot
glebe-houses 5,527 ; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries
prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre-
ferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels
about 12,000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there
are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no
glebe-houses. — See Church of England.
BENEFIT OF CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by. clergymen, but
afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and par-
ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin
book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and
if the ordinary said " Legit ut dcricns,''' the offender was only burnt in the
hand, otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edward I., 1274. This privilege was
abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the
claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIIL. 1513. — Stowe. Benefit of clergy was
wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827.
BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS PUBLIC CHARITIES, &c., in the U.viTEr
States. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone,
during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American
Almanac, 1846) as follows :
For theological education and other
religious objects - - $1,054,966
For purposes of instruction - 1,095,594
For charitable purposes - - 2,162,412
For miscellaneous objects (such as
monuments, &c.) - • -
438,321
Total - $4,751,293
[Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The popula-
tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000 ; in 1845, about 114.000. Few
cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in-
habitants.!
BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES— some of the principal in the United States.
Formed. Income,
Amer. Board of Com. Foreign 1849.
Missions - - - 1810 - 5260,897
Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764
« Bible Society - - 1816 - 284,514
" Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,428
• " Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460
Formed.
Amer. Education Society - 1816 -
" Colonization Society 1819
" Seamen's Friend Society -
Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 -
Presbyterian Board Missions
Income.
1849.
$32,7.54
17,414
23,497
99,635
126.013'
United States ship, .Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be
given to the distitute Irish March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from
New York on same errand, ^aly 8, 1847.
Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to "Harvard College, for scientific department, .Tune, J5V7.
BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no
record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in
1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the
Mogul empire. — See India.
The English were first permitted to
trade to Bengal - - a. D. 1534
Factories of the French and Danes - 1664
First factory at Calcutta - - 1690
The settlements first placed in a state
of defence .... 1694
Calcutta bought, and fortified - . 1700
Its garrison consisted of only 129 sol-
'!iers, of whom but 55 were Europeans 1706
Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla ; and
the dreadful aifair of the Black-hole • 1756
Retaken by Colonel Clive - • 1757
Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of
Bengal -in the Company, by which
the virtual sovereignty of the country
was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1764
Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal m tde the
chief presidency - - J me 16, 1773
See India.
200 THE world's progress. [ BEl
BERESINA, Battie or. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus-
sians on the banks of the Beresina. followed by their disastrous passage oi
it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20,000 men in the battle,
and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812.
BERGEN, Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April
14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19i
1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men;
and on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5,000 men.
On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he
exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England.
BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the
French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was
made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it
Avas defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a
dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners,
March 8, 1814.
BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its
live districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse-
quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of
Russians. Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire in
a few days. On Oct, 27. 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the
French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous
Berlin decree. — See next article.
BERLIN DECREE a memorable interdict against the commerce of England.
It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all English-
men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as
prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu-
nication with Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the
Prussian king, shortlv after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided
the fate of Prussia), 'Nov. 21, 1806.— See Jena.
BERMUDAS, or SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard,
in 1527 ; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Sommers
was cast away uj)on them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James L,
1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31, 1780. Another,
by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven
ashore, July 20, 1813.
BERNARD, MOUNT St. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian
army by this pass into Italy ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte
led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo,
fought June 14, 1800.
BERNARDINE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo-
-leme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a
large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all travellers
gratis for three days. — Brooke.
BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the
English and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two king-
doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it
stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in
1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1333 ; and
after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng-
land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards
to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the forti-
fications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected,
BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, who
1!B I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 201
had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished
city. It now contains a church, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the
form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where
they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called
the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is
much visited by pilgrims.'— AsAe.
BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an
eartliquake, a. d. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the
Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into
the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em-
pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp-
tian army by the allied British. Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua-
tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners,
and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840.
BIARCHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins,
Eurysthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence
should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established
the first biarchy, 1102 b. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately
for 800 years. — Herodotus.
BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by
seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence
called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at
Alexandria, 277 b. c. — Josephus. It was commenced 284 b. c. — Lenglet. In
283. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two
members; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of
Josephus. — Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and
each pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent comparison, it was
found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin
Martyr.
BIBLE, Ancient copies of the. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes-
tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was vn*it-
ten in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age
is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek
patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same
time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo,
about A. D. 1000 ; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about
1100.
BIBLE, Bishops'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch ; bishops Davis and
Sandys, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop
Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets ; bishops Park-
hurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha ; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts ; and
archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed a. d. 1568.
BIBLE, Division of the. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the
Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the
Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made
by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and
a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228 ; and this
division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534.
BIBLE, Editions of the. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je-
rome, a. d. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be
authentic : it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450 — 55. (See
Books.) The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from
the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of tbia
edition was made, 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read in churches,
9*
.02 THE world's progress. [ bil.
1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new
translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now
generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the first
books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible was first
printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope t-o be trans-
lated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed
Spanish
1478
Russian
-1581
German •
1522
Hungarian
. - 1589
English
15M
Polisli
-1596
French -
1535
Modern Greek -
- -1638
Swedish
1.^1
Turiiish
-1666
Danish -
1550
Irish
• - 1685
Dutch
1560
Portuguese
- 1748
Manks -
-1771
Italian
- -1776
Bengalee
-1801
Tartar
• - 1813
Persian
-1813
African
- - 1816
Chinese
-1820
Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, appeared' m several in-
stances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot
Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee,
Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. —
W()od''s Fasti. Oxon.
BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have
made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object,
are the following : — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was
formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ;
Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1709 ; French
Bible Society, 1792 ; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801 ; Hibernian
Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812; American
Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816; Ameri-
can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New- York, 1838. A
bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817.
BIGA MY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark :
A\ith us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act
respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276. — Viner's Statutes. Declared to
be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James I. 1602. Subjected to the
same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George III. 1794, — Statutes
at large.
BfT^L OF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution,
was obtain -^d from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the
legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all
maimer of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass
it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects,
passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only written law
respecting the hberties of the people, except Magna Charta. — Viner's
Statutes.
prLLS OF EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their
property from nations where they were persecuted, a. d. 1160. — Anderson.
Bills were used in England, 1307. — The only legal mode of sending money
from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782
—duty advanced. 1797 — again, June 1801 ; and since. It was made capital
to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825. the year of disastrous
speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of
pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes.
The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many
statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV.
1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria. July 1839.
BILLS OF MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about
A. D. 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the
16,634
In the
year 1780, Burials
- 20,507
18,980
1790, Burials -
18,038
19,176
1800, Burials
- 23,06S
19,930
1810. Burials -
19,892
26,158
1820, Burials
19.^8
27.028
1830, Burials -
- 23,5^
30,387
1840, Burials
- 26,774
BiSj DlcnONARY'OF DATES. 203
great plague of that year ; and however imperfect they still are, thoy yet
afford valuable materials for computation on the duration of life ; no com-
plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show-
ing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years : —
In the year 1780, Christenings
1790, Christenings
1800, Christenings
1810, Christenings
1820, Christenings
1830, Christenings
1840, Christenings
BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch,
and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. —
Nouv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an
artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate biUiard-tables were
introduced in England in 1827.
BIRDS. Divided by Linnaeus into six orders ; by Blumenbach into eight ; and
by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the
bird : " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or
on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon
the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the
young." — Duteronoray, xxii. .6.
BIRMINGHAM, England. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a. d. 872 ;
but its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of Wil-
liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643,
The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat-
thew Boulton, in 1761.
BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were insti-
tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil-
dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30Z. — of a common
person, 2s. — 7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of
four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery
recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five
children at a birth, September 3. 1783. — Phillips. The wife of a man named
Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at
a birth, in October 1800. — Annals of London.
BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in-
spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but
now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in
a certa'.n district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St.
Petei, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred a. d. 65. The bishops of
Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by
all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should
belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner.
BISHOPS OF ENGLAND. The first was appointed in a. d. 180. See York,
London. They were made barons, 1072. The Conge d' Elire of the king
to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the
clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Congi d' Elire, 26 Henry VIII.
1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered mar-
tyrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. Bishops were excluded
from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I, 1640.
Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legality
of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes,
1641. Regained their seats. Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not
reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring
the Catlioiies into ecclesiastical and civil jmwer, and were tried and acquit-
204 THE world's progress. [ BLA
ted, June 29-80, 1688. The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and
five bishops were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to William and
Mary, 1689. and were deprived 1690.— 'Warner's Eccles. Hist. The sees of
Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An
order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to
be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be
created theieupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded
in 1846. — See Manchester.
BISHOPS OF IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this
country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first
planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402. thirty years before the arrival of
St. Patrick.
BISHOPS or SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. Th3
see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, whc,
according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of
Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrse, about a. d. 370, The bishops were deprived
of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo-
lution 1688-9. Warner's Eccles. Hist. — There are now, however, six bishops
belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin-
burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's.
BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be Kcxt to
viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of
Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and
York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of
London. Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops; the
others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in
Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was de-
cided in favor of the former who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin.
The others rank according to consecration.
BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea-
bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at
Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn-
sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury,
Feb. 4. 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop
of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789.
BISSEXTILE OR LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every
fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course.
It originated with Julius Caesar, who ordered a day to be counted before
the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends,
and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added
day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 b. c. — See Calenr-
dar and Leap Year.
BITHYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander,
332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty; but its last king bequeathed
it to the Romans, 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure,
except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in a. d. 1327, took
Prusa, its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed
Constantinople.
BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the
scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the
inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII., 1535, in order to blacken them and
hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you down in the
black book."
BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law of
BLJ J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205
England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the
tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William
III., 1696-7. — Statutes at large. In England this offence has been subjected,
on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton
was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro-
testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the
same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar,
and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among
other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as
late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous
writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's
Bench.
BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and oecame heredi-
tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the
knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish
them in the crusades. — Dugdale.
BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known
in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system
was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in
1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly
in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renferew, and in the
vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was
introduced in 1795. — Blanchtment des Toiles.
BLENHEIM, Battlis op ; between the English and confederates, commanded
by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal
Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated
with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among
the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors.
The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor ol
Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest
seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim.
Fought Aug. 2, im.—Hume.
BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish-
ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid-
dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of
sight. Bhnding the conquered w^as a practice in barbarous states ; and a
whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century.
See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from
their heads. See article Eastern Empire.
BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides.— i^remd!. Blisters
are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aret^us, a
physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Le Clerc's Hist, of Physic.
BLOOD Circulation of the, through the lungs, first made public by Michael
Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of
the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved
afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Fatl er
Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves
which serve for the circulation ; but the honor of the positive discovery of
the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by
whom it was fully confirmed. 1628. — FreijuVs Hist, of Physic.
BLOOD, Drinking of. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys-
tem, by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness,
drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed
206 THE world's progress. [
strength. 1438. — Henault. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix.
and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles at
the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv.
BLOOD, Transfusion of. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed tha*
the declining strens^th and vigor of old people might be repaired by tran(»-
fusing the blood of young persons, drawn from their veins, into those of the
infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, and
prevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the opera-
tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving
mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Prac-
tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success; and in England
(but the instances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Jour. " One English physi
cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way; he died in 1691,"—
Freind's Hist, of Physic.
BLOODS CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's
household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach,
and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued
by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the
regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these
and other offences, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of jCSOO
per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1673.
BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally
conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most
active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfieet, the distinguished
naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock-
ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. — Anec. oj
Bowyer. The beautiful and fiiscinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have
worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu-
liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women.
BOARD OF TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Charles IL, on his restoration,
established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com-
merce of the nation. 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and
plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superiu-
spection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the affairs of trade
was appointed, Sept. 2. 1786.
BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot
be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng-
land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was again
brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was
first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the
inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790.
BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, II Decamerone. a collection of a hundred stories or
novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and,
as is said by Petrarch, "possessing many charms." A copy of the first
edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox-
burgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for £2260, June 17, 1812. This
identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas,
June 5, 1819.
BQilOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally
celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes
of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia,
Messapia, Hyantis. Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia ; and it gave birth to Pin-
dar, He&iod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminonda.s, and the accomplished
and beautiful Corinna.
BOlJ
DICTIONARY OF DATES
207
Thebes besieged and taken - b. c. 121C
Thersander reigns in Thebes - - 1216
The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages
of obscurity follow - - - 112S
*****
Battle of Chaeronea, in which the The-
bans defeat the Athenians
Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo-
nians at Leuctra, restores his country
to independence, and puts it in a con-
dition to dictate to the rest of Greece
Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The-
bans and Athenians, near Chaeronea -
Alexander destroyed Thebes, tlie
and all
44"
J71
338
BCEOTIA continued.
Arriva'. of Cadmus, the founder of Cad-
mea - ■ - B. c. 1493
Reign of Polydore - • - 1459
Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430
Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes,
and dethrone Laius - - - 13S8
(Edipus, not knowing his father Laius,
kills him ui an affray, confirming the
oracle as to his death by the hands of
his son ... - - 1276
CEdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re-
solves her enigmas - - 1266
War of the Seven Captains • - 1225
Here the greatness of this country ends
.capital, 335 b. c, when the house of Pindar alone was left standin_
the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. — Strabo.
BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose
soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated
water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830
The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3.000,000 acres ; that of Scot-
land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres,
BOH. a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 b. c. The exclamation
of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children.
BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes : the title of king
was obtained from the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their
territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off" the yoke : the crown
was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now here-
ditary.— See Germany.
The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are
ruled by dukes - - a. d. 550
City of Prague founded - - • 795
Introduction of Christianity - - 894
Bohemia conquered by the emperor
Henry III., who spreads devastation
through the country - - - 1041
„ , ^^j_|g ^g conferred on Uratislas,
The reg
1061
1199
the first king
The regal title is farther confirmed to
Ottoacre I. -
Reign of Ottoacre II., who carries his
air^ms into Prussia - - - 1258
Ottoacre, refusing to do homage to the
emperor Rodolphus, is by him van-
quished, and deprived of Austria,
Styria, and Camiola - - - 1282
In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of
silver are first discovered, and agri-
culture is encouraged and improved
{et sea.) .... 1284
Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his
vices, is assassinated - - - 1305
John, count of Lusemburgh, is chosen
to succeed .... 1310
Silesia is made a province of Bohemi<L 1342
King John slain at the battle of Crecj
fought with the English - • 346
John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two
of the first Reformers, are burnt for
heresy, which occasions an insurrec-
tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed
them, is deposed, and ihe Imperialists
are driven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416
Albert, duke of Austria, marries the
daughter of the late emperor and
king, and receives the crowns of Bo-
hemia and Hungary - - - 14c7
The succession infringed by Ladislas,
son of the king of Poland, and George
Podiebrad, a protestant chief 1440 to 1458
Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected
king of Bohemia, on the death of Po-
diebrad 1471
The emperor Ferdinand I. marries
Aims, sister of Louis the late king,
and obtains the crown - "- 1527
The elector palatine Frederick is di'iven
from Bohemia - - - - 1618
The crown is secured to the Austrian
1643
1742
1744
1757
1775
family by the treaty of
Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia
Prague taken by the Prussians -
The memorable siege of Prague
Revolt of the peasantry
The French occupy Prague - - 1806
See Germany.
BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry
VIII., 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been
poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the oftence of
poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be punished ])y boil-
ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered in th«
same manner for a similar crime, in 1541.
208 THE world's progress. [ BOO
BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens of
architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo-
dosius, A. D. 433. Pope Juhus II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made
his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting
(as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10,
1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its
pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth
century. Taken by the French, : 796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by the
French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; restored to the pope in 1815 ;
Austrians expelled by the people, August 8, 1848.
BOMBAY, India. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath-
erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles U., 1661. Granted by Wil-
liam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the
three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were
lost. Feb. 27, 1803.— See India.
BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a
century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously
used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in
France, in 1681. — Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls,
and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen-
inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs.
BONDAGE, OR VILLA NAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in
ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this
species of servitude was ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See
Villain.
BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have
been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather im-
perfectly understood. — Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at
Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science
— PVeind's Hist of Physic.
BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; a,nd
bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch-
ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that
country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attains, king
of Pergamus, about 198 b. c, at which time books were in volumes or rolls.
The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted
together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of
Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world ; and in
profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still
more ancient are preserved.
BOOKS, Prices of. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy
of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography,
by Alfred, about a. d. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30Z. ;
and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and
they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at
prices varying from lOZ. to 40Z. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value
of some volumes is very great. A copy of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by
Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — Butler. A yet more
superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3,000Z. — Times. II
Decamerone of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Rox-
burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260^.. June 17, 1^12.— Phillips.
A copy of the " Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever
printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London
BOO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209
in April 1846 for 50^Z. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19
in public libraries, is now in a private library in New ifork.
BOOKS, Printed. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and
being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The
first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and Schaefier, his
son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before ;
but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed
works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity
on Faust ; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in
1460. See article Devil and Dr. FoMstus. The second printed was Ciorro de
Officiis, 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and
Play of the C/iesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy,
in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Corn. Nepotis Vtta:,
in 1762. Ldocian's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America
(at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de-
stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. —
Stowe's Chronicles.
The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigrew, {Biblio. Sussex.)
the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by
John Guttemberg at Mayence! about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ;
and so excellent was the workm>anship, both in type, ink, paper, and press-
work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions
for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible,
as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies
are now known to exist — all but one being in public libraries in Europe.
[See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved
wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum,
done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of
New York.
BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is
supposed to have been bound about a. d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards
was bouudin the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the
book on which Eng. kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation
oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet
was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum
was introduced early in the fifteenth century ; it was stamped and orna-
mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth
binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc,
or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841.
BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book-
keeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by
Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial stale, in the fifteenth century.
It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book-
keeping in 1569. — Anderson.
BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new
works published in successive years is thus stated :
Gt. Brit. France. Gerinany.
1S28 - 842 - — - 5,654
1830 - 1,142 - — . 5,926
18M - 1,220 - — . 6,074
The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under
the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to
65,474, or 1681 each year.
Engla7id.— The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years,
from 1660 to 1680, was 3,550; eqr.al to 253 yearly;— but deducting the
Gt. Brit. France. Germany
1836 - 1.332 - — . 7,891
1849 - — . _ . _
1850 - — . 7,208 . —
210 THE world's progress. [boo
reprints, pamphlets, single sermons, and maps, the anniml average of new
books may be computed at much less than 100.
The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphletft and other tracts;'
issued during- 50 years, as appears from a •' Complete Catalogue of Modern
Books publislied from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was
5,280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94.
The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued
during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372
each year.
The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in-
cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pam})hlets, was,
according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints,
we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year.
Mr. McCulloch estimates the number of volumes of new publications pro-
duced aniuially in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamjjhlets, and
periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500; and the average
impression of each volume at 750 copies; — annual total, 1,125 000 volumes;
— value at 9.s'. a volume, jC506.250. " The number of reprinted volumes,
particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the
reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news-
papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new
copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about
je750,000."
Prance. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased
since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive
work {Notions Statistiqucs sur la Librarie), published in 1827- estimated the
number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French
press in 1816 at 66 852 883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483; and we believe
that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any
thing inferior.
The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the " Foreign Quarterly
review," there were printed in France, 3,413 works, in French and other
languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs.
Germany. — The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the book-
fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michaelmas, which are attended by the
booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries,
as France. Switzerland Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814;
the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but
the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded
5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7 000.
•' An Augsburg papou- states." (says the '■ Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836.)
" that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000 000 of volumes are annually printed
in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of
more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are nc^r
living upwards of 50 000 persons who have written one or more books The
total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated
from 5 to 6 000,000 dollars."
Russia. — In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were
published in Russia, exclusive of 46 i:)eriodicals.
Svieden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock-
holm. 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping and 1 in several otier
places.
BOOK-TRADE of tuk UNITED STATES. The number of new works wt'ch
appeared in ihe United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, formin-
BOR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2 1 1
1,300 volumes and the cost of which may be estimated at SI -220,000. In
1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books
published in that year cannot be computed at less than $ 1,500,000. Boston,
New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount.
Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : — originala
1,030, reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ;— number of volumes printed (1,000 for
each edition), 1,884,000.
In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more
frequent in the United States than in any other country. Many reprinted
English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers
of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale cf a
book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four
editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of
The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled
during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments
amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000.
The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im-
ported literary productions in 1834 :
Original. Reprint. .JngincU. Reprint.
Education - - 73 - 9 Poetry . - - - - i 3
Divinity - - .37-18 Travels - - - 8 - 10
Novels and Tales .19-95 Fine Arts - - -8-0
History and Biography -19 - 17 Miscellaneous works ■ 59 - ' 43
Jurisprudence - - 20 . 3
Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful
predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from
foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the
United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may
be formed from the circumstance, that of some of the most popular com-
pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 300 000 copies have been sold in ten
years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent
income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years,
the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly
doubled.
[The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in tne Booksellers^ Advertiser., edited by
G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publi
cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-montnly registei
m the Literary World.]
American Publications— JawMar?/ to June, 1849.
Original.
Reprint.
Original.
Reprint.
Education - • 36
7
Travels . . - 21
- 7
Divinity - - - 25
25
Metaphysics . . 3
8
Novels and Tales . 18
28
Miscellaneous • . 25
10
History - - - 20
12
Law )
Biography - .. 15
6
Juvenile > not ascertained.
Political Economy - 3
0
Periodical S
Medicine - • 12
11
Science - . .11
9
For six months - 200
- 128
Poetry - . 11
6
Total
328.
Tlic number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu-
sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals.
BOOl'S, They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were
made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their
invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about
907 B. c.
BORODINO OR MOSKWA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary in the
records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812. between the French and Russians •
commanded on the one side by JN'Tiioleon. and on the other by KutusolF
212 THE world's progress. [ BO-1
210.000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the
loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon,
for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The
road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14. with little
opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved
the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the
French military power over Europe. See Moscow.
BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term
has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since tko
election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were first
admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the
Irish, 1365.
BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son
inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to
have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride,
and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con-
sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is
mentioned as occurring a. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished
by Malcolm HI. in lOQ'l.—Haijdti.
BOSPHORUS, now called Circassia. The history of this kingdom is involved
in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian,
from the CimmerL who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archean-
actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by
order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris-
oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro-
vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the
Turks, Sept. 8, 1828, It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad-
miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles.
BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com-
menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770.
The celebrated •' Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par-
liament 1774. Britisli army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing-
ton and Bunker Hill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more
actively sustained than by the people of Boston, Benjamin Franklin was
born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration
of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822.
Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18.038; in 1810, 33,250; in 1820, 43,298;
in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons.
BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle op, the thirteenth and last between the houses
of York and Lancaster, in which Richard HI. was defeated by the-«earl ot
Richmond, afterwards Henry VII.. the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485.
The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the
battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had
the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con-
tests between the "Roses." many of the most ancient families in the king-
dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost
their lives.
BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany.
The Historia Plantarum of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors
on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of
the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study
was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Caesalpinus, and others, between
1535 and 1600. — Melchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linn.neus,
the first botanist of modern times, made knovsni about 1750. Jussieu's sys-
BOU ] DILTIONARY OF DATES. 213
tem, in 1758. At the time of Linnseus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of
plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of
species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100.000.
BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Biitain.
The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived
at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap-
tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of
herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson,
about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Wales and
Transportation.
BOrriiES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The
art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans
at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found
in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was
blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8.
BOULOGNE, France. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France
upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels,
and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here
with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See next a?iicle and France.
BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited
much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in
1804. In that year. Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10 000 horses,
and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17. 000 sailors to invade England. The
coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of
defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into
volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely
for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva-
sion.
BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the
Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British ijossessions,
Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of
Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostook, 1838-9,
suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey. Governor of New
Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S.
army. March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing-
ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern
boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington,
June 1846.
BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British conimodi-
ties — a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament.
The first bounties granted on corn, Avere in 1688. First legally granted in
England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been
granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Elements of Commerce.
BOUNTY, MUTINEERS of the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty,
armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put
their captain. Bligh. and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka.
one of the Friendly Islands. April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of
Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly
4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The muti-
neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three
were executed. See Pitcairn's Island.
BOURBON, House op. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of
Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage
with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justlj
214 THE world's progress. [ BOl
styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The
crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran-
teed by tlie peace of Utrecht. 1713. — Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compact
took place. 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were
restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch
was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830,
a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that
year. — See France.
SOURBON, IsLK OF, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French
first settled here in 1672. and built several towns. The island surrendered
to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two aro
styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February
1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the
Island. See MaurUius.
BOURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of
England by liis marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black
Prince l)rought his royal cai)tive, John, king of France, to this city after the
battle of Poitiers, in 1356. and here held his court during eleven years : his son,
Richard II.. (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian
statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the
victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814.
BOURIGXONISTS a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic,
who, in 1658. took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France,
Holland. England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and
some thousands of sectarists. about 1670. She maintained that Christianity
does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu-
ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the
World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her
pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate.
She died in 1680.
BOWLS, OR BOWLING an English game, played as early as the thirteenth
century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I.
played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at
Tunbridge. — Menioires de GrammotU.
BOWS .^ND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to
Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was
again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour-
aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker's Chronicle. The usual range of the long-
bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the bow was six feet, and
the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and
were discharged by a trigger.
BOXING. OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, i\\Q pn gilatus of the Romans, and a favorite
sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an
advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid-
ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and
a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre,
behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were oj>ened in England to teach
boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the ^' ring,"
selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c.,
the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing
have declined.
BOrLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl oi
Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosoyjher, distinguished by his
genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures
in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le-
BRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 21£
Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and
September to November — endowed 1691.
BOYNE; Battle of, between king William in. and his father-in-law, James 11.,
fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing
1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James
immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped t-o
France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle.
BRABANT. It was erected into a duchy a. d. 620, and devolved upon Lam-
bert I. count of Louvain. in 1005, and from him descended to Philip II. of
Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the
soventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant,
and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the
great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746
— again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom
of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgium.
BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read
of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillce, were usually
distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet.
Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are
female ornaments to the present day.
BRAGANZA, House of, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and
bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off
the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of
Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abbz
Vcrtot.
BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py-
thagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp-
sychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to
India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive
their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to
their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the w^orld.
They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy-
ments.— Strabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de-
positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holioell.
BRANDENBURGH. Family of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say
it was founded by the Sclavonians. who gave it the name of Banher, which
signifies Guard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified
Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be-
stowed the gov(;rnment on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title ol
Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927.
The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem-
berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia.
BRANDYWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri-
cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia feD
to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777.
liRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the
seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass Avas known among all the
early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted
with its use. — Whittaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the
ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla-
gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together,
formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth-
ian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Coi'inthian artist.s
had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gokl
216 THE world's progress. [ BRB
and silvei with copper; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that
Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articlei
made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig-
nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du l\esnoy.
BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was
driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He. called it the Land of the
Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red
wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. Th«
goldmines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov-
eied 1730 (see Diamonds). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807,
the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution
took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don
Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the
throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infint
son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil
war ensued. — See Portugal.
BREAD. Ching-Noung. the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the
first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method
of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hisu.
Baking of bread was known in the j)atriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15.
Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of
Paris by Henry IV., owing to the iamine which then raged, bread, which
had been .sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made
from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Itmocents, a. d. 1594. —
Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of
barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread;
and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been
eaten as bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of
land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou-
isiana (1) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat
a white unctuous earth. — Gi-cig ; PiiUlips.
BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendons work
was lowered in the presence of tlie army and navy, and multitudes of the
great. August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth,
and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth at the
bottom, and more than thirty at the top. and consumed 3,666,000 tons of
granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a
million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of
the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841.
BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason. 937 b. c. The
breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in
the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor.
BREDA. This city was taken by x>rince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the
Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles 11. resided
here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was
taken by the French in 1793. and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The
French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of
France ceased here.
BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was
worn by the Daclans, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy,
it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Csesar. In the reign of Ho«
norius, about a. d. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from
Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other coun-
tries, and at length it became general.
BRlJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 217
BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of
Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven
out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen
was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen-
dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns.
RRESLAU, Battle of, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under
prince Bevern. who was defeated, but the eng'agement was most bloody od
both sides, Nov 22, 1757, when Breslau was taken; but was regained the
same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur-
rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813.
BREST. It was besieged by Julius Csesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English.
A. D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and »
British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694.
The magazine burnt, to tlie amount of some millions of pounds sterling,
1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The
magazine again destroyed by a fire. July 10, 1784. From this great depot
of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England
during the late war.
BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting
formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun-
try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of
England, 1066.
BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng-
land retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord,
Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten-
sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to
receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long
prisoner in London, May 8, 1360.
BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church
of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and
both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in iise among
the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils
of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIIL, and other popes. The
quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the
type called brevier at the present day.
BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo
Saxon ancestors. — TlndaL '•'• One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer,
of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with ^old, 1414." — Slowe. There
are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in
Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which
there are in England about 1400 ; there are, besides. 28,000 victuallers, &c.,
who brew their ov^ti ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers,
many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and
the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer.
BRIBERY. In England an indictable ofience to bribe persons in the adminis-
tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the
land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil-
liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery
in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000Z. for the like offence, 1616. Mr.
Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord
Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli-
citing a bribe, January 1784.
EHIBERY AT ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable
offence. Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at
10
218 THE world's progress. [ BRi
an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1808 ,
and several similar instances have occurred since,
BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt,
Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made
under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886. — Saxon Chron. The
size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed. 1784. The number of
bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the
number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000.
See Building.
BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by
the ancients, was the i)ractice of conducting the bride to the house of her
spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned; it originated with the
Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on
her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her
parents ; it is ment ioned 880 b. c.
BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king Join, near
Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was
given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this
name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality
near to Bride's well ; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi-
lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name.
BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so
various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient
bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos
is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont.
Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was
built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its
frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could
scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were
invented to account for it At Shatf hausen an extraordinary bridge was
built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the
middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a
man of the ligritest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons
heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by
the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July
29, 1848.
BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and
were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built
at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest
erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in
China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are
Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; Southwark, of iron,
1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn,
in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the
Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845.
BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was
begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in
that country, in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com-
mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is
an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the
navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles.
BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain
date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on
public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are
without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are
BUT J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 2l!3
distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always .vritten on
parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St
Peter in a boat, and alvvaN's in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces
and dispensations, as well as business.
BRIENNE, Battle of, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and
the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The
allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which
the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon.
BRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus,
a prince of the Britons, 380 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a
distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces-
ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen,
1138. Brist«)l was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655.
Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the recorder, into
the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions.
He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en-
sued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate
until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' fetores, some
of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned,
and many lives lost, Oct. 29. 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832 ; four
were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during
his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year.
BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manu-
scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the
Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri-
tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion,
the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to
only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Caesar,
65 B. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen-
erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty
pitched battles with the nativ^es, a. d. 43 and 44. The conquest was com-
pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85.
First invasion of Britain by the Romans,
under Julius Caesar - - b. c. 55
Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4
Expedition of Claudius into Britain, A. d. 40
London founded by the Romans - 49
Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51
The Romans defeated by Boadicea;
70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61
A vast army of Britons is defeated by
Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61
Reigr. of Lucius, the first Christian king
of Britain, and in the world - - 179
Severus keeps his court at York, then
called Eboracum - - - 207
He dies at York - - - - 211
Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne
of Britain - - - - 286
He is killed by Alectus, who continues
the usurpation - - - - 293
Constantius recovers Britain by the de-
feat of Alectus - . - -296
Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at
York - " - - - A. D. 306
The Roman forces are finally with-
drawn from Britain - 420 to 426
The Saxons and Angles are called in to
aid the natives against their northern
neighbors the Picts and Scots - 449
Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax-
ons ^attack the natives themselves,
driving them into Wales - - 455
Many of the natives settle in Armorica,
since called Brittany - - - 457
The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided
into seven kmgdoms - - - 457
Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506
Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and
establishment of Christianity - - 596
Cadwallader, last king of the Britons,
began his reign - - - 678
The Saxon Heptarchy ends - • 828
See England, and also Tabular Viewa, p.
75, &c.
ITiat Britain formerly joined the Continent has l^en inferred from the simi-
lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con-
stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For instance,
a large part of the cliffs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810.
Phillips's Annals.
BRITISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was the
220 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BR I
grant by parliament of 20,000^. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay-
ment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature
and art, which had cost him 50,000/. The library contained 50 000 volumes
and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the cat-
alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 6, 1753 ; and in the same
year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep-
tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased
to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species ol
curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its
rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian. and other libraries, the Elgin marbles,
&c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking-
ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library^ and other collections.
BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the
crown, by Edward the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker s Chron.
BROCADE. A silken stuti' variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en-
riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi-
nese.— Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians.
— Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons,
in 1757.
BROCOLI : an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which
are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of
Cyprus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The
cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng-
land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson.
BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng-
land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was
enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9
William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act
6 George I. 1719, and 10 George II. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn-
broktrs.
BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various
other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian
statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug.
10. 1792.) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. weight
of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added
one fifteenth of lead and silver.
BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil,
under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank-
side, Southwark. and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches-
ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers, and the severest
penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry
11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope
Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax,
which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471. — Ital. Chron.
BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert
Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc-
tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all othei
communions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a
benefice in the church of England. — Collins' s Eccles. Hist.
BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The
illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Traveller,"* set out in June 1768, and pro-
ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed tlie
desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia
Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of A by*-
'^IV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221
sinia, iu Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, lie obtained the great object of his
wishes — a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in
1773, and died in 1794.
ERUNSWICK, Hou^E of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of
Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of
Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand-
father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry H.
of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns-
wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of
any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick
Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re-
sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed.
The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family
of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the
house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to diflferent persons. On this, he
retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg
were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several
branches. The present duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the
eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this
last sprang the royal family of England. A revolution took place at Bruns-
wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to
retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830.
BRUSSELS, founded by St, Gerj^ of Cambray, in the seventh century. The
memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches
and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746.
Again, by Dumouriez. 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug.
25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and
tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the Hdtel de Ville, whose tur-
ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17
feet high, which turns with the Avind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly
furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis-
play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834.
BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising
money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas-
trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such
projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Companies, and
Law's Bubble.
BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and
Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon
after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies.
The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois,
Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The
expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont.
in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697.
BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan,
who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the
end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, when
her followers dispersed.
BUCHAREST, Treaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place
between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be
the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent
war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty.
BUCKINGHAM PALACE, London. Buckingham-house, built 1703, was
pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site • and aftei
222 THE world's progress. [ BUi*
expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com-
pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, !837.
BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri-
sius, of Argos, about 1370 b. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam-
nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and silver, 309
B c. See article Armor.
BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles 11. ;
but people of inferior rank, and such as aflfected plainness in their garb,
wore strings in their shoes some years after that period ; these last were
however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them.
BUDA ; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman IL at
the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed,
and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was
sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun-
gary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial-
ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See
Hungary.
BUENA VISTA, Battle of, between the American force, of about 5.000 men, un-
der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, under
Santa Anna: the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded.
American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri-
cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847.
BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It
was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806 ; and waii
retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12. the same year. The British
suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced,
July 6. 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 181b .
the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue-
nos A5''res and Monte Video. Englaixd and France blockaded the port of Bue-
nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845 ; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas,
defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845.
BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The
shows of the buftbons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol-
ished by Trajan, a. d. 98. Our ancient kings had jesters, who are described
as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they
were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con-
verted the jesters into poet- laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ;
Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton.
BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone,
and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone
Avas early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every
nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be
referred in England to Benedict, or Benet. a monk, about a, d. 670. The first
bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick
was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it
in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl of
Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase
of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by
Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580.
BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687; and are subdued by the
emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken
15 000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one
eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymeu
BUO] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 223
home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued by
Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii.
BULL, OR EDICT op the POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient
use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal,
deriving its name from bullay and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and
wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the
name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden
bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal;
and was made the fundamental laAv of the German empire, at the diet af
Nuremburg, a. d. 1356. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet-
tors, and corsigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada,
1588.
BUIX-BAITING, OR BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of
Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights
of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse-
ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a
sport at Putbury in 1374. In the Sports of England, we read of the " Easter
fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and
huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the
Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi-
bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish
bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence
of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus-
tom, May 24. 1802. — Butler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cru-
elty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : abol-
ished there, " except for ^^ows and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There was
a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta-
tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840.
BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d. 1514 ; and iron ones are first
mentioned in the Fadera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close
of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for
musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is stiU of stone,
instead of iron. — Ashe.
BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe,
and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss,
1054 killed and wounded ; American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for
want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has
always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and
is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which
the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It was finished
July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary
contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro-
cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 60,000
people present, June 17, 1843.
BIjONAPARTE S EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most
extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most
of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century.
See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads
throughout the volume : —
Napoleon bom at Ajaccio, in Italy,
Aug. 15, 1769
He first distinguishes himself in the
command of the artillery at Toulon - 1793
He embarks for Egypt - May 10, 1798
/s repulsed before Acre - May 27, 1799
He returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799
Deposes the French directory, and be-
comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799
Sends overtures of peace to the king of
England - - - Jan. 1 180C
His life attemried by an " infernal ma-
chine" . - - Dec. 31. 18(K.
j«24
THE WORLDS PROGRESS.
[ BUH
continued.
Is defeated at Waterloo - June 18, 1815
Returns to Paris - J uiie 20, 1815
And abdicates in favor of his infant
son - - - June 22, 1815
Intending to embark for America, he
arrives at Roche fort - July 3, 1815
He surrendei-s to Capt. Maitland, of the
Bellerophon - - July 15, 1''15
Transferred at Torbay to the Nortkum-
berla7id,a.nd sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815
Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de-
creed by the allied sovereigns he shall
remain for life) - Oct. 15, 1816
The family of Bonaparte excluded for
ever from France by the law of am-
nesty - - - Jan. '2, 1816
Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1821
His will registered in England - Aug. 1824
His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July ^. 1832
The French chambers decree, with the
consent of England, that the ashes of
Napoleon be removed from St. Hele-
na, and brought to France - May 12, 1840
They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840
The Belle Poule, French frigate, arrives
at Cherbourg with the -«mains of
Napoleon, in the care cf lie prince
de Joinville - • Nov. 30, 1840
They are interred with great solemnity
in the Hotel des Invahdes • Dec. 15, 1840
distinction coeval in England with
BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE or FRANCE,
Elected president of the Italian, late
Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802
Elected consul lor 10 years - May 8, 1802
Made first consul for life - Aug. 2, 1802
Accepts <he title of emperor from the
senaU; in name of the people May 18, 1804
Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804
Crowned king of Italy - May 2(3, 1805
Divorced from the empress Josephine
Dec. 16, 1809
Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810
A son, the fruit of this marriage, born,
and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811
His overtures ol peace to England re-
jected - - - April 14, 1812
[The reverses of Bonaparte now follow'
in quick succession.]
He renounces the thrones of France
and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of
Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814
Embarks at Frejus • - April 28, 181.4
Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1814
Again appears in France ; he quits Elba
and lands at Cannes • March 1, 1815
Enters Lyons - • March lU, 1815
Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815
Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815
The allies sign a treaty for his exter-
mination -" - - March 25. 1815
He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815
Leaves Paris for the army - June 12, 1815
BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a
its corporations. Burgesses were called to parliament in England a. d. 1265 ;
in Scotland, in 1326; and in Ireland about 1365. Burgesses to be resident
in the j)laces which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V.
1413. — Vi/icr's S/atuies. See Borough.
BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun-
ished with death.
BURGOS. Siege of. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca,
which was fought July 22, 1812, and the castle M^as besieged by the British
and allied army, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but
the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortifica-
tions were blown up by the French in June 1813.
BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413, Conrad II. of Ger-
many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an-
nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed
the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence. Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur-
gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip 11.
of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the
Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to
France, and formed into departments of that kingdom.
BCTRIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to eartb.
The tirst idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover-
ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See
Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. —
Eusebiiis. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in
cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758, Vaults were
erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng-
land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland. 1729; and woollen
shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673., See Cemeteries,
BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were in
BUPv] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225
stituted in Eng-land by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. — Stmve. A tax
waa exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, jCSO, and for
that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Geo. III. 1783.—
Statutes. See Bills of Mortality.
BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It
was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe-
trated being called Biirke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by
pressure, or other modes of suflfbcation, and the bodies, which exhibited no
marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose
of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The
crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London.
The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and exe-
cuted with Williams, one of his accomphces, for the murder of a poor Italian
boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as
being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar
murders), December 5, same year.
BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom-
pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. — See India
BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among the Romans, Jews,
and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest
in the ascending and descending degrees The Jews had two ways of burn-
ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour-
ing scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, combustio animce, to burn
the soul. — See Suttees.
BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see preceding article') burn-
ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished
heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This
punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered
in this manner. — See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac-
count of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir WiUiam Sawtree,
parish priest of St. Osith, London, 3 Henry IV., February 9, 1401, In the
reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop
of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer, archbishop of
Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others
suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.*
BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The-
ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho-
mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was
very general about 1225 b. c, and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the
dead in graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead
is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies.
BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown
to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful
by the modern improvements of Settalla : of Tchirnhausen, 1680 ; of Bufibn,
1747 ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi-
ments of the fusion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning
mirror :
• It is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shocking violence*
ftrd barbarities were carried on, there were 277 persons brought to the stake ; besides those who
were punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who sufifered by fire were
5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers.
55 women, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gar-
diner and Bonner. The latter especially was a man of brutal character, who seemed to derlVe a
savage pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers.
10*
226 THE world's progress. [ byz
Siibsta.ices/used. Weight. Time.
Pure gold - - 20 grains 4 seconds.
Silver - - - 20 grains .3 seconds.
Copper - - - 33 grains 20 seconds.
Platina - - - 10 gniins 3 seconds.
Cast iron • • 10 grains 3 seconds.
Steel - • - 10 grains 12 seconds.
BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, continued.
Substances fused. ' Weight. Time.
A topaz - - • 3 grains 45 second*.
An emcrnld - - 2 grains 25 seconds.
A co'stal pebble • 7 grains G .^econda.
Flint - - - - 10 grains 30 iccondai
Cornelian - • 10 grains 75 seconds.
Pumice stone • - 10 grains 24 seconds.
Green ^Yood takes fire instantaneously; water boils immediately; bones are
calcined ; and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron.
BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Bceotia, where Creon ordered
Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive. 1225 b. c. The Roman
vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress
or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia
was buried alive on the charge of incontinence. 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia
was buried alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d. 92. Lord Bacon gives
instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa-
mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi-
dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls
built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this
species of torture until they died, October, 1831. — See Greect..
BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is
the same with the hcnncB of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the
inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts
from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about
A. D. 1466. — Vasari.
BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii pro-
vided hogs, the Boa7'ii oxen, and the Laiiii, whose office was to kill. The
butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London,
although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. —
Annals of London.
BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the
early Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris-
tians of Egyi)t burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen-
tury. In 1675. there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow
dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable
butter is made fVom the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba,
than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mungo Park.
BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England ; those covered with cloth were
prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but-
tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement
from any quarter of late year.s, although it has, notwithstanding, much im-
proved.— Phillips.
BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round
the globe. June 21, 1764. and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis-
covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au-
gust 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul- weather Jack."— •
Bellchambers.
BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 716
B. c. — Eusebins. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid in ruina
by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constautine in 338 : and aftei
him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constantinople
€AD J PICTIONARY OF DATES. 227
c.
CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbius were cabalistSj
and the Cliristians so called those who pretended to magic. Id English his-
tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration,
supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation
of the Cabal, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clifford, the lord
Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder-
dale, 22 Charles U. Vol^.—Hnme.
'CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so eaify as the reign
of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690 ; Offa, king of the Mercians, 768,
and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret
ieliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the
great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now
styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great, about a. d. 896.
Spelman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon-
structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members :*
Lord president,
Lord chancellor.
Lord privy seal.
First lord of the treasury.
Chancellor of the exchequer.
Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state.
President ofthe hoard of confxol.
President of the boari of trade.
Master of the mint.
First lord of the admiralty.
In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods .
and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of
Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of
the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of Englana.
CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making
the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented
in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making
cables for ships of large size. Chain cables were introduced into the British
navy in 1812.
CADDEE, OR League of God's House. The celebrated league of independence
in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, a. d. 1409
to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gra}
league, 1424.
CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun-
try on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed
20,000 Kentish men, who armed -'to punish evil ministers, and procure a
redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time
bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and
several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing
ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de-
serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen-
sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander
Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451.
CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 b. c. — Priestley.
One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada,
• The term cabinet council is of comparatively modem date, and originated thus : the affairs
of state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the
earl of Strafford, and the lord Cottington ; to these were added the earl of Northumberland, for or-
nament; the bishop of London for his place, being lord treasurer ; the two secretaries. Vane and
Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest,
meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee cl
fetatn, reproachfully called the junto, and. afterjivards, enviously, the cabinet council. — Lorp Cijl-
REXPON.
228 THE world's progress. [CAl
against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Diuke, 1587
Cadiz was taken by the EngUsh. under the earl of Essex, and plundered,
September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he
failed. Bombarded by the Britisli in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet,
under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by
the British, on board whose licet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800.
Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca
in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820.
Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829.
C-^SARS, ERA OF the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January
38 B. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was
much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held
in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona.
Pedro IV., of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John
of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till
1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen-
dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the
year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine.
CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, fhe com-
mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy,
broke down its embankments : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of
the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by
the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming
flood, A.D. 1642.
CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for
the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in
what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d.
969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru-
saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their
empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June,
1754, when 40000 persons perislied. Set on tire by a lady of the beglerbeg,
.Dec, 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798.
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27,
1801.
CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held
by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558,
and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it
occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom-
barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long
exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France.
CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It
was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta
was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants,
in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed
into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence
twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re-
taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supreme
court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801. — See
Bengal and India.
C ALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived
from Gael or Gaelmen, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus,
who died a. d. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of
Caledonia; but the etymology of the word seems undetermined. Vener-
able Bede says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, when it was invaded
by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear
TAL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 229
to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, wbo passed
over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth
centurj of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho-
rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven
the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to
the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits,
customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlandera
and the inhabitants of the southern borders
Caledonian monarchy, said to have been
founded by Fergus 1., about - b. c. 330
The Picts Irom the north of England
settle in the southern borders - - 140
Agricola carries the Roman arms into
Caledonia, with little success, in the
reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor-
bredll. - - - A. D. 79
He is signally defeated by the forces of
Corbred 80
Christianity is introduced into Caledonia
in the reign of Donald I. - - 201
The country is invaded by the Scuyths,
or Scots, and the government is over-
thrown, about - - A. D. 306
The ( :aledonian monarchy is revived by
Fergus II. - - - - - 404
After many sanguinary wars between
the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken-
neth II. obtains a victory over the Picts,
unites the whoLe country under one
monarchy, and gives it the name of
Scotland - ■ - 838 to 843
See Scotland.
The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his-
tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed
Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb-
able lictions.
C ALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means
of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western
ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal-
tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum
exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ;
and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed,
and opened in 1822.
CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by
almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into
ten months, comprising 304 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was
of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than
the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with
any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by
adding two months ; and Julius Caesar, desirous to make it more correct,
fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This almost
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener-
ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII.
The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar
year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of
365 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had
amounted to ten entire days, the vernal eqiiinox falling on the 11th, instead
of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582,
that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu-
larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis-
sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus,
1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so; but the year
2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400
ysars. because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three daj^s in about that
period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to
correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are
av^oided. See Nevj Style.
C ALJCO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India,
which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico Avas first brought
to England by the East India Con pauy, in 1631. Calico printing, and the
230 THE WORLD*S PROGRESS. [ Caa
Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro-
hibited to be printed or worn, in 1700 ; and again, in 1721. They were first
made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton.
CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered bj' Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror
of jNIexico, 1584; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate
Ulloa. 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by
Philip U. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego
and Alonterey. and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602.
CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al-
bion, 15'J6. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by tlie. ill-used
natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits in
1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New "California 1769.
Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico,
1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex-
plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with
that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont,
1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by
Com. Montgomery, July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper
California May-August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern-
ment. Movements of general Kearney, Heutenant Emory, &c. 1846. Cali-
fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico. 1848. Gold
placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848.
Great emigration from the United States conmienced November, 1848. C-^n-
vention at JNIonterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con-
stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor,
Dec. 1849.
CALIPH. In Arabic, \icar, or apostle; the title assumed by the Sophi of
Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes-
sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of
the Prophet's second wife, in whoscarms he died, a. d. 631. In process of
time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the
title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T.
Herbert.
CALLIGRAPHY . Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra-
tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472
B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and
beautiful. In the sixteenth century. Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer,
creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the
month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he
presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny,
enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu-
rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty,
the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574.
— Holinshed.
CALLAO, IN Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore,
and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687.
The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished,
with the exception of one man, who was standing on an eminence, and to
whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat.
CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by
Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously
known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced
by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known sumv
centuries before.
cam] dictionary of dates. 231
CALVARY", Mount. The place where the Redeemer suffered death, a. d. 33.
Calvary was a small eminence 6r hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated
to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time
of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount
Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, a. d. 142.
Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all
Christian countries.
CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re-
former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal
errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi-
ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angoul^me, where he composed his Insti-
Putio ChristiancE Rehgio7iis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He
subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he
differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider
themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A
formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561
where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs
burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists.
CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric
takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur-
prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war
of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793,
when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to
surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to
fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas.
Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was
occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court.
CAMBRAY, League op. This was the celebrated league against the republic
of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and
Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in
the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508.
CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for ruffles. — Shakspeare. Cambrics
were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza-
beth, 1580. — Stowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and
was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George 11. 1758. Readmitted in
1786, but afterwards again prohibited: the importation of cambrics is now
allowed.
CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta,, and of most ancient standing, being fre-
quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians.
Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of
king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced by
Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during
the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains
thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most
ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and the
chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world.
CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1^14:.— Wood's Ath. Ox
Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob-
scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger
Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural
magic, about 1500. — Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent
invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma-
nent ; the last was produced in 1839.
CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians,
and contimied to hold their religious meetings in the fields.- -.S./r/fi.
232 THE world's progress. [ CAW
CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently
most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are
told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in-
trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments
are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The
last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745.
tAMPE ACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520 ; it was taken by the Eng-
lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678; and by the free-
booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up
the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in
1662.
CAMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south
of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral
Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter
losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797.
CAMPO FORMIO, Treaty of, concluded between France and Austria, the
latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France,
and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor-
able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the
Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the
Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797.
CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d.
1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously
visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re-
stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was
confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two
provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates
on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke
and Mr. Fox arose.
CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon-
treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St.
Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were
repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham,
governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors,
April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man-
ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at
Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6; some skirmishes
took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several
hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re-
bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of
Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of .£1,000 for Papi-
neau, Dec. 5, 1837. M Leod (charged with the destruction of the Caroline.^
American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12,
1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United
States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met-
calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general,
took the oath. Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia-
ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying
losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849.
Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against
such movements as high, treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey,
the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850.
CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes
over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The
canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean
CAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 233
was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com-
menced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced
1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That oetween
the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between
the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was
by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134.
That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83 000 metres, of which 17,000
are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8, 1847. In Eng-
land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the
length of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there
are but 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the
Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. — Williams.
CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for curamencing the great Erie canal
in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton. 1817.
The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa-
peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829.
CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortu-
nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus,
about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt,
A. D. 1402 ; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which
flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts
of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500.
CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history.
It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken
by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the
Turks obtained it. after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000
men perished, 1669.
CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax,
or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the
lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were
little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The
wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said
to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of
modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are
made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which
is fragrant, and yields a bright light.
CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feast instituted by the early Christians, who conse-
crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the
year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of
the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre-
sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light,
this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice
of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order
of council 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome.
CA NNyE, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to
the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and
Spaniards ; and Paulus .^milius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of
whom 40 000 wei-e slain. — Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels
of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage.
Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the
battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21.
216 B. c. — Bossuet.
CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform
us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South
234 THE WORLD S I'ROGRESS. [ CAH
Ameri«:an tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the
present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage
nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the
Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the re.ign of Henry I.
The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals Id
America See Anthropophagi.
CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According
to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but
■his Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at
the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by
the governor of Calais. 6 Richard II. 1383. — Rymer's Fadera. Louis XIV..
upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed
upon his cannon, ''The last argument of kings." See ArlUlcry.
CANNON. Rkm.arkable. The largest known i)iece of ordnance is of brass, case
in India in 1G85. At Ehrenbrcitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in
Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen
feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet
four inches in the i)reech. The ball made for it weiglis 1801bs. and its charge
of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon
in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gim called queen Elizabeth's pocket-
pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland; this piece is 24
feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States,
and a motto in Dutch, importing thus,
"Charge me well, and sponge me cleau,
I'll throw a ball to Calais Green."
Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was
fired three times m the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788.— Phillips.
CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher.
Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon
existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier.
Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian. the celebrated canon
law authc, in 1151, and was introduced into England. 19 Stephen, 1154. —
Stowe.
CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the
Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallent's Tables. Saints have so
accumulated every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Henault.
CANTERBURY. The Durovernwui of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert,
king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during
the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous
for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and withinit are interred Henry IV. and
Edward the Black Prince.
CANTERBURY, Archbishopric ok. This see was settled by St. Austin, who
preached the gospel in England a, d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of
Kint. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great
ta7ors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert'a
dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ,
although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas &. Becket, mur-
dered at its altar. December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo-
litan of all England and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of
all officers of state and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had
formerly jurisdiction over Ireland and the archbishoi) was styled a patriarch.
This see hath yielded to the churcli of Rome. 18 saints and 9 cardinals; and
to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St,
Austin was the first bishop, 696, Til© see was made superior to York, 1073.
TAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 235
— See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at .62816. l* j. M.—
Beatson.
CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulver-
ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into
medical practice by Aretaeus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c—
Freind's History of Physic.
CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed
up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur-
pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng-
land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating
to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822. a fire destroyed
15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and
more than 1000 persons in October 1833.
CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes
by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne. Quito, and the Brazils,
called Havia caoutchouc and Siphonia elastica, and vulgarly called syringe
trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. —
See India Rubber.
CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the ^^ead,
and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But a; one
period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their
slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark
of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in
France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear
a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is icferred to the year 1449;
the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII.
into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A
statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20<i. (40 cts.) nor cap
above 25. %d. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489.
CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the
French in 1632. but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and
re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison
and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven
ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng
land at the peace of 1763.
CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610 : but it soon fell to
the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British
settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the
Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the English
by the treaty of Breda, in 1667.
('APE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East
Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally
called the " Cape of Tempests." and was also named the " Lion of the Sea "
and the " Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of
Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having
reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage
to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the
Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphlnstone and general
Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by
sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8 1806 ; and finally ceded to
England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March,
1820. The Caffres have made scverol irruptions on the British settlements
here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown, in Oct, 1834.
Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1848.
236 THE world's progress. [ CAf
CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients undci
the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered
b}' Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 1446
C A.PE ST. VINCENT, Battles of. Admiral Rooke, with twenty shij.® of war,
and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville,
with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve
English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or
destroyed by the French, June 16. 1693. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of
the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, bcin^
in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the
Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off* this Cape, and signally defeated the
enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several
others. Feb. 14, 17U7. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English
pe(!rage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of
8000/. a year.
CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count
of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape-
vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues,
A. D. 987. — Hciiault.
CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built
to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation'laid by Tar-
quinius Priscus. 616 b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to
this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of
gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds
were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De-
stroyed by lightning, 188 b. c. ; by fire, a. d. 70, The Capitoline games in-
stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86.
CAPPADOCIA, This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc-
cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of
Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes 11.
became king of Cappadocia.
Pharnaces is declared king - B. c. 744
His successors are unknown for nearly
three centuries.
Reien of Ariarathes I. - - - 362
Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria-
rathes is crucified - - • - 322
Defeat of the Parthians - - - 217
Irruption of the Trocmi - - - 164
Mithridates, sumamed Philopator, as-
cends the throne - - - 162
Orophemes dethrones Philopator • 161
Attains assists Philopator, and Oro-
phemes dethroned - - - - 154
Philopator joins the Remans against
Aristonicus, and perishes in batUe - 153
His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp-
ing the throne, poisons five of her own
children, the sixth and only remaining
child is saved, and the queen put to
death - - - - -153
This young prince reigns as Ariarathes
Vn. 153
Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII. - 97
Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - - 96
Cappadocia declared a free country by
the senate of Rome • - - 95
The people elect a new king Ariobar-
zanes I. - - - - . 94
His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns • 65
He is dethroned by Marc Antony • 38
Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia,
dies, and bequeathes his kingdom to
the Roman empire - a. d. 17
CAPRI. The Capreae of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe-
rius, and for the debaut^heries he committed in this once delightful retreat,
daring the seven last years of his life: it was embellished by him with a
sumptuous palace, and most magnificent works, Capri was taken by sir
Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806,
C/APUCHTN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given,
from their wearing a great Capuchon, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap. or
hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capu-
chins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Althoigh the
CAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237
rigors of this order have ahated, still the brethren are remarkable for thei*.
extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe.
CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. The
covered cars {currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. Triumphal
cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the
Elder, according to others.
CAHACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a. d. 1498. The province
declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by
a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks
and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or
their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed.
CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for
freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror
in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern-
ment in Sept. 1820.
CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, aLd constitute the
conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or
incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the
eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the
popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they
ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes
of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul 11. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ;
and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630 ; some say in 1623. — Du Cange.
CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans : but it is generally supposed
that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI.
during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought
him to his grave. — Mezerai, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an
amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of
wisdom. — MalktJi. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Daines
Barrington. Picquet and all the early games are French. Cards first taxed
in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800.
In 1825. the duty being then 2s. Qd. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were
stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs
paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th
Jan. 1840.— ParZ. Reports.
CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter : he
first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by
bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. —
De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ;
and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the
initials H. B., aro political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn.
CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a
strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was
made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken
by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745.
CARLSBAD, Congress op, on the affairs of Europe: The popular spirit of
emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic
government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come
to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti-
nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchies
and free institutions, August 1, 1819.
CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from Mount Carmel, and one of 'thu
four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141,
Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un-
238 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [CAP
Interrupted succession from Elyah. Elisba, &c. Mount Ctruol h^s a monas*
tery. and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000
feet high, shaped like a Hatted cone, with steep and barren sides: it is often
referred to in Jewish histories.
" See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise,
And Carmel's flowery lop perfumes the skies." — Pope.
CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in ]550. A body of English,
amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro-
lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See
N. 4' "S. CaroluM.
CARPETS They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days of
Amos, -about 800 b. c. — Ainos ii 8. Carpets wore spread on the ground, on
which persons sat who dwelt in tents; but when first used in houses,
even in the East we have no record. In the I'ith century carpets were arti-
cles of luxury; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's
splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in
winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about a. d. 1160. The manufacture
of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of
Henry IV., between 1589 and 1010. Some artisans who had quitted France
in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about
1750. There, as with'most nations Persian and Turkey carpets, especially
the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster. Wilton, and Kidder-
minster manufacture is the growth of the last hundred years. The manu-
facture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within
fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn.
CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, who
J roduced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France
in the reign of Henry H. a. d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction,
and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555; but not the
art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used
by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Hen-
ry IV, had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va-
rious: they were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were
then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses;
and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first
let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre ; and hence their name.
See Coaches.
CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Reni des Cartes, the French
philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He Avas an original thinker:
his metaphysical principle "I think, therefore I am." is refuted by Mr. Locke ;
and his physical principle, that "nothing exists but substance," is disprov-
ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great
singularities and originalities ; but a spirit of independent thought prevails
throughout it. and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others, Des
Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country. —
Dufresaoi/.
CARTHAGE, founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre,
869 B. c. She fled from that tyrant, who had killed her husband, and took
refuge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the empire of
the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total demo-
lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground. 146 b. c,
when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhabitants
perished in them, rather than survive the subjection of their country. The
Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain o^
this once i)ovverful republic. — Eusebius.
CAg] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 239
CARTHAGE, continued.
Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa.
—Blair - - - b. c. 869
First alliance of the Carthaginians with
the Romans - - - - 509
The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated
by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes.
Herodotus, I. vii. - - 480
They send 300,000 men into Sicily - 407
The siege of Syracuse - • - 396
The Carthaginians land in Italy - 379
' Their defeat by Timoleon - - 340
They are defeated by Agathocles, and
immolate their children on the altar of
Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310
Hannibal, at the age of nine years,
having first made him swear an eter-
nal enmity-to the Romans - b. c. 237
Hamilcar is' killed in battle by the Vet-
tones - - - - - 227
Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 22C
Hannibal subjects all Spain, £is far as
the Iberus - - - - 2! 'J
The second Punic war begins - - 21 ]
First great victory of Hannibal - -217
Hannibal cvosses the Alps, an 1 enters
Italy with 100.000 men - - • 217
Great battle of Cannae (which see) - 216
New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio - 210
The first Punic war begins - -264 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated
The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro- and slain in Italy - - - 20/
mans in a'naval engagement - - 260 The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206
Xantippus defeats Regulus - - 253 I Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege
Romulus is crucified - - - - 256 1 to Utica - - - - - 204
Asdrubal defeated by 3Ietellus - - 251 ! Hannibal recalled from Italy - - 203
Romans defeated before Lilyboeum - 250 | Great battle of Zama {uhich see) • 202
End of the first Punic war - - 241 | An ignominious peace ends the second
War between the Carthaginians and Punic war .... 201
African mercenaries - - - 241 i The third Punic war begins - - 149
Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he Destruction of Carthage, which is burned
takes wiA him his son, the famous I to the ground - . . - 146
CARTHAGENA. or New Carthage, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, the Ca. tha-
ginian general, 227 b. c. From here Hannibal set out in his memorable
march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps. 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia,
was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of
£1,200,000 in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but
he was obliged,, though he took the forts, to raise the siege.
CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired
from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of
Dauphin^. Their rules were formed by Basil VII., general of the order, and
were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not
leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave ; and their clothing was
cwo hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The
general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery,
from which the order is named. — Auberti; Mirai Origmes Carthus.
CA.RTOONS OF RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va-
tican, under Julius II. and Leo X.. about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them
that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of
England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre-
sent— 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2. the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter
.and John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple ; 4^ the Death of Ana-
nias; 5, El^onas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 6, the Sacrifice to
Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens.
CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex-
othis xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c.
and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood next in stone, and
afterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis wcre eminent carvers
and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Plvny. See arti-
cle Sculptures. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deriditares, are mention-
ed by Homer.
CASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly sha-.vls
is described as being " the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual s])ruig.''
The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that
Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well
imitated by the spinning at Bradford, and the looms of Huddersticld.
240 THE world's progress. [■ CAT
Sha-'vls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about
the year 1650. — Bemier.
CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army,
Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suffered under the dreadful
visitation of earthquakes: in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na-
ples and Sicily, in 1783. this to\vn was almost obliterated. It is recorded
that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance,
looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000
persons perished; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000.
CASIIGLIONE, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French
arms, undor genoral Bonaparte, again.st the main army of the Austrians,
commanded by general Wurmser: the battle lasted live days successively,
from the 2d to the Gth July. 1706. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in
this obstinate condict at 70 lield-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,-
000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded.
CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here
about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in
1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the
whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474.
See Arragon and Spain.
CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and
built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo
Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oi
steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the
nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d. 1135, and 1154: most of these
were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such possessions,
on his accession, in 1154.
CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted
the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places
of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818,
explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years
ago: among others, a chcf-d'auvre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam-
maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental
alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na-
tions had their catacombs; there were some of great extent at Rome. The
Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata-
combs, especialh 'hose of Egypt, are called mummies. See Embalming.
CATANIA, OR C ATANE A . At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony
from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women
were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadfut
overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity
to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava
four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in
a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in
1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal-
lowed up. and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried
in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number
of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817.
CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry-
gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of
the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with
needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon.
CATAPULTS. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense
weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, 399 b. c. — Josephus. They
CAUj DICTIONARY OP DATES. 241
were capable of throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards kngth.—
Pardon.
CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre-
gory in. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, who was thereupon surnamed t?ie Cath(h
lie; A. D. 739 The title of Catlwlic was also given to Ferdinand V.. 1474.
See
CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family,
having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagance,
and liaving been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin cf
his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans,
as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set
Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero,
whom he had resolved to murder ; and on seeing five of his accomplices
arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army.
Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius
attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspii-
ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 b. c.
His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence
he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother ; and it is
said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths
more firm and inviolable. — Sallust.
C- ATO, SUICIDE OF. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome."
Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which
alone " sustains the name and dignity of man:" unable to survive the inde-
pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of
suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriot-
ism to the highest degree of political frensy ; for Cato, dead, could be of
no use to his country ; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might
have moderated Caesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public
affairs. Feb. 5, 45 b. c. — Montesquieu.
CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and
desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of
the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages,-
and the overthrow of the government : the conspirators were arrested Feb.
23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and his four principal associates, Brunt, Davison,
Ings, and Tidd, after a trial commenced on April 17th, which ended in their
CO eviction, were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors,
on May 1, following. — Haydn.
CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuaxion of the ridge of
Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently
by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It
was covered with snow in some parts, and in others was variegated with
fruitful orchards and plantations : its people were at one time supposed to
gjither gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with-
out making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by
Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authors,
1 648 B. c. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasice Porta, and
it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made their
way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome. a. d. 447. — Strabo. Hero-
dotus,.
C \USTIC m PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of
burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was
the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress
Glycere, whom he represented ns sitting on the ground, and making gai-
lands of flowers; and from this circumstance the picture, which was
242 THE world's progress. [ CEM
bought afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of Slep^ui-
noplocon, 335 b. c. — Piuiil Uii>l. Nat.
CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those
wlio espoused the cause of tlie king during the unhappy war which brought
Charlef I. to the scatiold. They were so called in opposition to the Round*
heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1641). — Hume.
CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated fo'
tlieir cavalry, and for its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the
Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turmas ; the com-
mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In tlio
early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field :
they had 10,000 horse at tlie battle of Marathon, 490 b.c: and 10,00a
Persian liorse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Plutarch.
CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654. IV
was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch.
These last were exj)elled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by
the British. Jan. 12, 180'J, but was restored to the French at the peace in
1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccaium^ or cayenne
pepper, so esteemed in Europe.
CELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sj^here was brought to Greece from Egypt,
368 B. c. A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b.c.
The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus.
The great celestial globe of Gottorp, jjlanned after a design of Tycho Brache,
and erected at the exjjense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in
diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is
eighteen feet. See Globes.
CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed ft'om the Bemardins by
jjope Celestine V. in 1294, The order of nuns was instituted about the
same period.
CELIBACY, and the monastic life, ])reached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about
A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate
places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at
the council of Nice. a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in
692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in
1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia,
held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow-
ing were unfriendly to matrimony; — Plato, Pythagoras. Epicurus, Bion.
Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes ; and the following
among the moderns: — Newton, Locke. Boyle, Gibbon. Hume, Adam Smith.
Harvey. Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex|
Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn,
Handel. Wolsey, Pascal. Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins,
Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham.
CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all
their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre
cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosoDi
of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans
were at a distance from their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in
gardsns — John xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains—
Matthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Romish
clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being
interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand-
some and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many fine plants that
grow in them and which they carefully place over their dead. It is only
CEY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 243
within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in thes«
countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the
danger to health of burial-places in the midst of dense populations, called
for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Pkre la Chaise at
Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London
suburbs. The inclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid
out in walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme-
teries in Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns ; and in Ireland, at Cork,
Dublin, &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially
that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia
(183-), and Greenwood, near New-York (1839), are far more beautiful in
their natural features than any of those \iear Loudon or Paris.
CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate, and
correct the manners of the people ; their power was also extended over
private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors
were appointed 443 b. c. The office was abolished by the emperors.
CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and
personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years:
established by Servius Tullius, 566 b. c. — Legal Polity of the Roman State.
In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial
periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831 ; and the new
census, 1841.
CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods,
viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken
this year, 1850. — See Population.
CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Ro-
man legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. He was
distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the
Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a centuria^ 566 b. c.
CENTURY. The method of computing by centuries was first generally
observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our
Redeemer's incarnation, a. d. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded
by church historians. — Pardon.
CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by
M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan. 1801. To the
naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying
power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discovered by
Dr. Olbers, is still smaller.
CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise ; it was dis-
covered by the Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in
the time of Claudius, a. d. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the
Hollanders in 1603; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The
Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by
the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements
* Pere la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and
fcia confessor. He died in 1709 ; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by
this beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the
i;raves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it ia
then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs; which in Asia Minor, and
Turkey in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palm-tree, boughs of myrtle, or
cypresses planted at the head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placed a chest of ornamented
Btone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cul-
tivated by females, who assemble in groups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles,
which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to put aboui
their graves.— itfa27e^/ Chandler; Butler.
244 THE world's progress. [ CHA
were seized by the British ; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatam, ip
Sept, same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens
in 1802. The Britisli troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned
by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 2(3, 1803. The complete sove-
reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815.
CH-^RONEA, Battlks of. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians,
and Tolmidas, their general is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chaeronea, in which
Greece lost its liberty to Pliilip, 32.000 Macedonians defeating the confed-
erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle
of Clueronea in which Arclielaus. lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by
8ylla. and 110.000 Cajjpadocians are slain, 86 b. c.
t HAI.\-BRI])GES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to
l>e thai at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top ol
onr niounlain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the tirst
chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the
chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast oi
Wales, July 1818.— 8ee Mcnai Bridge.
CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT^ Iron chain-cables were in use by the
Veneti, a i)eople intimately connected with the Belga; of Britain in the time
of Caisar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the
royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an
enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain-
pumi)S were hrst used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787.
CHAISE OR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a
light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Ca;sar, about a. d. 7. Aure-
lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan,
about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chario*
CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced
2234 B. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander,
331 B. c, being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callis-
thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters: the Bible was transcribed
from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra.
CHAMP DE MARS an open square space in front of the Military School at
Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to
the r'ver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Here
was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous " f(^deration," or solemnity of
swearing fidelity to the ' patriot king'' and new constitution. In the even-
ing great rejoicings followed the proceedings ; public balls were given by
the municipality in the Champs Elysees and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi-
nated throughout. 1791, July 17. a great meeting of citizens and others held
here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the
country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced
abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under
the eye of Bonaparte. May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ de Mai.
CHAMPION OF ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona-
tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion
still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one
that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary
in the Dymocke family.
CHANCELLORS LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks
after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the
office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards
bishop of London, Avas created chancellor in 1067. The first personage who
\
CHA J
DICTIONARY OP DATES.
245
was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his owa
judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office was
more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice.
Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very
ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588,
In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it
was not until 1818 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice-ChancelU r
was permanently held.
1692 Sir John Somers, qfterwarda \9T\
Somers.
I 1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K.
I 1705 Lord Cowper, L. K.
j 1710 In commission.
1713 Lord Harcourt.
I 1714 Lord Cowper again.
I 1718 In commission.
; 1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl ol
Macclesfield.
I 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord
King.
1733 Lord Talbot.
1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke.
. 1761 Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord
Henley, and earl of Northington.
1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden.
1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next
day.
1770 In commission.
1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed-
ed as earl Bathurst.
1778 Lord Thurlow.
\ 1783 Lord Loughborough and others
April 9
LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND,
{From (he time of Cardinal Wolsey.)
1515 Cardinal Wolsey.
1530 Sir Thomas More (beheaded).
1533 Sir Thomas Audley.
J 534 Thomas, bishop of Ely.
1545 Lord Wriothesley.
1547 Lord St. Johii.
1547 Lord Rich.
1551 Bishop of Ely again.
1551 Sir Nich. Hare, Lord Keeper.
1653 Bisliop of Winchester.
1555 Ai-chbishop of York.
1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon.
1579 Sir Thomas Bromley.
1587 Sir Christopher Hatton.
1592 Sir John Packering.
1596 Sir Thomas Egerion.
1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord
Verulam.
1625 Sir Thomas Coventry.
1639 Sir John Finch.
1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord
Littleton.
1645 Sir Richard Lane.
1648 In commission.
1653 Sir Edward Herbert.
1658 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of
Clarendon.
1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. K.
1672 Earl of Shaftesbury.
1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of
Nottingham.
1682 Lord Guilford, L. K.
1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys.
1690 In commission.
1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin-
son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K.
(m commission) -
VSS Lord Thurlow again -
1792 In commission.
1793 Lord Loughborough again.
1801 Lord Eldon.
1806 Lord Erskine.
1807 Lord Eldon again.
1827 Lord Lyndhurst.
1830 Lord Brougham.
1834 Lord Lyndhurst again
1835 In commission.
1836 Lord Cottenham.
1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. -
1846 Lord Cottenham again
Dec. 23
April 14
- Feb. 7
March 25
April 2C
Nov. 22
Nov. 14
- Jan. 16
Aug. 31
July 6
CHANCELLOR of IRELAND LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by
Richard I. a. d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The
office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint-
ment, in the reign of Henry III., Gefirey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin,
being so named, 1232.
CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned
A. D. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes
assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the
nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for
keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and
nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield,
afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high Chancellor of Scotland, the
office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott.
CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a
better footing by William I., in 1067. — Stowe. This court had its origin in
the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other
courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to oi
afi^ainst infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married
246 THE world's progress. I CIU
vfomen, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, bi-eaches
of trust and contidonce. for which there is no ledress at common law, are
relievable here. — Blackstone.
BPFECT8 OP SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWING DECEKKIAL PERIODS.
1770 • Amount lodged - i;5,a00,0(X) 1 1810 - Amount lodged - je20,212,000
1780 - ditto - . 7,741,000 1820 - ditto - - 34,208,785
1790 . - ditto - 13,;3;38,000 1830 - - ditto • 38,88G,i;«
1800 - ditto - . 19,8^,000 1 1840 - ditto • - 39,772 746
There are about 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the number
of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari
Returns.
CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the
souls of the donors. — Shakypcare. First mentioned in the commencement ot
the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chant-
ers.— See Chanting.
CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage ot
inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation ot
the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power
of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whoir.
the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely
drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San-
choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 b. • ■.
See Geology.
CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses
to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot
racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian
officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28. 31, was, it is supposed, something in
the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. Cecsar relates that Cassi-
belanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000
war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were like our
phaetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, (f'C.
CHARITIES in the United States.— See Benevolence. In England there are tens
of thousands of charitable foundations ; and the charity commission reported
to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to
ill. 500,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted
in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic
seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin.
CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French
refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are de-
scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of
1779, the city was taken by the British, and held by them until May follow-
ing. Population in 1790. 16.359 ; in 1810, 24,711 ; in 1820, 24,780 ; in 1830,
30 289; in 1840, 29,261— (a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673
slaves.
CHARTERS OF RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of
England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry I.
A. D. 1100. The famous bulwark of English liberty, known as Magna Chaita.
or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, June 15, 1215.
The rights and privileges granted by this charter were renewed and ratified
by Henry III. in 1224, eb seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it
had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of
frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Magna Charta.
CHARTERS, to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James L,
1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1620, but withdrawn by Charles H.
CHE J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 247
1684; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an
aak to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of
charter governments in America, 1688.
CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient
chirograph. A covenant hetvveen merchants and masters of ships relating
to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry
III., about 1243.
CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so
called from the Charter which they drew up and urged for adoption as the
law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names.
Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838.
Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate
defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans-
ported. Another Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near
London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in
Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are : 1. Uni-
versal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual
parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts.
CHARTS. Anaximandcr of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes-
tial charts, about 570 b. c. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by
Bartholomew Columbus Avith a view to illustrate his brother's theory respect-
ing a western continent. 1489. Mercator's chart, in which the world is taken
as a ])lane, was drawn, 1556.
CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another
Avhirlpool called Scylla on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail-
ors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation
of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi-
ciently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the
ancients. The words Incidit in Scyllam qui vult vitare Charybdim, became a
proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater.
CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pa-
gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — Lenglet. Chanting in
churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory
the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church
song. — Dufresnoy.
CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri-
sonment, and fine, 1 Hawk. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted
against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning
at any time more than lOZ., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous,
and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711 . — Black-
stone^ s Comm.
CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the
process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts
with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations.
Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities; the last alone, annu-
ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting-
don, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruyfere of Switz-
erland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use,
a quantity exceeding 10,000 tons,
CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish
Moors, about a. d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors,
and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, ex-
tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine?
248 THE WORLD*S PROGRESS. [ CHI
and embalming: was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an
early acquaintance with chemistry ; but the fathers of true chemical philo-
sophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayovv, Newton, &c.
The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl,
who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the
production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with
Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France ; then followed Thomson, Davy,
and other distinguished men.
CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70
B. c. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia ; the finest plums from
Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrons
from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree
was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were
brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an
orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year £1000, a. d. 1540. See
Gardening.
CHESAPEA.KE, Battle of. At the mouth of the bay of that name, between
the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the
naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obliged to retire,
1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet
in 1812. The Chesapeake American frigate struck to the Shannon British
frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 1813.
CHESS. Game of. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c; and ac-
cording to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and
Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) thai
the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-play w
was exhibited in England in 1769.
CHEVALIER D'EON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in
a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial
had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be
a, woman, July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many years;
yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of
his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex. —
Bio. Die.
C!HILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of expos-
ing their infants — the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on
highways — when they could not support or educate them; in such cases
they were taken care of, and humanely protected by the state. The custom
which long previously existed of English parents selling their children to
the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. —
Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury
with her, in the same grave, such of her children as Yere unable, from their
tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su-
perstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants
to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to
prevent them from immediately drowning.
I'HILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conqaerors of Peru, a. d.
1535. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Span-
iards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected For them gold and
silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent
cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly,
in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at various times, a^d with various
success, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by St^n Martin cvei
lail
DICTIONARY OF DATES,
24S
the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op-
pressors, and declared independent.
CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain
of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking-
hamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members
of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an
office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again
returned by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial.
(CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim-
neys, which were first introduced into these countries in a, d. 1200, when
they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the
stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys
were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of
stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among
them ; but this is disputed.
DHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed
many thousands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some author-
ities to have commenced about 2500 3'ears before the birth of Christ. By
others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of
the Bible, 2240 b. c. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the
sun, moon, and planets, and were ncute astronomers, in the reign of Yao,
which is set down 2357 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards
the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes
more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c,
the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the
coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. — Lenglet.
The Chinese state their first cycle to
have commenced - - b. c 2700
The first of the 22 Chinese dynasties
commenced .... 2207
***** *
In the history of China, the first dates
which are fixed to his narrative, by
Se-ma-tsien, begin - - - 651
Confucius, the father of the Chinese
philosophers, born - - - 551
Stupendous wall of China completed • 211
The dynasty of Han - - - - 206
Literature and the art of printing encou-
. 202
• 15
raged
Religion of Ta tse commenced -
Religion of the .*bllowei-s of Fo, com-
menced about - - A. D 60
Embassy from Rome - . - 166
Nankin becomes the capital - - 420
The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin,
flourishes .... 449
The Nestorian Christians permitted to
preach their doctrines - - - 635
They are proscribed, and extirpated - 845
The seat of the imperial government is
transferred to Pekin - - • 1260
Wonderful canal, called the Ya Ho,
completed about - - - 1400
Eur :j ■•sans first arrive at Canton - 1517
Macao is granted as a settlement to the
Portuguese - - - - 1536
Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope
from Rome - - . - 1575
The country is conquered by the East-
ern Tartars, who establish the pre-
sent reigning house - - - 1644
▲n earthquake throu ghout China buries
300,00 persons at Pekm alone - 1662
11*
Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta-
blish Christianity - - - • 1692
The Jesuits are expelled through their
own misconduct - - - 1724
ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA.
Earl Macartney's embassy: he leaves
England - - Sept. 26, 1792
He is ordered to depart from Pekin,
Oct. 7, 1793
Edict against Christianity - - 1812
Lord Amherst's embassy; he leaves
England - - - Feb. 8, 1816
[His lordship failed in the objects of
his mission, naving refused to make
the prostration of the kou-tou, lest he
should thereby compromise the ma-
jesty of England.]
The exclusive rights of the East India
Company cease - April 22, 1834
Loi-d Napier arrives at Macao, to super,
intend British commerce - July 15, 1834
Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese,
Nov. 7, 1834
Commissioner Lin issues an edict for
the seizure of opium - March 18, 1839
British and other residents forbidden to
leave Canton - - March 19, 1839
The factories surrounded, and outrages
committed - - March 24, 1839
The opium destroyed during several
days by the Chinese - June 3, 1839
The British trade with China ceases, by
an edict of the emperor, and the last
sei'vant of the company leaves the
country this day - - Dec. 6, 1831
Edict of the emperor interdicting all
trade and intercourse with England
forever - • • Jan. 5,18tf
250
THE world's progress.
[cm
CHINA, continued.
Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of
15 sail and several war steamers, hav-
ing 4,U00 troops on board, by orders
from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1840
Seizure of Capt. Anstruiher - Sept. 16, 1840
Lin deprived of his authority, and
finally degraded; Keshin appointed
imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840
Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the
Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1810
Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great
Bi'itain, and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to
be naid within ten days to the British
authorities - - - Jan. 20, 1841
Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the
conditions of the treaty made by Ke-
shin - - - Feb. 11, 1841
Hostilities are in consequence i-esumed
against the Chinese - - Feb. 23, 1841
Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841
Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the
bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ;
50,000 dollars to be given for ring-
leaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841
Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre-
mer ; admiral Kwan killed, and 459
guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841
Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of
the army - - March 2, 1841
Heights behind Canton taken, and 94
guns captured - - May 25, 1841
The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars,
of which 5,0tX),000 are paid down,
and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841
British trade re-opened - July 16, 1841
Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottin-
ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro-
claims the objects of his mission ;
Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841
Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and
destroyed - - Aug. 27, 1841
The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841
The city of Tinghae taken, 136 guns
capturedj and the island of Chusan
re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841
Chin-hae taken, with 157 gtms, many
of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841
Treaty of peace signed before Nankin,
on board the CornioaV s by sir Henry
Poltingor for Englanc, and Keying
Elepoo and Neu-Kien on tht part of
the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1843
CONDITIONS op THE TREATY.
Lasting peace and friendship between
the two empires.
China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part
forthwith and the remainder within
three years.
The ports of Canton. Amoy, Foo-choo-
foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be
thrown open to the British.
Consuls to reside at these cities.
Taritl's of import and export to be esta-
blished, <fcc. &c.
The emperor signifies his assent to the
conditions - - Sept. 8, 1842
Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottmger
as British commissioner • Feb. 16, 18*4
Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar
and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of ar-
tillery seized and spiked - April 5, 1847
Treaty between China and the Uni-
ted States negotiated by Caleb
Gushing, American Commis-
sioner - • July 3, 1844
ratified at Washington
Jan. 16. 1845
Alexander H. Everett appointed
commissioner to China from the
United States - - - 1845
John W. Davis appointed commis-
sioner trom the United Statea - 1847
CHINESE EMPERORS.
The following is a list of those who have
reigned for the la»st two centuries :—
Chwans-lei 1627
Shun-che 1644
Kang-he 1669
Yung-ching .... 1693
Keen- lung 1736
Kea-ding 1796
Taou-kwang - - . . - 1821
Sze-Hing, present emperor - - 1850
Ihe embassy of lord Macartney from England procured the first authentic
information respecting- this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro-
vinces, containing 4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole country is
given at 333 000,000 ; its annual revenues at i;66,000,000 ; and the army, in-
cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry ; the religion
is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sci-
ences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and
influence the manners of the people. See details in Williams's " Middle
Kingd.omy
CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ;
it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain
was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at
Bow in 1758 ; in various other parts of England, about 1760 ; and by the
ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture,
in Staffordshire, 1762 etseq.
CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological,
Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hun-
dreds of thousands of years ; and their annals and histories record evenla
CKO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 25 i
said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived,
. more than 27.000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, of
course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their
empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe Lenglet.
CHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall were ie-
feated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another ac-
tion with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall ; the
latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814.
c;HIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the fif^-
teenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of
most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties
of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him-
s.elf to speak the truth, to maintam the right, to protect tlie distressed, to
practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous
adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which owed its origin to the
feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson : Gibbon.
CHIVALRY, Court of. It was commonly after the lie-direct had been given,
that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of
James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court
of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter
and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are
found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by
the labors of the record commission : — "Robert Fitz Seward renders account
of fifteen marks of silver, for the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into
the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William
de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that tie may have the lolfe of
Geoffrey de Paucre m via;rriage, with her land, and may have her son ih
custody until he is of age to become a knight; he paid into the exchequer
ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports.
CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It
is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used
in Spain. It was sold in the London coflee-houses soon after their establish-
ment, IQbO.— Tatler.
CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time
of Constantino. The choral service was first used in England at Canter-
bury, A. D. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602.
— See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient
chorus. — Warhurton.
CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form
as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries
of the north, east, and south of Eurone, and in the countries of Asia, where
alone it had carried off more than POO. 000 persons in its progress Avithin two
years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831.
Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform
quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin-
burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London,
February 13 ; and in Dublin, March 3. same year. The mortality was very
great, but more so on the Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were
18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this
continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832 ; and at New^-York, June 27, 1832. Cho-
lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin. &c. in 1836-7. It
again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon-
don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap-
peared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in
252 THE world's progress, [ cua
May. and continued more or less in various parts of the United States
until November of that year.
CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer
of the world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Mes-
sm/i in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom
they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This
appellation is commonly put to our Jssus (signifying Saviour), the name of
the great object of our ifiiith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement,
the earliest father, according to St, Epiphanius, fixes the birth of Christ on
the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before
the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the first
Christian writer against the divinitj^ of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity
of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred
and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen.
CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of
Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Ji'./-. xi. 26, in the year 38, accord-
ing to Butler ; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other
authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi,
presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistoi, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who
were to be exorcised.
CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it
dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th
OI}Tnpiad. in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian
period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very
generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era
A. D. 1. It was first used in modern chronology in 516.
CHRISTIAN KING; Most Christian King; Christianissimus. This title was
given by pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France in 1469 ; and never was a
distinction more unworthily conferred. His tyranny and oppressions
obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4,000 persons
were executed publicly or privately in his merciless reign. — Henault : Fleury.
CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of
the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Persecutions. Christianity was first
taught in Britain about this time ; and it was propagated with some success
in 156. — Bede. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri-
tain, and in the world : he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in
England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time
it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into
Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St.
Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about
201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility.
Constantine the Great made his solemn
declaration of the Christian religion a. d. 312
Christianity was established in France
under Clovis the Great - - 496
In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries - 643
In Flanders in the seventh century.
In Denmark, under Harold - - 827
In Bohemia, under Borzivoi - • 894
In Russia, by Swiatoslaf - - 940
In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - - 992
In Hungary, under Geisa • - 994
In Norway and Iceland, undei Olaf I. - 1000
In Sweden, between 10th and llih centuries.
In Prussia, by the Teutoric knights,
when they were returning from the
holy wars - - - a. d. 122^
In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo-
lished, about .... 1^6
In China, where it made some progress
(but was afterwards extir])ated, and
thousands of Chinese Christians were
put to death) .... 1575
In Greece, where it was once more re-
established .... 1628
* It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one
day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty who
were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and finding they were English Pagans, he is
■said to have cried out, in the Latin language, " Non Angli, sed AngeH,forent, si essent Chris ianiJ-
-IHU ] DICTIONARY DF DATES. 253
Christianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea, Angola,
and Congoi^ in the fifteenth century ; and in America and India it made some
progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the
world.
CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, universally observed in com
memoi ation of the nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christ^
7nass., from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to
express that he was the Messiah, or The Anointed. It was first observed as a
festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be
performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.*
In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphan}^ {lokich see) were
deemed but one and the same feast; and to this day the church universally
keeps a continued feast within these limits. The hc^lyand misletoe used
at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so
with many other like customs.
CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos,
Jews and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all
well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally
priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records.
— Phillips.
CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer-
tain authority. The most autlientic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the
Jewish ; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abun-
dance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived
at as to the exact time of many memorable events. The earliest epoch is
the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the
first Christian chronologist, about a. d. 169. See the diferenb eras through the
"joluvie.
«';H[JRCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first
century ; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See
Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains of
an ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is be-
lieved, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral
at Whitehorn. in Wigtonshire. where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen-
tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle-
light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early
churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in
1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of
Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134. — Gor-
don's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church-
yards were permitted in cities in 742.
( HURCH OF ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation,
and was formallj established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This churcli
consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of
Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe-
drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor
canons, and priest vicars; thc-e, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages.
that is, " they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he was
struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named
Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the
year 596 — Goldsmith.
' Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the
Christians were assembled on this day in great multitudes, to celebrate Chi-ist's nativity, ordered iha
doors to be shut, and the chuich to be set on fire, and six hundred j>erished in th(! burning p.Je.
This was the commencemi it of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, a. d 303.
254 THE wopwLd's progress. [ cin
and c?idpelries, mi ke the number of preferments of the established church,
according to tlie last official returns. 12.327. The number of churches for
Protestant worshij) in England was 11,742 in 1818.
CHURCH OP IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the
United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo-
ralities Act of "William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and
eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased; that act
providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord'
ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot-
estant worship, 2.109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other
houses of prayer. See Bishops.
CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its
distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formuxary of
faith attributed to John Knox and comjiiled by that reformer in 1560. It
was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567 ; was finally settled by
an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured by the
treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episco-
pacy in Scotland in 1688. there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish-
oprics, which were then dissolved; but there are now six bishops. The
Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts — the General Assembly, the
Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterians.
CHURCH JMUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the
Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can-
terbury, in 677. Cliurch organs were in general use in the tenth century
Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; Chanting
CHURCH- WARDENS. Officers of the parish church, appointed by the first
canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also
appointed by the same body, and they continue now nearly as then consti-
tuted.— Johnsoii's Canons.
CHURCHING OF WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification,
A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any
signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women. — Wheatley.
It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days
after her lying in. if she had a son, and eighty if she had a daughter, at the
expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and offer a lamb with a
young pigeon or turtle and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles.
See Pitrijication.
CIDER, Anciently this beverage, when first made in England, was called wine,
about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France,
he is said to have frequently passed off" cider upon the nobility of that coun-
try for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in
England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation. —
Butler.
€IMBRL The war of the Cimbri, 113 b. c. They defeat the consul Marcus
Silanus, 109 b. c. They defeat the Romans under Manlius. on the banks of
the Rhine, where 80 000 Romans are slain, 105 b. c. The Teutones are de-
feated by Marius in two battles at Aqu^e Sextise (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 aro
killed, and 70 000 made prisoners, 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by
Marius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy ; 120,000
are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afterwards sunk
in that of the Teutones or Saxons.
C'TNCINNATI. Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the
United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England ant^
SIR j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 255
New Jersey. Population in 1795, 500 ; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2.540 ; in 182Q
9,642 ; in 1830, 24,831 ; in 1840, 46,338.
CINCINNATI, Society op. Established by the oflQcers of the American army;
in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend-
ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest-
ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed
away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned.
CIRCA SSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin-
ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated ""imur ; but in the six-
teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the
Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About a d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little
Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic U
the sale of their daughters, famed throughout the world for their beauty,
and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia : the
merchants who come from Constantinople to purchase these girls are gener-
ally Jews. — Klaproth's Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia.
CIRCULATING LIBRARV^. The first in England, on a public plan, was opened
by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had
little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. — Fergu-
son^s Blog.
CIRCULATION op the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con-
firmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician
and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this dis-
covery the medical and surgical art became greatly improved, to the benefit
of mankind. — Freind's Hist, of Pkysic.
CIRCUxMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant
made by God with Abraham. — Josephus. Even to the present day many of
the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to
salvation; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary
by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious
rite. — Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave
of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It was instituted
by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to
which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity; it was introduced
into the Liturgy in 1550.
CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en-
terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was
first attempted, a. d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this
illustrious class of men ; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed
to their names. See Navigators.
Clipperton, British - - a, d. 1719
Roggewein, Dutch - - 1721
Anson (afterwards Lord) - - - 1740
Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) - 17C4
Wallis, British - - - -1766
Carteret, an Englishman - - 176f
Cook, the illustrious captain - - 1768
On the deatii of Captain Cook, Ms last
voyage was continued by King - 1779
Bougainville, French - - - 1776
Portlocke, British - - ■ 1788
Wilkes, American - - - - 1837
D'Urville, French - - -18.37
Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who
entered the Pacific ocean - a. d. 1519
Groalva, a Spanish navigator
Avalradi, a Spaniard
Mendana, a Spaniard -
Sir Francis Drake, first English
Cavendish, his first voyage
Le Maire, a Dutchman -
Quiros, a Spaniard
Tasman. Dutch -
Cowley, British
Dampier, an Englishman
Cooke, an Englishman
1537
1537
1.567
1577
1586
1615
1625
1642
1683
1689
1708
* The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was
Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a
wesiorly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. • The voj^ase was com-
pleted in three years and twenty-nine days; but Maeellan was killed or his homeward passage, a;
<i>e Philippines, in \\i2\.— Butler.
256 THE world's progress. [en
Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, bj
the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named elst-
where.
CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ;
the largest of them was called the Circus Maximus, which vas builc by the
elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was t hree stadia
and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman
feet. This circus was enlarged by Csesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and
was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and
Julius Caesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could
be covered with an infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-tight. —
Pliriij.
CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac-
knowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of
Campo Formio (which see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution
in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo-
leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice-
roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy.
CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh
century. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe
in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, ab-
stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most
austere. — De Vitri.
CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at
which time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland
is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were very inconsiderable in
the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a. d. 1079. The institu-
tion of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, police,
manners, and arts. — Robertson.
CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England
a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade
therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as
freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi-
zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent)
were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered,
with the peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; alder-
men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1658. — Stouoe, The title of
citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq.
CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French
June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained
in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded
by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon
Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from
the position.
CrVlL LAW. Several codes conae under this denomination of laws. A body
of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first
collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 b. c. ; and
a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, .53 b. c. The
Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian in 435 ; and the
Justinian. 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the
emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian
codfj, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil
law was restored in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. — Blair. Civil law was intro-
duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterward*
CLE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257
archbishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual courli
only, and in maritime afiairs. See Laws.
CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the
kings of England, partly in lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The
entii-e revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 600 OOOZ. and that of Charles I.
was but 800,000/. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on
the new king and queen of TOO.OOOZ., Uio parliament taking into its own
hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list
of George II. was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of George III. in the 55th
year of his reign, was 1,030,000Z. By the act 1 William IV. 1831, the civil
list of that sovereign was fixed at 510,000Z. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec.
1837, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385, OOOZ. ; and Prince Albert
obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30,000/. per aim. 4 Victoria,
1840.
CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same
name, and originated in feudal times. — See Feudal Laws. They may be
said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008.
Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot-
land (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty
of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George IL, 1746. — Ruffhead.
The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's
feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. —
Ckambers.
CLARENDON, Statutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament
held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous
power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of
Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up
under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted
without opposition, a. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to
prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical
affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on,
threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Hxime.
CLARION. This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about a. d.
800 ; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their
tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the
common trumpet. — Pardon.
CLASSIS. The name was first given by Tullius Servius in making divisions of
the Roman people. The first of six classes were called classici, by way of
eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics,
573 B. c.
CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi-
tive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St, Paul; some say he
succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Niceron. Also the
decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor. —
Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine
years, then merged into a common monk.
CLEMEx^TINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted
for several j^ears. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the
others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of
Clement VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various
interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs ; the courts
of France. Castile, Scotland, &c. adhenng to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and
258 THE world's progress. I CLC
England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the
death ol Gregory XI. 1378. — Hwvie.
CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title of
presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher
functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites:
this distinction was still farther promoted in the third century ; and, under
Coustantine, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu-
lar power.
CLERGY IN England. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventls
century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was
forbidden among the clergy b)^ a law, so early as 747 a. d. The first fi uitsr
of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The cler-
gy were excluded from parliament in 1536. The conference between tho
Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conference. Two
thousand resigned their bene (ices in the church of England, rathei than
subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirty-
nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The
Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had
been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under .^lames II., 1689.
The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801, See Church nf England.
CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen
after the Norman custom from the sacred order ; and the ollicers being cler-
gy; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black-
stone's Cunivi.
CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome
158 B. 0. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi-
bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Ciesar on invading Britain,
55 B. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope
Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona,
invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in
diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record,
was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th century.
Thescapement, ascribed to Gerbert, A. D. 1000 ; den) and the younger Galileo con-
A clock constructed by Richard, abbot i structed the pendulum - a. d. 1641
of St. Alban's, about - - -1326 Christian Huysens contested this disco-
A striking clock in Westminster -1368 very, and made his pendulum clock
A perfect one made ai Paris by Vick - 1370 some time previously to - - 1658
The first portable one made - - 1530 Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the
In England no clock went accurately i pendulum, about - . - 1659
before that set up at Kampton-court . Repeating clocks and watches invented
(maker's initials, N. O.) - - l.'>40 by Barlow, about - - - 1676
Richard Harris (who erected a clock in The dead beat, and horizontal escape-
the church of St. Pauls, Covent-Gar- ! ments, by Graham, about - - -1700
The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and
the duplex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled by Facio ;
the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud,
Arnold, Earnshaw and others.
CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8.
t. LOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse
woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191 ; and seventy families of
cloth-workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edward III.'s in-
vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced 1331. — Rymer's Fa-
dera. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were manu-
factured, 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed,
1654. Dyed and dressed in Englan I by one Brewer, from the Low Coun-
tries, 1667. The maiufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of linen
coa)
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
25S
countenanced, at the request of botli houses of parliament, 1698.
Woollen Cloth.
See
'^liOVIS, Family of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French mo-
narchy was Clovis I., who commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike
prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced tlie Christian religion, and pub-
lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ,
he exclaimed, "0, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would
have avenged him !" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans,
and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France : removed
the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of
his new kingdom; he died in 511. — Henault.
COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co-
temporary with our Henry VIII., there M'ere but two in Paris, one of which
belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of
Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one, but
without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account
of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France
travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode
behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of
Mary, about 1553. — Priestleifs Led. They were introduced much earlier. —
Andrews' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz- Allen, earl of
Arundel, in 1580. — Stowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making
them. — Anderson's Hist, of Commerce. A bill was brought into parliament
to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carle.
See Carriages. Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c.
COALITIONS. ■ The great coalitions against France since the period of the
French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out
of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They
were entered into as follows :
1st, The king of Prussia issues his ma-
nifesto - - - June 26, 1792
By Great Britain, Germany, Rus-
sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey,
signed - - - June 22,.1799
By Great Britain, Russia, Austria,
and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805
2nd.
3rd.
4th. By Great Britain, Russia, Prussia,
and Saxony - - Oct. 6, 1806
5th. By England and Austria - April 6, 1809
6th. By Russia and Prussia ; the treaty
ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813
See Treaties.
COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated mia-
istry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memorable as an
extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis-
like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards
the other. The ministry was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19,
same year. See Administrations.
COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they
are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use
by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier ; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was pro-
hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human
health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stowe. Coala
were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard IT.
1381. — Rymer's Fadera. Notwithstanding the many previous complaints
' In the be^-inning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever
Mncf the Gunpo-ft-der Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing .that Buckingham was drawn aboul
with pix horses in his coach (being the first that vras so), he put on eight to" his, and in that manned
passes from tiie tower through the city. — Rapin.
1460 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ CoaJ
against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Lou-
don in 1400 ; but coals -were not in common use in England until the leigu
of Charles L, 1625.
NtTHBER OF CHALDRONS OF COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWINO YEAR8 :
1650 - - 160,000 chald. I 1800 - - 814,000 chald. I 1830 - - 1,588,360 chald
1700 - 317,000 ditto, 1810 - • 980,372 ditto. 1835 • 2,299,816 toas.
1750 • - 510,000 ditto. | 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. | 1810 - - 2,638,256 ditto.
The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in
• extent ; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are
also of vast magnitude ; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire.
The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption,
supply all England for 2000 years. — Blakewell. It is supposed that there aro
now about 25,000 000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — Phillips,
Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries
there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil-
kenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from
Newry, in 1742. — Burns.
COALS IN THE United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylva-
nia, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata iu
Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles.
COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen; they held,
amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world,
after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian
faith, 1665.
COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect became known to the Spaniards
soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518, Cochineal was not known in
[taly in 1548. although the art of dyeing then flourished there. — See Dyeing.
The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830 ; and
1.081.776, in 1845.
COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece.
It was instituted at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and
was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the
reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on
Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and
again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there Avas
a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis-
couraged by the law.
COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (?) practised upon the credulous
multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance
was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she
was a ghost : the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was
carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London ; but
it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory
and imprisonment, July 10, 1762.
COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1600.
The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need
of as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles,
clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails,
iordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray.
CODES OF LAWS. The laws of Phoron^us were instituted 1807 b. c. : those
of Lycurgus. 884 b. c. ; of Draco. 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfreuus
Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser-
vius Sulpicius, the civihan. embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gregorian
and Hermoginian codes were published a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in
435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529 — a digest from
1821
■ Tea, 4,586,223 lbs.
1830 -
" 6,873,091 lbs.
1885 • .
. " 12,331,638 lbs.
1842 - -
" 13,482,645 lbs.
me .
. » 16,891,020 lbs.
C>OI J DICTIONARY OF DATES 26 1
this last was made in 533. — Blai7: Alfred's code of laws is the fouEdation
of the common law of England, 887. — See Laws.
CODICILS TO WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civihan of Rome, was the
first who introduced the use of this supplementary instrument to wills,
about 31 B, c.
CffiUlv DE LION, OR THE LioN-HEARTED. The sumamc given to Richard Plan-
tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192.
This surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized
himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1228. This
latter prince had also the appellation of the Lion given Mm.
COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a
beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia
Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence,
in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M.
Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which
country he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof-
fee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who
made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson.
COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods
is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac, 1848)
thus : —
- - Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs.
« 38,363.687 lbs
« 91,753;002 lbs.
« 107,387,567 lbs.
" 124,336,054 lbs.
COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs,
in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant,
brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first
house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-yard, Lom-
bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the
first house in that country. — Anderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near
Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657.
Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles II., 1675. The
proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea
and coffee.
COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616;
and wore carried to the West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at
Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the
plantations about 1732.
COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coflSns of the cedar tree; ow-
ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucydides. Coffins of
marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been
buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough.
The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the burial of
king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542
— Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796.
COIN, Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of
coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money
• Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in-
formed by a goal -herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then
wake at night, ai d sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to pro^e its virtues. He ac
cordingly tried it on his monks, to prevent their sleeping at matins, and he fo«nd that it cherkerl
Uieir slombera.
262 THE WO] ld's progress. [ cox
was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862
B. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullius, about 573 b. c.
The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the tifth century b. c; but
others are bd'eved to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at
Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that
little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver
were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used
in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresuoy. Julius Caesar was the
first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait
on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more
sim[)le days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upoit
their money: the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re-
ceived divine honors.
COIN IN ENGLAND. The fii-st coinage in England was under the Romans at
Camulodunum. or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as
square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was
used. Groats \vere the largest silver coin until after a., d, 1351. Coin was
made sterling in 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and
maney was found only in the cotfers of the barons. — Stowe
end to the circulation of private lead-
en pieces, &:c. - - - - 1620
Halfpence and farthings coined - 1665
Guineas tirst coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673
Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816
Half-farihings - - - - 18A3
Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles
followed, at six shillings and eighti)ence, and hence the lawyer's fee: after-
Avards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the same size-
but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns guineas passed fo>
more. SeeGuineas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 182G
See Gold.
MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT.
George III. and regency,
gold - - JE74,501 ,58ft
George IV. - -41,782,813
William IV. - -10,827,603
Victoria, to 1848, 32.370,814
The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was
estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen-
ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800.
— Pkiltips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic
currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supi)lies the place of
coin, 1830. — Dtike of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching
forty-live millions. See Gold.
COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage from
that time to 1836 was thus : —
Pieces. Value.
Gold - - 4,716,325 - - $22,102,035
Silver - - - 115.421,762 - - 46,739,182
Copper - - 77,752,965 - ' 740,331
The first gold coins on certain record,
struck, 42 Henry III. - A. D. 1257
Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. (C'awi-
den) 1337
First large copper coinage, putting an
Elizabeth -
- £5,832,000
.lames II.
- £3,740,000
James I.
- 2,500,000
Wiliiam III. -
- 10,511,900
Charles I. -
- -10,500,000
Anne
- 2,691.626
Cromwell
- 1,000,000
George I.
- 8,725,920
Charles II.
- - 7,524,100
George II.
- 11,966,576
Total - 197,891,502 - - $69,581,549
1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 - ■ $81,436,155
Total ir. 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. - $151,017,714
The gold coinage consists of double eagles S20, eagles, half eagles, quarter
eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de-
posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804
ounces, Dec. 8. 1848.
cox. j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 263
COINING, llils operation was originally performed by the metal being placed
between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill waa
invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en-
gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improv^ementa
of the art were eflected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788, and subsequently.
The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery
at the mint, London, commenced in 1811.
COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same percep-
tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero,
the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost
1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and
in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Greig. Perhaps the cold-
est day ever known in London was Dec. 25. 1796, when the thermometer was
16** below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See
Frosts, Ice.
COLISiEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in
the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d.
72. The splendid Coliseeum of London, and one of its most worthy objects
of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8.
COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which
were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv-
ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said
to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but sonle
authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date
is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at
Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first
doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c.
Cheshunt College founded - a. d. 1792
Mareschal College, Aberdeen - A- D. 1593
Doctor's Commons, civil law -
-1670
Maynooth College - - - 1795
. Durham University
. * *
Physicians, London - - - - 1518
Edinburgh University -
-1580
Sion College .... 1329
Eton College ....
-1441
Sion College, re-founded - - - 1630
Glasgow University
-1451
Surgeons, London - - - 1745
Harrow ....
-1585
Trinity College. DubLin - - • 1591
Hisrhbury College
-1826
University, London - - - 1826
King's Collesre, Aberdeen -
-1494
Winchester College - - - • 2387
King's College, London -
-1829
COLLEGES IN THE United States. Th(
i first established was Harvard, at
Cambridge, Mass., by John Harvard. 1638; and this is now the most im-
portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William
and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third. Yale, at New Haven. 1700. Fourth,
College of New Jersey. Princeton, 1746. Fifth. Colurabia, New- York. 1754.
Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh, Brown
University, Providence. 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H.. 1769.
Ninth, Rutgers. New BrunsMick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the
Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded
1764. The first law school Mas founded at Litchfield. Conn., 1782. In
1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schoo"\s ;
12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard
College opened Jan. 1, 1848.
COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled
from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618. and it has since fallen into
ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1704. In
the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church o(
St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir-
gins said to have been put to death along with her.
COJ-OMBIA. A republic in South America, formed of states which have
Venezuela discovered • - - 1498
1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom,
under a captain-general - - 1547
The history of those provinces under
the tyranny and oppression of the Spa-
niards, presents but one continuous
scene ol rapine and blood.
264 THE world's progress. [col
declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; but its several chiefs
have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prej
to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured.
New Grenada, discovered by Colum- ; Battle ofCarabobo, the Royalists wholly
bus - - - - A. D. 1497 1 overthrown - - June 24, 1821
Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con-
gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 18^
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico
formed - - - June 30, 1824
Alliance with Guatimala - March 1825
Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre-
sident of the republic - Aug. 1826
Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 182L5
Confederation of Venezuela - - 1810 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1826
Independence I'ormally declared - -1811 Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 1828
Defeat of General Miranda - -1812 Conspiracy of Santander against the
Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - ISIG ; life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828
Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of Bolivar resignshis office of president of
Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 the republic • - April 11, 1?29
Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- He dies - - - Dec. 17, 1830
nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May 26, 1840
CJOLON. This point was known to tlie ancients, but was not expressed as it
is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by
Thrasymachus about 373 b. c. — Suidas. It was known to Aristotle. Our
punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing.
The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the
sixteenth century.
COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each.
The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained,
amounts to about 2 500 000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa-
tion, were 770 280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van
Diemens Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been
ascertiiined. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British
colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (.£20,000,000 sterling)
Avas passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all
the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on August 1,
1834.
COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free
people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash-
ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo-
cated by Jefferson as early as 1777. urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the
legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod
Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henrj
Clay Liberia purchased 1821.
C0L0S8LS OF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high,
erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the
wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown
down by an earthquake 224 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens
on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg
being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could
enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top. from which could be
discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt.
The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been
i\)paired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal,
^elghhig 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in
transporting it to Alexandria — Uit Fresnoy.
COLIJIVIBIA, District cf. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir-
ginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming ths
seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown
COM J D :TI0NARY of DATES '265
and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula-
tion in 1800, 14,093; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,361 free colored persons,
and 4,694 slaves,
COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion am\
Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed
the tirst comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels,
for which they were rewarded with a basket of tigs and a cask of wine. —
Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy.
434 B. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are
extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statins Caecilius wrote upwards of 30 come-
dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Laelius and Terence
were tirst acted 154 b. c. The tirst regular comedy was performed in Eng-
land about A. D. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy
(the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), and the best after-
piece (the Critic), in the English language. — See Drama.
nOMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by
Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets
appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen-
dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or
the fourth part of the heavens, 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was
seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stowe. These phenomena were first
rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, Avhich terri-
fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov.
3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses,
by Newton, 1704. A most brilhant comet appeared in 1769, which passed
within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared
in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye.
Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles.
COMET, BIEL A'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account
of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of
the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian oflicer,
Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre-
dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks.
Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage
was Nov. 27. Its third appearance w^as in 1839, and its fourth in 1845.
COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly
named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting
its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the
three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu-
tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks.
COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest
astronomer of England. — Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of
the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same todies,
^ and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet
of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of
the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to
the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore,
first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns.
— Vince's Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in
about seventy-six years • it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on
March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835.
COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in
the earliest ages. In later times it w^as spread over Europe by a confed-
eracy of marithne cities a. d. 1241. — See Hanse Toions. The discoveries of
Columbus and ihe enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the
12
266 THE WORLD S I'ltUUKb&b. L *^^*
sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England . to engage
extensively in its pursuit. — See the various articles connected with this siwject.
COMMERCE. See Navigation.
COMMERCE, New-York Chamber of, instituted 1783.
COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng-
land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings. 1 Edward
I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward II. 1308.—
Anderson. See Treaties.
iJOMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208.
The charter of Hern*y I. mentions the folk-nioie, this being a Saxon appella ■
tion, and which ma}" fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the pe<.»p]c.
COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. Custom, to which lengtl\ of time has
given the force of law, or rules generally received and heil as law, called
' lex noih scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law-
derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (wLich was lost), a. d. 890.
The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See
Custom. Laws.
COMMON PRAYER. Publislied in the English language by the authority of
parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par-
liament, and the Directory {which see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro-
clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory.
COMMONS. House of. The great representative assembly of the people of
Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of
two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet
the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen
his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was
the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commons
were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258,
— Goldsmith. Stowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament
formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265; and
writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date the
first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The
first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was
killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent
members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminster was
not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life,
or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following
is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the
Reform Bills {which see,) in 1832 :—
English. — County members - 144 English and 'Welsh - 500
Universities - - - 4 Scotch. — County members - 30
Cities and boroughs - - 323 — 471 • • . - ,
Welsh.— County members - - 15
Cities and Boroughs - - 14—29
Cities and Boroughs - 23 — ^53
Irish.— County members - - 64
University - - - - 2
Cities and boroughs - - 39—105
English and Welsh - 500
Total (see Parliament) - 658
COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the
decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the
government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30,
1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom-
well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the pierson
of Charles II., who returned to London May 29, 1670. See England.
COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. The greatest and most renown,
ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 509 b. c, when the govern-
CON J * DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267
ment of king's ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh
and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome
advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy
received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy-
ria. Egypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub-
dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Caesar this republic had the
Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east;
Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean,
m the west. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un-
til the battle of Actium from which we commonly date the commencement
of the Roman empire, 31 b. c.
COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early m
the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is
said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth
Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at
least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in the
church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548.
COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be
named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232; The second company
was the merchants of St. Thomas k Becket, in 1248. — Slowe. The third was
the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Th^re are
ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are
1 Mercers - - - a. d. 1393 1 7 Merchant Tailors - - a. d. 1466
2 Grocers ..... 1345 8 Haberdashers - - - 1447
3 Drapers .... 1439 9 Salters 1553
4 Fishmongers . - ■ . 1384 10 Ironmongers .... 1484
5 Goldsmiths .... 1327 i 11 Vintners 1437
6 Skinners . - . - - 1327 1 12 Clothworkers .... 1482
COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have
been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1,
was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble,
in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of
families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and
1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for
taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in-
curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were
totally ruined. See Lmo's Bubble^ and Bankrupts.
COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese,
1115 B. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self-
moved, pointed towards the so-w^A. and safely guided travellers by land or
water ; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the
invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a. d.
1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja. of
Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a
couple of pieces of straw, or smaU split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja in-
troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation
was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com-
pass used b}^ navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English di-
vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Die. The measuring compass
was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602.
CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in
honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or
without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of
Dec. by the church, in 1389, Conceptionists, an order of nuns, established
1488.
268 THE world's progress. [ COT«
CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, ir
1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and
talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform-
ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and
frequent.
*!ONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aiistotle and
Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It
vas first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published
nis classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in
1685; and that of Largius in 1722.
CONCLAVE FOR THE ELECTION of POPES. The conc'ave is a range of small
cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the
cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used
for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a
pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at
Titerbo in 1268. the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the
ciioico of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the
magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo. shut' the
gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical jkvlace till
they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while
they elect a pope.
CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all
the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac-
tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made
under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500
monks upon it, a. d. 1247. — Abbh Lenglct.
CONCORDAT. The name given • to an instrument of agreement between a
prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The^celebrated concordat
between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul
was made, in effect, the head of the Galilean Church, as all ecclesiastics
were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15,
1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff" was sign-
ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813.
CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, a. d.
1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage,
both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubineVas a reputable title, very
different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is
formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and called half -marriage,
is still in use in some parts of Germany.
CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this
memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas-
tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the
people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790, See
Champ de Mars, Bastile.
CONFEDERATION of the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form-
ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league,
tVe minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to
iserve in case of war. and they established a die t at Frankfort, July 12, 1806
See Germanic Confederation.
CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court
palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting
ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance o:' the king, 1
James I. 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which
CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269
was executed in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the
United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy
were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was
done. A conference of the bishops and jjresbyterian ministers with the same
view was held in 1661.
CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted
about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest,
in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe-
nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be don<3
with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in
heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifierent,
by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the church
of England. — Burnet.
rONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian hurch; it was
used by Peter and Paul ; and was general, according to some church au-
thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion
by an adult person, who Avas baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the
church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into
a sacrament by the church of Rome.
CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap-
ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the
interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had
an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were
elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry VIII., 1535.
CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle-
ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held
during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable
congresses of Europe : —
Congress of Carlsbad • Aug. 1, 1819
Congress of Troppau - Oct. 20, 1820
Congress of Laybach - May 6, 1821
Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822
See Alliances, Conventions, Sfc.
CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congrezs, composed of the delegates
from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y.. N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S.
Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765.-Tim. Ruggles. Prest. The Continental Congress
met at Phila. Sep. 5. 1774: again May 10, 1775: adopted Dec. Indep. July 4,
1776 ; met at Bait. Dec. 20. 1776 ; at Phila. March 4. 1777 ; at Lancaster. Pa.
Sep. 27, 1777 ; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778 ; at Prince-
ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapohs, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784;
at N. York, Jan. 1785 ; and that continued to be the place of meeting until
the adoption of the constitution, 1789 : removed to Phila, 1790 : to Wash-
ington, 1800.
CONVENTION, The, for forming he Constitution of the TJ. S. met at Phila.
May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same year,
CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in ]8a3.
They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806,
when they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days ; they
were employed in various operations in the late war with much success, dis-
charged by a corps called rocket-men.
CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known
to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of
them ^^a.% cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b, c. The earliest treatise
was written by Aristaeus, about 380 b. c. Appolonius's eight books were
Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728
Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793
Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9. 1797
Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814
Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814
270 THE AVORLD's progress. [ CCS!
written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo;
tlie ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper.
::ONJURATION AND WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be f.^lony by
various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force aga-nst
them in England in former times. See article Witchcraft. Conjuration »va3
felony by Statute 1 James L, 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II, ,
1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a Tziisde-
meanor. — English Statutes.
CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by
a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, tha
Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently
hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New
Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char-
ter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak,
near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in
the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by
the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states,
adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop-
ulation 1713, 17.000: 1790, 237,946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 18-10,
309 978.
CONQUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke
of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the
crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the
Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been
erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England
by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated
his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against
him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus-
toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For-
merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar
who casually gave him the title of Wilham the Conqueror, instead of Wil-
liam I. — Seldeji.
CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripti was the designation given to the
Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the rejublic
and the Csesars : because their names were written in the registers of the
senate.
CONSECRATION. Tha' of churches was instituted in the second century,
the temple of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a
patron saint. Tb-^ consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit-
ted in the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in
the latter church in 1549. — Stowe.
CONSISTORY COURT in England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with
the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law
of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079, The chief and most ancient Con-
sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called
the Court of Arches.
CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the
recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark-
able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori-
ties of note : —
Of Anthonjr Babington and others,
kgainst Elizabeth - - a. d. 1586
T\j Gunpowder Plot {which see) - 1605
Innurrection of the fifth monarchy men
i^gainsf, Charles II. - - - 1660
C** Blood and his associates, who seized
the Duke of Ormond, wounded hiin,
and would have hanged him; and
who afterwards stole the crown - 1671
The pretended conspiracy of the French,
Spanish, and English .Jesuits to assas-
sinate Ch. 11. revealed by the infa-
CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 27 i
mous Titus Gates, Dr. Tongue, and
others 1678
The Meal-tub plot 1679
The Rye-house plot to assassinate the
king on his way to Newmarket. (See
Rye-house ploi) .... 1683
Of Simon Fraser. lord Lovat, against
Queen Anne. - - - - 1703
Of Colonel Despard and others, to over-
turn the government - - - 1802
Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when
lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803
Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges,
against Bonaparte - leb. 15, 1804
Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the
king's ministers. (See Cato-sireet) - 1829
(CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States.
Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the I John Henry's secret mission from the
United States ... - 1807 British government, to undermine
I the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812
CONSTANCE, Council of. The celebrated council of (^iuines (!) which con-
demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to be burnt
alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other,
on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun-
cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in
that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct,
he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend
him, but was iiimself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of
his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and
treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of
Wickliffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration
is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hume.
CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to
Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French
occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French
and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, Avhen the former carried the town by assault,
but the French general, Daremont, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with
12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina.
CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantine the Great, who removed the
seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders
who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204.
Retaken by Michael Paleeologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261.
Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Paleeologus, the last
Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by as-
sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing
the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy,
and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred
by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer-
or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125
years and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe
See Eastern Empire and Turkey.
CONSTANTINOPLE. Era of. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c.
It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used
in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias-
tical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined.
To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and
5509 from September to the end,
^:J0NSTELL ATIONS. Those of Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth,
are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel-
lations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained
in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud.
Ptolemaeus, about a. d. 140.
CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND, ^qq^ Magna Charta. It comprehends the,
whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which
2T2 THE world's progress. [cok
it is presumptively lield tliat every individual has assented. — Lord Somers.
This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in
this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought
to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at
any particular time. — Lord Bolingbroke The king of England is not seated
on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the
co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in
the LAW. — Sheridan.
CONSTITUTION of the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele-
gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several state*
at different times. See the respective states.
The 50th anniversary of "Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New
York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced
an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840.
CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution,
capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer-
riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded,
British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to
the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important
naval victory of the U. S., it caused a strong sensation. For others see
Naval Battles.
CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed
regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius
Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia. were the
first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November
9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambacere. and Lebrun, were made consuls; and
subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life. May 6, 1802. Com-
mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in
1485.
CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions
to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of
the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that
in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount-
ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others,
sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000Z. ; and200,000Z,
were transmitted from India in 1799.
CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and
were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from
the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the
schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time,
were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661.
CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, Treaties, &c. in their respective places through
out the volume.
CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. a
270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. —
Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took
the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland.
Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that
of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More
than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The
emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July
31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all
the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in
Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents.
COP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 27S
rONlTCTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany
Bay, was in 1788, Convicts are now sent to Van Piemen's Land, Norfolk
Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans-
poricdio7i.
COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the
Endeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav-
ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. ^ Sir
Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society,
accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to
explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. In
his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-why*
hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso-
lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780.
COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems
to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were
incorporated in 1501.
COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more
than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace,
valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per-
sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arstiial,
admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom-
barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their
engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen
were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a boni-
bardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi-
ral Gambler and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun-
boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark.
COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup-
posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the
planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are
here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to
have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east.
This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530 ; and may in many points be
regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus.
COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have
preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine
copper, precious as gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this
metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes,
soda, &c., will give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in
water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if thie least drop of water
touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. The
mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the
world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now
forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty
• A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advan.
tages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit
of Vsnus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence,
prepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed
m July 1768, touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous
voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in Aoril 1769. By a compariscjn of the observa-
tions made on this transit (June 3, 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed
by men of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; tne
distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled at
108,000,000 miles, mstead of the commonly received computation, of 95,000,000.— J3u/2cr.
12*
■■a
274 THE world's progress. [ CO?
mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wil
Ham III.
COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used
rude pieces of copper for money. — See Coin. In England, copper-money ia
of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into
use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined
by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ-
ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot-
land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com-
menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797.
COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in
Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in-
vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a
mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop-
per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engravi'^g.
COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587.
COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber
regarding it, a. d. 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed,
1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the
consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute en-
acted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George
III., 1777. Copyright protection act. 54 George III., 18l4. Dramatic au-
thors' protection act, 3 William IV,, 1833. The act for preventing the pub-
lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the
17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International
copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manu-
facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary
Property. — Haydn.
COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary
property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah
Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it,
April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14
years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for
international Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837.
Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books
to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library
of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846.
COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid
to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned.
HISTORY.
Fragments of English History, by
C. J. Fox - - - - je5,000
History of England by Sir J. Mackin-
tosh 5,000
Ditto, by Linsard - - - - 4,633
Life of Napoleon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000
History of England, by Macaulay, vol.
1 and remainder, £600 per annum
for ten years, say - - - 3,000
Prescott's Historical Works are said to
have produced to the author (who yet
owns the copyright) before 1850 - ^100,000
BIOGRAPHY.
LifeofWilberforce - - - JE4,000
Lifeof Byron, by Moore - - 4,000
liOckhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,500
Irvjng's Columbus (paid by Murray) - 4.000
POETRY.
Byron's Works (in all) - - je20,00(l
Moore's Lalla Rookh - - - 3,000
Rejected Addresses - - - 1,000
Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after
ten years' publication) - - 1,000
Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1,500
FICTION.
It was estimated that Scott's novels
produced for copyright at least - 250,000
Bulwer received for his novels, each
1,200 to 1,500
Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200
Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr.
Johnson for - - - - 63
Goldsmith received for " Animated
Nature" - - - - 800
Noah Webster is said to have derived
$1000 per annum from his Spelling
Book.
COR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275
CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs ol
leather; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the
third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed
and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See
Hemp.
CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of
the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of
Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see.
CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus
in 1376 B. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was
rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em-
braced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Acro-
corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls,
The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the
Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romanp.
Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire.
Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra,
{Abbe Lenglet) . -B.C. 1520
Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first
called by its name - - - 1410
Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon
the city {idem) - - - - 1375
The Pythian games instituted, it is said
by Sisyphus - - - - 1375
The reign of Bacchus, whose successors
are called Bacchidse, in remembrance
of the equity of his reign - - 935
The Corinthians invent ships called
A colony goes to Sicily, and they build
Syracuse ■ - - b. c. 732
Sea fight between the Corinthians and
Corcyreans - - - - 664
Periander rules and encourages genius
and learning .... 629
Death of Periander - - - - 585
The Corinthians form a republic - 582
War with the Corcyreans - - 439
The Corinthian war (which see) - - 395
Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus • 242
The Roman ambassadors first appear
triremes ; vessels consisting of three at Corinth - - . . 228
benches of oars - - - 786
Thelestes deposed, and the government
of the Prytanes instituted rm-Auto-
menes is the first on whom this dig-
nity is conferred - - - 757
Corinth destroyed by I-ucius Mummius
who sends to Italy the first fine paint-
ings there seen, they being part of the
spoil {Livy) - . - -146
CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture,
aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli-
cacy, tenderness, and beauty of tlie whole composition. The invention of it
is attributed to Callimachus, 540 b. c.
CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles
were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 395, by a
confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against
the Lacedaemonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuc-
tra, which see. >
CORN OR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who
having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. —
Arundelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making
bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching
Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c —
Univ. Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest
ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages.—
See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century,
by Coll ap Coll Frewi. — Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation
of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its
importation into England, in 1686.
CORN LAWS IN England. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn'*
or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting ita
importation when corn should be 8O5. "per quarter," 1815. The " sliding-
scale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, April 29, 1842 ; act fixing
27b THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f COB
tts duty on wheat at 4s. until Feb. 1849, and after that at Is. per quarter^
passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Laws—
and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there-
fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846.
CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at
Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was
introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation
of Henry IIL took place, in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester,
October 28, 1216. A plain circle Avas used on this occasion in lieu of the
crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John,
in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. — MaWiew
Paris. Rijmer.
CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the
kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards
canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that
now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The f^tes
given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor-
onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of
former times.
CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925, Coroners for every
county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward
I. 1276. — Stowe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Mal-
colm II., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria,
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of
illness. Aug. 22, 1843.
CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish
the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry
IIL ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. — Baker.
But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of
the degree of earl who wore a coronet. 1604. — Beatson. It is uncertain when
the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idem.
CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti-
quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from
Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break
the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep-
arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarck.
CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized
by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and
members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in
law, any matter within the compass of their charter. — Covjel. Corporations
were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari-
ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, a. d.
.1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them
to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths,
and conditions. — Blackstone.
CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of this
island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists,
according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car-
thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans 231 b. c. In modern times,
Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold
to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first
and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in
the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be-
nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolveuc*
COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277
in 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to Mr
creditors, ani died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel- street, Soho.
The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near his
grave, in St. Anne's church, Dean-street : —
" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings.
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ;
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head,
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread."
The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans,
in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769.
The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17,
1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and ue opened a parliament
in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was relin-
quished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for tlie
French.
CORTES OF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution ol
Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a
long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810; and they settled the new constitution,
March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who
banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states-
general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg-
ularly convened.
CORUNNA, Battle of. between the British army under sir John Moore (who
was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809.
COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients,
and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre-
cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in height-
ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes.
Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered
women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent,
and are in general use. — Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint
more highly than most other nations. — Richardson. A stamp was laid on
cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beau-
tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take
out licenses, '26th Geo. III. 1786.
COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition,
and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a
plane. — Selden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the
earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record
of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep-
resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geogra.rhy
respectively.
COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia,
Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys
and the peoi)le of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste-
phen Batori, in 1576. to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions
of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body
of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in-
vin( i])ly
OOSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote
antiquity The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and
graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm,
wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a t(!xture,
•and their gaior ents, which were always white, were so clear and thin, that
278
THE world's progress.
[ COT
their bodies could be seen through them Ovid. As relates to costume
worn on the stage, ^schylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who
erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited
to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Parian Marbles.
COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; but
about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny
with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin-
ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of
machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. -Crompton
invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac-
ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since
made. The'names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con-
nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that
more than one thousand millions sterling have be.m yielded by it to Great
Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export-
ed in 1774. — Haydn.
HISTORY OF COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS.
The following brief items of the history of cotton., from 1730 to 1836, are taken from a iSouth
Carolina paper : —
1803. First cotton factory built in New
Hampshire.
1805. Power-looms successfully and widely
introduced into England.
1807. The revolution in Spanish America
begins to furnish new markets for cotton
manufactures.
1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the
United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another
by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia.
1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa-
tented by John Bum.
1813. The India trade more free, and more
British manulactures sent thither.
1814. The power-loom introduced into the
United States ; lirst at Waltham.
1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents —
higher than since 1810. New method of
preparing sewing cotton by Mr- Holt.
1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama
cotton lands.
1820. Steam power first applied with suc-
cess extensively to lace manufactures.
1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected.
1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt
into Great Britain.
1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to
25 cents per pound.
1826. Self acting mule spinner patented
in England by Roberts.
1827. American cotton manufactures first
exported to any considerable extent.
1829. Highest duty in the United States on
foreign cotton manufactures.
1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced
a machine from the United States into Eng-
land for the purpose of making cards.
1832. Duty on cotton goods imported inta
the United States reduced ; and in England
it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills,
to work them more than ten hours per day,
or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; in
consequence they work at something else.
1834. Cotton at 17 cents.
1835. Extensive purchases madeof cottoa
lands by speculators and others.
1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents.
1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn
in England by machinery.
1735. The Dutch first export cotton from
Surinam.
1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected
at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses ;
but not successful in its operations.
1749. The fly shuttle generally used in
England.
1756. Cotton velvets and quiltings made
in England lor the first time.
1761. Arkwright obtained the first patent
for the spinning frame, which he further
improved.
1768. The stocking frame applied by
Hammond to making of lace.
1773. A bill passed to prevent the export
of machinery u.sed in cotton factories.
1779, Mule spinning invented by Hargrave.
1782. First import of raw cotton from
Brazil into England.
1782. Watt took out his patent for the
steam-engine.
1783. A bounty granted in England on the
export of certain cotton goods.
1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart-
wright— steam engir.es used in cotton fac-
tories.
1785. Cotton imported into England from
the United States.
1786. Bleaching first performed by the
agency of the oxy muriatic acid.
1787. First machinery to spin cotton put
in operation in France.
1789. Sea Island cotton first planted in the
United States ; and upland cotton first cul-
tivated for use and export about this time.
1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the
first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket,
Rhode Island.
1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents
the cotton gin, which he patents.
1798. First mill and machinery for cotton
erected in Switzerland.
1799. Spinning by machinery introduced
into Saxony this year.
€OU ]
DICTLONARY OF DATES.
279
COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment
by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge,
after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicana
during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William
ni. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's-
yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained
damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753.
COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to
whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi-
ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first
was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were
admitted ; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the
second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the
present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was
pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na-
tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot, to which quality and offices gave a right
to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin
of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments ; but the
term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar-
endon.— See Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privy Council, &c.
COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable
Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils
(the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches
or <jcclesiastical government. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils.
Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - a. d
Of the western bishops at Aries, in
France, to suppress the Donatists ;
three fathers of the Enghsh church
went over to attend it -
The first CEcumenical or General Ni-
cene, held at Nice, Constantine the
Great presided; Arius and Eusebius
condemned for heresy. This council
composed the Nicene Creed -
At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana-
sius was canvassed
The first held at Constantinople, when
the Arian heresy gained ground
At Rome, concernhig Athanasius, which
lasted eighteen months
At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended
Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and
Constantine obliged them to sign
new confession of faith
The second General at Constantinople ;
350 bishops attended, and pope Da-
masius presided
The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce-
lestine presided
Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Mar-
cian and his empress attended
The fifth at Constantinople, when pope
Vigilius presided
The sixth at Constaniinople, when pope
Agatho presided
Authority of the six general councils re-
established by Theodosius
The second Nicene council, seventh Ge-
neral ; 350 bishops attended -
Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the
emperor Basil attended
The first Lateran, the ninth General;
the right of investitures settled by
treaty between pope Calixtus IL aud
tbe emoeror Henry V. - •
50
314
325
- 335
337
- 359
553
787
1122
The second Lateran, tenth General, In-
nocent II. presided ; the preservation
of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics,
the principal subject, which occa-
sioned the attendance of 1000 fa-
thers of the church - - A. D. 1139
The third Lateran, eleventh General ;
held against schismatics - - 1179
Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400
bishops and 1000 abbots attended;
Innocent III. presided - - - 1215
Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, imder
f)ope Innocent IV. - - - 1245
_ Lyons, the fourteenth General, under
Gregory X. - ' - - -1274
Of Vienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth
General; Clement V. presided, and
the kings of France and Arragon at-
tended. The order of the Knight
Templars suppressed - - - 1311
Of Pisa, the sixteenth General; Gre-
gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed,
and Alexander elected - - 1409
Of Constance, the seventeenth General ;
Martin V. is elected pope ; and John
Huss and Jerome of Prague con-
demned to be burnt - - - 1414
Of Basil, the eighteenth General - 1431
The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene-
ral, begun by Julius II. - - 1513
Continued under Leo X. for the sup-
pression of the Pragmatic sanction of
France, against the council of Pisa,
&c. till 151^
Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene-
ral council, styled Oecumenical, as re-
garding the affairs of all the Chris-
tian world ; it was held to condemn
the doctrines of the reformers, Luther,
Zuinglius, and Calvin. —J.66e Lenglet 154A
280 THE world's progress. [co^
COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly
of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov.
I, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred ; the executive was a
Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St.
Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Siey6s, consuls pro-
visoires. — See France.
COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion
were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Coun-
sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William IIL 1696.
Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel,
6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836.
COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king
Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The
division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were
instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par-
liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. — See
Commons, and Parliament.
COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and
Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does
not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of
Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 b. c. Couriers or posts are
said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800.
The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the
reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager-
ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d.
1463. — Henault.
COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Areopa^
gitcs. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272
B. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other
countries.
COURT OF HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high
constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV.,
and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to
prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these
countries, Mr.' Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in-
stitutions.
COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those' persons
who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby
mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects oi
the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between
England and Scotland, was formed in 1643 ; it was declared to be illegal by
parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662.
COVENTRY, PEEPING TOM of. The great show fair of Coventry owes its
origin to the following tradition : — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such
heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties,
importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her
riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to
consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and
ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win-
dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to
curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead ; and has been
famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his eflSgy is shown
to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d. 1057, at the great show fair
the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom-
cre] dictionary of dates. 281
panied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to hel
limbs,
COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security
against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became genera]
in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the
teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re-
warded by parliament with the muvJticent grant of ^10,000, June 2, 1802.—
See Inoculation, Small-Pox, Vaccination.
CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with
the spoils taken from the Franks, a. d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII.
in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the ont>
side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expel-
led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to
the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu-
pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831.
Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in-
corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland.
CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may
be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his,
220 B. c. — Livy.
CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German,
started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim fol-
lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems
to be rapidly gaining ground ; it has now many professors, and in almost all
countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The
science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many differ-
ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind.
CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of Eng
lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Lati-
mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555»; and Cran
mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had in-
duced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a
paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the
stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand,
with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before
the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand !"
Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first
martyr of the Christian church, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!"
CRAPE. A light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and
twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said
some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about a. d. 680.
It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used
for mourning.
CRAlfONS. They were known in France before a. d. 1422— improved by
L'Oriot, 1748.
CREATION OP THE WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy,
4004 B. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees
with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old
Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation:
some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia-
logue entitled Critias, asserts his celebrated Atalantis to have been buried
in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chi-
nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of
years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient ChaJ-
282 THE world's progress, [OB,i
deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000
yeara.
CREATION, Era of the. In use by many nations. This era would be found
convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting
before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at
a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right
time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at
4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of tlie Talmud
make it 5344; and ditterent chronologers, to the number of 120, make it
vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 ; but the
Cathohc church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor-
rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : therefore, it is now gener-
ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text.
CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while
after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship
in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church.
This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a, d. 746. The
Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by whom it was composed, in
A D, 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about
340. — See Apostles', Nicene, and other creeds.
CRESSY, OR CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed-
ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip,
king of France. Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs
ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of
Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French
nobles, together with 30 000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the
English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich
feathers, with the motto " Ich Dien," in English, " I serve ;" and in memory
of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng-
land.— Froissart, Carte, Hume.
CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies
by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of
crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen-
tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume
of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns
above their helmets ; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a Hon
on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as well
on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses.
CRETE. Now Candia, which see. This island was once famous for its hundred
cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015
B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won-
ders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 b. c. It
was conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed
into the hands of the Venetians, 1194 : and was taken from them bj^ the
Turks, in \^^^.— Priestley.
CRIME. "At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, ''a
one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub-
sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth
have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and
every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi-
nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and,
as an almost necessary consequence, into crime."' A comparative view of
foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and
ignorance on the great mass of the pop-ilation. In North America pauper-
ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre
CEO J DICTIONARY 01^ DAlES. 283
meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several
states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly
rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated^
are comparativel}' fi'ee from grave offences ; and France affords a remark-
able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ-
ence ia painfully exemplified : —
Scotland. England. Ireland.
Instruction to the people- - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35
Criminals among the people - 1 in 5093 • I in 920 - 1 in 468
There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several
acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti-
gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law
of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and
revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest,
passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals iu chains was abolished by
statute 4 William IV., 1834. . See Executions, Hanging, Triali, &c. — Haydn.
•CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193.
The Genoese were expelled by the Crim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were
tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took
possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following
year; and secured to them in 1791.
*!IRISPIN, The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus
were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra-
velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian
religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main-
tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the
town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On
this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them
as their tutelar saints.
CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c— Blair. Of this class
were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern
times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period-
ical criticism, as it is now known. It was originated by Dennis de Sallo.
ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published
at Paris, May 30, 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work
of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term
being invented by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The Waies of Litera-
ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly
Review, v/hicli may be said to have been the third work of this nature in
England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756 ; the
Edinburgh Review, in 1802; and London Quarterly m 1809. The American
Review, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The
North American Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818; the Amri-
can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila.',- 1827; the New York Review, bj
Prof C. S. Henry, 1835; the Southern Quarteky, at Charleston, 1842. See
Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism- was established in the English
courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought
by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de-
termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that oriticism. however
sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c,
CKOCKERY". In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and
Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware,
many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery,
of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza. in Italy,
about A. D. 1310; and it is still ca.'h'id faye7ice in French. See Eartheiiwdre
284 THE world's progress fcvL
CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story
of the Araalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selden. The first Ro-
man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet
tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and
also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first worn in En-
gland by Alfred, in a. d, 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by
pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown,
1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XIl, form-
ed tlie tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crovf b
with two circles. — Rainaldl.
CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians,
Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on
account of the shame attached to it: it was usually accompanied by other
tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap-
padocia, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovered among the prison-
ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive,
and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year
of his age, 322 b. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan-
tine, A. D. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of.
("RUSADES, OR Holy Wars. (In French. Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris-
tian ])owers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries,
called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter
the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted
the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy
Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in
possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul-
gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at
Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten-
tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a
general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,-
000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The
holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of
Crois^s, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's
will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the
end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind,
cost the lives of 2 000,000 of men. — Voltaire.
CUBA . Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered
by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor-
gan took Havana in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by
admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord
Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of
Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution,
defeated May, 1850.
CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we reai
of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holden. The Fe-
brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng' ish
feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe
extremil^ of the middle finger. — Calmet.
CUCUMBITRS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and
Eg.ypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the
poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets.
It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538.
CULLODEN. Battle of. In which the English, under William duke of Cum-
berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the
last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 meo
CYC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285
m killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit,
while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac-
tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless
inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. Immediately
after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued
wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,-
OOOZ. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were
constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix,
and died at Rome, in 1788.
n/HACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the
French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with
the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to a single British frigate. It
was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a
British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814.
CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This wjts a Norman institu-
tion, introduced into England in the reign of William I , a. d. 1068. On the
ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, ■ all fires and candles
were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty. — Rapin. The curfew was
abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100.
CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England
1533. The hawthorn currant-tree (Ribes oxyacanbhoides) came from Canada
in 1705.
CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con-
sent. By lawyers and civihans it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands
opposed to Lex scripta. or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is
derived from a, d. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law,
and forty years in ecclesiastical cases.
CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel-
red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab-
lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith,
for 20,000Z. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth, — Stowe. They were
farmed by Charles II. for 390,000Z. in the year imQ.—Davenant.
•jE2,0(X),000
9,973,240
11,498,762
17,540,323
18,612,906
19,915,296
The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool,
M. ; on every last of hides, &d. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine. — Annals
of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disquahfied
from voting for the election of members of parhament, by statute 22 George
III., 1782. See Revenue.
;USTOMS (DUTIES) in the UNITED STATES. The amounts collected
were, in
In 1530 they amounted to - - £14,000
In 1592 ditto - - - 50,000
In 1614 ditto - - 148,000
In 1622 ditto - - - 168,000
In 1642 ditto - - 500,000
In 1720 ditto - - - 1,555,600
In 1748 they amounted to
In 1808 ditto
hi 1823 ditto
In 1830 United Kingdom -
In 1835 ditto
In 1840 ditto
1789-9- . $4,399,473
1800 - • 9;080,938
1905 - 12,936,487
1810 - . 8,583.309
1815 - - 7,282,942
1820 - - #15.005,612 I 1845 - • $27,528,113
1825 - - - 20,098,714 1846 . - - 26,712.668
1830 - . 21,922,391 | 1847 - - 23,747,864
1835 - - . 19,391,311 I 1848 - - - 31,757,070
13,499,940 I '-S-ee Tariff.
CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the
week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen
lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The
cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the
time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years by
Victorius, a. d. 463. — Blair.
286 THE world's progress. [ DAQ
CYCLOPEDIA.— See Encyclopedia.
CYMBAL. The oldest musical instniment of which we have certain record-
It Avas made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form,
but smaller. Xeno|)hon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru-
ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele. by whom, we are told, it was
used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 b. c. Tho
f«!stiva]s of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory-,
bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 b. c.
CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 b. c, — Diog.
Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso-
phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all
sciences, except morality ; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did
all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without
blushing. — Idevi. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on
the ground. — Diog. Laert.
CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love
and pleasure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the
time of Cyrus, who subdued them; it ranked among the proconsular pro-
vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648 ; but
recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of
England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. —
Prieslley.
CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of
the Cyrenaici, 392 b. c. They maintained the doctrine that the supreme
good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual
kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure,
and onh" so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages.
— Lacr. Ar. Cicero.
CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 b. c. Aristseus, who was the chief of the
colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap-
olis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol-
lonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97
B. c. It is now a desert. — Prieslley.
CZAR, From Caesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia,
Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and
made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and
returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King).
— Aspin's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian
Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem.
D.
D AGUERREOTY'PE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre Oi
Paris, in 1839. by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon
thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the ac-
tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An
apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same
time by M. Niepc^. and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon-
don: the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger
Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the above
process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So im-
portant a discovery in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the
French government, that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of OOOfl
francs.
VAU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287
DAMASCUS. This city was in being in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xir. It
is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians,
Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex-
ander; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the
Saracens, a. d. 633 ; by the Turks in 1006; and was destroyed by Tamerlane
in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu-
lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the
gospel, about a. d. dO. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic,
DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus,
and hence the name, their large fine figures representing fiowers, and being
raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the
Dutch and Flemish weavers ; and the manufacture was brought to England
by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between
the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderson.
DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con-
demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to
go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of returning at the appoint-
ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his
engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared,
and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution ; but at
this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was
so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence,
and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 b. c.
DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes,
1534 B. c. — Eusebius. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to
their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on
the Roman stage, 22 b. c. — Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced
into England from Italy a. d. 1541. In modern times, the French were the
first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country
dance {contre-danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known.
— Spelman.
DANES, Invasions of the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to
England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon
Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under
Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and
ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy
in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor-
mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912.
DANTZIC. A commercial city in a. d. 997. — Busching. It was built, accord-
ing to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169, Seized by the king
of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the
French after a siege of four months, May 5, 1807; and by the treaty of Til-
sit, it was restored to its former independen ie, under the protection of
Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and after
a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1. 1814. By the treaty of Paris
it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to
the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10.000 head of cattle
and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9.
1829.
IIARDANELLES, Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called
Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding
the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperoT
Mahomet IV., in 1659, and were named Dardanelles from the contiguous
tO'Fn of Dardanus. The gallant exploit of forcing 1 he passage of the Dar
288 THE world's progress. [ DEA
danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John
Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807 ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them,
which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2,
following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone,
each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships.
DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from
the province of Dauphin^, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert II,
to Philip of Valois. on the condition that the heirs of the French throne
should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley.
MAVIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose
name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west ptissage, in 1585.
DAY, Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun-
set among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced
at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the
present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks
strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all
other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par-
tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome,
and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks.
The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil
day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is
the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and
night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of
Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vossius de Scien. Math.
DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the
instituti''^n of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a
long period in many churches, about a. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The
original deacons were Philip, Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parme-
nos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St.
Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13.
DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb
was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570,
Bonet, who was also a monk, pubhshed a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr.
Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first
regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in
Edinburgh in 1773.
DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States.
In 1840 there were 6916 blind persons, or 1 in 2 467 of the population;
7,659 deaf and dumb or 1 in 2 2'28; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979.
There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about
., 2,840 patients.
Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have
promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the
United States are Dr. Amariah Brigham, of Hartford; Dr, S. G, Howe, of
Boston ; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford.
DEATH. Punishment of. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish-
ment among the Britons before 450 b. c. — Stowe. The most eulogized
heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered
on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture
many days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the
fate of Mithiidates. an assassin of Xerxes. See a 7iote to the article Persia;
see also Ravillac; Bo'ding to Death; Burning to Death. &c. Maurice, the
son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first
execution in that manner in England, 25 Henry III., 1241. The punishment
DEL j DICTEONARY OF DATES. 289
of death was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9;
in other cases 1832, for forgery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases
of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, at Frank-
fort, same day, August 4, 1848,
DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the
year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year ia
March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month,
in 73 J B. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the
year
hKCEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go-
vern the commonwealth instead of consuls ; first instituted 450 b. c. — Livy.
The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the
attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished,
the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con-
suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored. — See Virginia.
DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the
earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, is
that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert,
the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English
tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be
used in all law-suits in May, 1731.
DEFENDER of the FAITH. FHdei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X.
on Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church
of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei Catfiolicce, and against Luther,
who had just begim the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave
him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs
of Great Britain: the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521.
DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded
as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c. — Snellius. The first
degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude
was determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west-
ern point was made the first general meridian, 162 b. c. Several nations
have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ;
and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green-
wich. See Latitude, Longitude, a7id the various Collegiate degrees.
DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six-
teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to
disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation
than that of Atheism. — Virot's Instruction Ckretienne, 1563. Deism is a
rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the light
of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice and virtue, and
an after state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called free-think-
ing. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, barorj
of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal,
Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft, and Godwin.
TjELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled
in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus
and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the
Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in
1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wm.
Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775.
This state hove an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in
the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimoua
13
290 THE world's progress. I DEN
vote in convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population— 1790, 59,D94; 1840, 78'085j
including 2,605 slaves.
DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire : !t is now in decay, but
contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 17o8, when Nadir Shah
invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine
followed: 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword; and plunder to
the amount of 62,000,000^. sterling was said to be collected.
DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of
Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyous,
1263 B.C. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came
to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem-
ple was burnt by the Pisistratidte, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the
Alcmseonidag, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered
by the people of Pliocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero car-
ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning
the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced c n Delphi
being attacked by the Phocians, 356 b. c. — Du Fresnoy.
DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the
world 1536 ; and it began Doc. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark
rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow-
ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b. c. — Blair. The following
are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales.
Septuagint b.
c. 3246
Persian - b. c. 3103
Playfair - b. c
.2352
Petaviiis - b. c. 2329
Jackson
3170
Hindoo -
-3102
Usher
-2348
Strauchuis - 2293
Hales -
- 3155
Samaritan
-2998
English Bible
-2348
Hebrew - -2288
Josephus -
3146
Howard -
-2698
Marsham -
-2344
Vulgar Jewish 2104
Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction
(!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were every where built
to guard against the calamity ; but the season happened to be a very fine
dry one, a. d. 1524.
DELUGE OF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according
to Eusebins. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the
general flood : but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely
a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose
course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and
Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and
some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus.
DELUGE OF OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun-
dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it
occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b. c. — Blair. Buffon
thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from
the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean.
DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were
taken by the British, 1796, but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara
and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and
commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies.
DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri
and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutonea
settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were
defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the
Jutes ; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from
Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mai-k, a German word signi-
fying country, ^, e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan.
DEN J
DICIIONARY OF DATES.
29)
DENMARK, continued.
Reign of Sciold, first king - b. c. 60
The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings
to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - a. d. 750
[Ragnor is killed m an attempt to ir.-
vade England, and for more thar 200
years from this time the Danes were
a terror to the northern nations of Eu-
rope, and at length conquering all
England, ^ee Daves.']
Reign of Canute the Great - - 1014
Reign of Waldemar the Great - - 1157
Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail,
makes immense conquests - - 1223
Gothland conquered • - - 1347
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are
united into one kingdom - - 1397
Revolt of the Swedes - - -1414
The nations reunited - - - 1439
Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440
Accession of Christian I., from whom
the present royal family springs - 1448
Christian II. is deposed, and the inde-
pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523
Lutheranism established by Christian
III. 1536
Danish East India Company established
by Christian IV. - - - - 1612
Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro-
testant league - - - - 1629
Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades
Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and
makes large conquests • - 1658
The crown made hereditary and abso-
lute 1660
Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Sleswick,
Tonningen, and Stralsund; reduces
Weismar, and dinves the Swedes out
of Norway - - - 1716 et seq.
Copenhagen destroyed by a fire which
consumes 16-50 houses, 5 churches, the
university, and 4 colleges - - 1728
The peaceful reign of Christian VI.,
who promotes the happiness of his
subjects - - - - 1730
Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud-
denly confines his queen, Caroline
Matilda, sister of George III. who is
afterwards banished. See ZelUaxi. 18, 1772
The counts Struensee and Brandt are
seized at the same time, on the charge
of a criminal intercourse with the
queen ; and the former confessing to
avoid the torture, both are beheaded
for high treason - April 28, 1772
The queen Caroline Matilda dies at
Zell - - - May 10, 1775
Christian VII. becomes deranged, and
prince Frederick is appointed regent 1784
One-fourth of Copenl: agen is destroy sd
by fire - - - June 9 17S5
Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard
Copenhagen, and engage the Danish
fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of
the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill-
ed. The Confederacy of the North
(see Armed Neutrality') is thus dis-
solved - - - April 2, 1801
Admiral Gambler and Lord Cathcart
bombard Copenhagen, and seize the
Danish fleet of I? shiosof the line, 15
fr fates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807
Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to
Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814
Commercial treaty with England - 1824
Frederick bestows a new constitution
on his kingdom - - - 1831
A new constitution offered by Christian
VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848
Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein de-
mand separation from Denmark
March, 1848
The king grants freedom of the press
and of public meetings - March, 1848
Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re-
volt and join the great German na-
tion - - - March 26, 1848
Prussia aids the duchies, and re-organ-
izes the Grand Duchy of Posen
March 26, 1843
Danes victorious over the Germans,
April 10 : but driven out of Schleswig
April 23, 1848
Truce agreed upon (provisional govern-
ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean-
while) . - - July 10, 1848
Armistice till March 1, 1849, signed Aug. 1848
(See Copenhagen.) n
KINGS OP
DENMARK.
714 Gormo I.
1014 Canute H. the Great.
750 Ragnor liOdbrog.
1036 Hardicanute II.
770 Sigefrid.
1041 Magnus I.
801 Godefrid.
1048 Suenon II.
809 Olaus I.
1079 Harold IV.
811 Hemming.
1080 Canute III. assassinated.
812 Siward and Ringon, killed in a sea-
fight.
1086 Olaus II.
814 Harold and Regner;
the
latter made
1097 Eric III.
prisoner in Ireland
dungeon there.
and died
in a
1106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick.
1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen.
849 Siward Il.deposed.
11.38 Eric V.
856 Eric ; killed in battle
1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldemar
858 Eric II.
for assassinating prince Canute.
873 Canute I.
1157 Waldemar the Great,
915 Frothon.
1182 Canute V.
920 Gormo II.
1202 Waldemar II
925 Harold.
1240 Eric VI.
928 Hardicanute
1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition against
930 Gormo III.
the Prisons.
935 Harold lU,
1252 Christopher I., iioisoned by the bishop
of Arnus,
960 Suenon.
I>U
1523 Frederick.
1534 Christian III.
1559 Frederick II.
1588 Christian IV.
1648 Frederick III.
1670 Christian V.
1699 Frederick IV.
1730 Christian VI.
1746 Frederick V.
1766 Christian VII.
1808 Frederic VI.
1839 Christian VHI. died Jan. 21, 1648.
DENMARK, continued.
i259 Eric VII. assassinated.
1286 Eric VIII.
1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of
seven years.)
1340 Waldemar III.
1375 Olaus III.
1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and
Norway.
1411 Eric IX., abdicated.
1439 Christopher III.
1448 Christian! of the house of Oldenburgh.
1481 John.
1513 Christian II., coiifined 27 years in a
dungeon, where he died.
DENIS. St. An ancient town of France, six miles Irom Paris to the north-
ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital, — famous foi
its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revolufion; the latter
desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place ol
sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613.
• DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the
policy. to conceal his art, and to this policy Ave are indebted for the tradition
of 'The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut-
temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at
present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate
those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at
Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty
crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as-
tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and
lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity
of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police
against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great
number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which
they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously
adjudged that he was in league with the devil-; and if he had not fled, he
would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned
in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. Nouv. Diet. See Printing.
DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and
which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or
wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck.
Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. —
Tillemont.
DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the
sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius
Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times
of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial.
They were first set up in churches in a. d. QtlZ.—Lenglet,
DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East where the
mine of Sumbulpour was the first known; and where the mines of Golconda
were discoverd in 1584. This district may be terined the realm of diamonds.
The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond,
weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal^
and was valued by M. Romeo de I'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil-
lions ; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated
to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400 OOOZ. The diamond
called the "mountain of light," which belonged to the king of C bul, was
the most superb gem ever seen ; it was of the finest water, and the 3ize of
DIE J
DICTIONARY OF DATES 293
an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a h.ilf. The great dia-
mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr.,
troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 104,166Z. besides an annuity
for life, to the owner, of 1041/!. which was refused ; but it was afterwarda
sold to Catharine's favorite, count Orloff, for the first mentioned sum, with-
out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth-
day, 17-72 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed
136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold to the king of France
for 125,000Z. in 1720.
DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world,
built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect
was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing
this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad,
and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 toDS
of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It w?us set on tire on the
night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus,
who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him
to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name
to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the
Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256, Univ. Hist.
DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in
stituted 498 b. c, when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was ap
pointed. This office, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the
Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J.
Caesar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion
of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to
exist in Rome, 44 b. c.
DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing
about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations
somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who
lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopgedias were compiled in the fif-
teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps
the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wi'ote one
in eight languages, about a. d. 1500. — Nlceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton
was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub-
lished in 1696, "the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to
think." — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopaedia, the first dictionary of the circle
of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The great dictionary of
the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis
Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768 ; and from
this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature,
Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two
quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re-
printed in ] ^adon, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous
abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since bo jn published.
See Encyclopedia.
DliCT OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of this empire
may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes under this name.
The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. : — the college of electors, the
college of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with
the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. — See Golden Bull. Diets otherwise
constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The
diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179.
The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was
held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, wa? held in 1629 ;
294
THE world's progress.
DIl
aud the famous diet of Augsburg, in 1530, In the league of the German
princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank-
fort, July 12, 1806, A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con-
solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany.
DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the parde of
the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors,
in France. In this battle {which see) the French army was signally defeated ;
and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieu et mon droit "
the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained
A. D. 1198. — Rymers Foidera.
DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared
by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Quintil. Iiist. Orat.
Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of
eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi-
nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the
civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a fi". — Pardon.
DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were
at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantino, a. d. 323 ; but
Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long
before. — Strabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris-
diction are coeval with Christianity; there are twenty-four dioceses, of
which twenty-one are suffragan to Canterbury, and three to York.
DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian
writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and
is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284.
It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris-
tians in the reign of Diocletian.
DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been au
object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29,
1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead
of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture
at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama
and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and
in the completeness of the illusion.
DIPLOMACY OF THE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiary to
Great Britain and France.
GREAT BRITAIW.
1783 John Adams.
1789 Gouv. Morris, commissioner.
1792 Thomas Pinckney, ol"S. C, rain. tlen.
1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do.
1796 Rufus King, do. do.
1803 James Monroe, Va. ) Jointly,
1805 Wm. Pinckney, Mass. \ in 1806.
1808 Wm. Pinckney, do. alone do.
1815 John Quincy Adams, Mass. do.
1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do.
1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do.
1828 James Barbour, Va. do.
1830 Louis McLane, Del. do.
1831 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do.
1832 AaroT. Vail, charjre d'affaires.
1836 And. Stevenson, ^s.., minister plen.
1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do,
1S15 Louis McLane, Md. do.
1846 George Bancroft, Mass. do.
1849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do.
PRANCE.
1776 B. Franklin, S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'ra
1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'affaireo.
1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen.
1799 James Munroe, Va. do.
1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. ? .„
1797 E. Gerry & John Marshall, \ °^^-
1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry,
and W. Vans Murray, do,
1801 James A. Bayard, Del. ct).
1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. co-
1804 John Armstrong, do, do.
1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. Jo.
1813 Wm. H. Crawford, Geo, do.
1815 Albert Gallatin, Pa, do.
1823 James Brown, La. do.
1830 Wm. C. Rives, Va. do.
1833 Edward Livingston, La. do.
1836 Lewis Cass, Mich. CO.
1844 Wm. R. King, Ala. da
1819 W. C. Rives, Va da
DIVJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 295
DIRECTORY, the CHURCH. The book so called was published in England
at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the par-
liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the
ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres-
sion of the Book of Common Prayer. There were some general hints given,
which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no
form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to
make any responses, except Amen. The Directory was established by an
ordinance of the parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor.
DIRECTORY, French. The French Directory was installed at the little Lux-
embourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of the government, November
1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of five
members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An-
cients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, who,
with Cambacerfes and Siey^s, became the ruling power of France, the three
governing as consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799.
DISSENIERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in
the Reformation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish
models of church government and discipline. They were reproached with
the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious
worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Eliza-
beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this country in
those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was
established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572 ; and now, in Lon-
don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dis-
senters, amounts to near 200, The great act for the relief of Dissenters
from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV.
c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act, so much of
the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces-
sity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for
certain offices, &c. was repealed. May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli-
orating effect have been since passed,
DIVINATION. In the Scriptures we find mention made of different kinds of
divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re-
tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers,
augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doc-
trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary
opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 b. c. Augurs were instituted
by Numa at Rome, 710 b. c. See Augury, Witchcraft, d^c.
DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, b. c.
The diving-bell was first used in Europe, a. d. 1509. It is said to have been
used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish
Armada, before a. d. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was,
it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground
at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force
down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell io
Ireland, were drowned, June 1, 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which
was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving-
bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed
in sub-marine surveys. The first diymg-belle was the wife of Captain Mor-
ris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago.
DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY, Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti-
cal and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spuriiis Car-
vilius at Rome, 231 b. c. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased,
that 3000 prosecutions for adulter}'^ were enrolled. Divorces were attempted
296 THE world's progress. [ DOG
to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a. d. 1539. The bill to
prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in
1801.
DOCKS OF LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con-
structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon-
don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the
principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in
July 1799 ; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug.
27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them,
decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London
docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805.
The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803,
and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks
was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until
they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828.
DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church
was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil. Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysos-
tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the
Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title
of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England,
8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the
time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it
is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d, 725.
See Collegiate Degrees.
DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law
residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col-
lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors'
Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de-
stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the
old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces,
bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See
article Civil Law.
DOG. The chien de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole
race. — Buffon. Buffbn describes this dog as being " the root of the tree,"
assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of
instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in
Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken
from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel,
landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned
to Vienna.
DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end
on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard
the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause
of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed
as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varies?
in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and
later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same
rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. Hutton.
DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a
* Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars ;
and they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that
a sound would net reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with
its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume SSS^^ll years in its passage thei.'ce to oui
<Elobe.
DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 29'
prince so named, Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against
their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an
aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying
the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was
observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis-
pensed with. See Adriaiic.
DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The
city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and
nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791.
Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French
colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died
in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama-
tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex-
ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29,
1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hcnjti. in
which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do-
mingo, acknowledged by France, in April, 1825.
DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This
island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the
peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the
subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur-
licane in 1806 ; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently
occurred.
DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days
of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as
by the first seven letters of the alphabet A, B, C. D, E, F, G; and the one
of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin
on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is
G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter
call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the
first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap
years count two letters.
DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni-
versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars,
and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and
the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's
rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation
of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they
erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called
Blackfriars.
DOOM'S-DAY OR DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius ml Censualis
Anglice. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign
of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register
whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from this book
the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still
decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible,
consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of
England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin-
ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. " This dome's-
day book was the tax-book of kinge William." — Camden. The taxes were
levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more accu-
rate survej' was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day
book.
DORIC Ordkr of Architkcture. The most ancient of the five, the invention
of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name V'
13*
298" THE world's progress. I^DRik
the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesu: ; took
place 1104 b. g. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies
into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native
country.
i)ORl, Here happened an awfal inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in
the breaking down of the dykes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000
persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul-
lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300
villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for
ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot-
estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent
from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the
differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi-
pally upon points '.f Justification and grace. The S3rQod condemned the
tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema.
DOUAY, IN France. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spain, who
founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay
was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was
taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the i^rench
next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of tlK Bible,
which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the sucv,essive
popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version
authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes
of Catholic divines.
DRACO, Laws of. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a
code of laws, which, on account of their severity, were said to be written
in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as
murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could
not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c. —
Sigonias de Repub. Athen.
DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth,
No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many
perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral
under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict
with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expedition's and victories over
the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene-
rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the
common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents
to Indian chiefs. — Stowe. Rapin.
DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the
Greeks. The fi^st comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon,
on a movable scaffold, 562 b. b. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced
556 b. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis,
on a wagon, 586 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra-
gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a
goat, 536 B. c. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in-
troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. . He composed about a hun-
dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c.
DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion
of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and
C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti-
tuted the games called Scenici, which were amusements entirely new.
Actors from" Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b, c.
.Subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute ; and
DRO j ^ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 29S
afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who. abandoning
satires, A^rote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 b. c. — Livy.
Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two ditfer-
ent performers ; he danced himself^ and gave the singing to a younger
exhibitor. — Livy.
DllAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of
minstrels and buflfoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton.
Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin
of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the
church, is said to have constructed a drama about a, d. 364, on the Passion
of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to
have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not
clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that
" London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa-
tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries
were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the
parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego-
rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual
characters were introduced in Henry VH.'s reign. The first regular drama
acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre-
sence of pope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect
in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England
was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester,
to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak-
speare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in
1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two
companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's
and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts.
DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar-
zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27,
1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi-
tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an
error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with
dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme
pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all
his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal
wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia.
DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of
Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe.
Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered,
and embroidered with peans. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and
pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches,
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and
buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with
precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 6600i^, ; and he had a suit
of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds,
rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could
afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to
shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the
pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cour.
DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons
were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is said to
have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the
fi^vHh at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societiea
■HH
300 THE world's progress. [duk
have been instituted in other countries. The motto of tne Royal Humane
Society in England is very appropriate : — Lateat scintUlula forsan — a small
spark may lurk unseen.
DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons,
who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted
as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with
supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best families,
that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro-
cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the
administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and
supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed
Caesar's tirst landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending
the freedoui of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau-
linus, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Rowland's
Moiia Aidiqua.
DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb.
" Drunk as a beggar ;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice
of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken-
ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity.
In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747.
Constantino, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death.
He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed
from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in tho
commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws,
DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a, d. 140.
DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First
struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Dii Cange. Coined by Robert, king ol
Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — John-
son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 45. 665., and that o/
the gold 95. M. — Pardon.
DUELLING and KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com-
bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character,
took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France,
1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I.
to the emperor Charles V., 1527. The fight with small swords was intro-
duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should
be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling
was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Combat, (fc. Asi
many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli-
macteric.— Sir J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in
which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases
both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen-
tence of the law. — Hamilton. ■-
DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In
England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes,
diices. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of
Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black
Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robiert de Vere was
created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The
first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert IH., who created David,
pi ince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to
the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398.
DUKE, Grand. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and
immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged
EAR J E ICTIONARY OF DATES. 30 1
the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night,
and his son. Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope
Pius V. in 1569.
DUNBAR, Battle op, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John
Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed-
ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English unde^
Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650.
DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and
Freni h, and put into the hands of the English, June 24, 1668, the last year
of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,000/. t<
Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for-
tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the
basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
DUNSINANE, Battle of. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal
Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle
between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber-
land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III.,
whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who
was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in
Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub-
ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama.
DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at
Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen
Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland,
who was vanquished." Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to
pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou-
sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346.
'DYEING, Art of. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing
and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their
manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England
for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries
in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the
north" (of England) 1628.
EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the
Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and
sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a
spear ; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When
Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added
the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of
Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im-
perial standard of Napoleon; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
It is also the national emblem of the United States of America.
EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages
the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard
II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They
had. anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of thtj
sheriff's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their
title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or
shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and
their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute for
king.
8U2
THE world's progress.
EAR
EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of
Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring sn
arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the
sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all
towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round
the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel-
lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576.
The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to
be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis-
covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe.
EA.RTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient
nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 b. c.
The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1310. Wedgewood's patent
ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staffordshire was extended to
a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur-
poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a
very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See
China. — Porcelain.
EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed with
any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro-
duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the
vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes,
and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which
have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters,
others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu-
men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50,
when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain, Dr.
Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to
suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors
or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity.
These principles at the same time were advanced by Signer Beccaria, with-
out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukelej^'s discoveries, and the hypothesis has
been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how-
ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into
steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which
occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the
most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from
the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all
that have occurred : —
One which made the peninsula of
Eubaa an island - - b. c. 425
EUice and Bula in the Peloponnesus,
swallowed up ... 372
One at Rome, when, in obedience to
an oracle, M. Curtius, armed and
mounted on a stately horse, leaped
into the dreadful chasm it occasion-
ed (iii'j/) - - - - 358
Duras, in Greece, buried with all its
inhabitants ; and twelve cities in
Campania also buried - - 345
Lysimachia totally buried, with all its
inhabitants - - - - 283
Awful one in Asia, which overturned
twelve cities - - - a. d. 17
One accompanied by the eruption of
Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and
Herculaneum buried - 79
Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and
two in Galatia, overturned - • 107
Antioch destroyed - - A. D.
Nicomedia, Csesarea, and Nicea in
Bithynia, overturned
In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150
cities and towns damaged. -
Nicomedia again demolished, and its
inhabitants buried in its ruins
One felt by nearly the whole world -
At Constantinople ; its edifices destroy-
ed, and thousands perished -
In Africa ; many cities overturned
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and
Asia ; more than 500 cities v/ere de-
stroyed, and the loss of life surpass-
ed all calculation
In France, Germany, and Italy
Constantinople overturned, and all
Greece shaken
One felt throughout England -
One at Antioch ; many towns destroy-
114
126
35f
543
553
742
801
936
EAS J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
303
EARTHQUAKES, continued.
ed: among them, Maris3um and Ma-
mistria - - - a. d. 1114
Caiania in Sicily overturned, and
15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137
One severely felt at Lincoln - - 1142
At Calabria, when one of its cities and
all its inhabitants were overwhelm-
ed in the Adriatic Sea - - 1 186
One again felt throughout England - 1274
At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit-
ants perished - - - - 1456
One felt in London : part of St. Paul's
and the Temple churches lell - 1580
In Japan, several cities made ruins,
and thousands perished - - 1596
Awful one at Calabria - - - 1638
One in China, when 300,000 persons
were buried in Pekin alone - - 1662
One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690
One at Jamaica, which totally destroy-
ed Port Royal, whose houses were
ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300
persons perished - - - 1692
One in Sicily, which overturned 54
cities and towns, and 300 villages.
Of Catania and its 18.000 inhabit-
ants, not a trace remained; more
than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693
Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000
persons perished - - - 1726
Again in China; and 100,000 people
swallowed up at Pekin - - 1731
One in Hungary, which turned a
mountain round - - - 1736
Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000
persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746
One at Palermo, which swallowed up
a convent ; but the monks escaped 1740
In London, the inhabitants terrified by
a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750
Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750
Adrianople nearly overwhelmed 1752
At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and
40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754
Quito destroyed - - April, 1755
Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about
eight minutes most of the houses,
and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants,
were swallowed up,and whole streets
buried. The cities of Coimbra,
Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread-
fully, and St. TTbes was wholly over-
turned. In Spain, a large part of
Malaga became ruins. One half of
Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and
more than 12,000 Arabs perished
there. Above half of the island of
Madeira became waste ; and 2,000
houses in the island of Meteline, in
the Archipelago, were overthrown :
this awful earthquake extended 5000
miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755
One in Syria extended over 10,000
square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1759
One at Martinico, when 1600 persons
lost their lives - - Aug. 1767
At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in-
habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773
IE ASTER So called in Eng-land from the
of Easter was instituted about a. d. 68
was fixed in Eng-land by St. Austin, in
A destructive one at Smyrna - a. D 177&
At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down,
and multitudes buried - - 1780
One which overthrew Messina and a
number of towns in Italy and Sicily :
40,000 persons perished - - 1783
Archindschan wholly destroyed, and
12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 1784
At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening
of the earth swallowed up many
houses and 1000 persons - Sept. 178?
Another fatal one in Sicily - - 1791
One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing
forth its flames overwhelmed the city
of Torre del Greco - - -1794
In Turkey, where, in three towns,
10,000 persons lost their lives - 1794
The whole country between Santa Fe
and Panama desti-oyed, including the
cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of
whose people were, in one second,
hurled into eternity - - - 179J
One at Constantinople, which destroy-
ed the royal palace and an immen-
sity of buildings, and extended into
Romania and Wallachia. - - 1800
A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 1804
In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000
persons lost their lives - - 1805
At the Azores: a village of St. Mi-
chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling
water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810
Awful one at Caraccas {which see) - 1812
Several felt throughuut India. The
district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons
were buried with it - - June 1819
In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many
other towns ; great damage sustain-
ed, and thousands perished - - 1819
One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1326
One in Spain, which devastated Mur-
cia, and numerous villages; 6000
persons perished - March 21, 1829
Li the ducny of Parma ; no less than
40 shocks were experienced at Bor-
gotaro; and at Pontremoli many
houses were thrown down, and not a
chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834
In many cities of Southern Syria, by
which hundreds of houses were
thrown down, and thousands of the
inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1337
At Martinique, by which nearly half
of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly
700 persons killed, and the whole
island damaged - Jan. 11. 18-39
At Ternate : the island made a waste,
almost every house destroyed, and
thousands of the inhabitants lose
their lives - - Feb. 14, 1-SiO
Awful and destructive earthquake at
Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts
of Armenia 3137 houses were over-
thrown, and several hundred persons
perished - - July 2, 1840
Great earthquake at Zante, where
many persons perished Oct. 30, 1840
Saxon goddess Eosire. The festival
I ; the day for the observance of it
597. It was ordained by the council
304
THE world's progress.
I ECL
of Nice to be observed on the same daj^ throughout the whole Christian
world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after
the 21st of March.
EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in the
defeat and death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453.
Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan-
tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by
assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortuoate emperor,
seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the
enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were
massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the
conqueror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com-
menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views,
in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey.
ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and
ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066.
The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy,
apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be-
nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery,
probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone.
ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES of the CHURCH. See Rome, [n
A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it
into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove
into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the
same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice ; and, in 1800,
cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of
Pius VIL, and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This
power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his
temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ;
but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq.
ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Philalethes,
or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they
chose what they judged good from each : founded by Polemon of Alex-
andria, about A. D. 1. — Dry den. Also a sect, so called in the Christian
church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of
the doctrine of the Christian.
ECLIPSES. The theory of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120
B. c. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to
be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during
its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c.
at 8' 40" p. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with
accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary
- eclipses of the sun and moon : —
585
424
- 188
OF THE STJN.
That predicted by Thales ; observed at
Sardis (.Pliny, lib. ii.) - b. c.
One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) -
Total one ; three days' supphcation de
creed at Rome (Livy)
One general at the death of Jesus Christ
(./osephus) ■ - - A. D. 33
One at Rome, causing a total darkness
at noon-day (Livy) - - - 291
One observed at Constantinople - 968
In France, when it was dark at noon-
day (Du rresnoij) - June 29, 1033
In England, where it occasioned a total
darkness (Wm. Malmsb.) • -1140
Again ; the stars visible at ten in the
movnihg (Camden) • June 23, 1191
The true sun, and the appearance of
another, so that astronomers alone
could distinguish the difference by
their glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.) - 1191
Again ; total darkness ensued (idem) - 1331
A total one ; the darkness so great that
the stars shone, and the birds went to
roost at noon ( Old^niron' s Annals of
Geo. I.) - . April ^ 1715
ED.J J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 305
ECLIPSES, continued.
Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) • 219
One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius
Gallus (^Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 168
One terrified the Roman troops and
quelled their revolt ( Tacitus) a. d. 14
Remarkable one, central and annular
in the interior of Europe - Sept. 7 1820
OF THE MOON.
The first, observed by the Chaldeans at
Baibylon (Ptolemy, lib. iv.) - B.C. 721
A total one, observed at Sardis (Thu-
cydides,lib. vii.) - - - 413
The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian,
336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of
the sun, and 882 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander,
who died 323 b. c.
EDEN; GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi-
tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some
in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in
Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts
that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a
peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below
the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about
27° N. iat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may
have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden
extended into Armenia. — Calmet. The Almighty constructed Eden with a
view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good
for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. — •
Genesis ii. 8, 9.
EDGEHILL, Battle of, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and
the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ;
Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded
the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642.
EDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of
France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re-
voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to
France 800 000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000
industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of
manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalflelds, where their descendants yet
remain : others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued
the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they
excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An-
derson's Orig. of English Commerce.
EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were
two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public
and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ;
they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar-
kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and
treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties
of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in
many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon.
EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest
cities of the empire. It derives its name — in ancient records. Dun Edin,
signifying the '■ hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin,
king of Northumbria. who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected
it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of
the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by
Camelon, king of the Picts. 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance,
standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before
the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength.
306
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[egy
EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of In-
struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New
York, Oct. 20, 1830.
EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,000Z. for national education, pro-
posed in parliament l»y Lord John Kussell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9,
and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the
grant, July 11, 1839.
EGALITE. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the
infamous duke of "Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the
abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of
Louis XVI. his relative ; but this did not save him from a like doom. Ho
wa."^ guillotined Nov. 6, 1793.
EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the
son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ;
it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest-
ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The
fiimous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim
I., emperor of the Turks, took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys
till 1799, when a great part of tlie country was conquered by the French,
under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British,
and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey, for modern
events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq.
Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) b. c. 2188
Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up-
per Egypt, Lower Egypt, Tiiis, and
Memphis (Abb.- Leng/e/, Blair) - 2126
Athotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122
Busiris builds Thebes ( Usher) - 2111
Osymandyas, the first warlike king,
passes into Asia, conquers Bactria,
and causes his exploits to be repre-
sented in sculpture and painting
( Usher, Lenglet) - - - 2100
The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt
and hold it 260 years ( Usher) - 2080
The lake of Moeris constructed - 1938
The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt
to avoid the famine in Canaan - 1921
Syphoas introduces the use of the com-
mon letters ( Usher) - - - 1891
Memnon invents the Egyptian letters
{Blair, Lenglet) • - - - 1822
Amenophis I. is acknowledged the
king of all Egypt {Lenglet) - - 1821
Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt
as a slave {Lenglet) - - - 1728
He interprets the king's dreams - 1715
His father and brethren settle here - 1706
Sesostris reigns ; he extends hi*? do-
minion by conquest over Arabia,
Persia, India, and Asia Minor {Leng-
let)' 1618
Settlement of the Ethiopians {Blair) 1615
Rampses, who imposed on his sub-
jects the building of walls and pyra-
mids, and other labors, dies (Lenglet) 1492
Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the
Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet,
Blair)- - - - -1492
Reign of Egyptus, from whom the
country, hitherto called Mizraim, is
now called Egypt (Blair) • b. o. 1485
Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the
Greeks) who had the faculty of as-
suming whatever form he pleased,
as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water,
fire 1189
[These fictions were probably intend-
ed to mark the profound policy of
this king, who was eminent for his
wisdom, by which his dominion
flourished. — Blair.]
Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages
Judea, and carries off the sacred veS'
sels of the Temple
The dynasty of kings called Tanites
begins with Petubastes (Blair)
The dynasty of Sailes (Blair)
Sebacon invades Egypt, subd«es the
king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to
be roasted alive ( Usher)
Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 660
He invests Azoth, which holds out for
19 years, the longest siege in the an-
nals of antiquity (C/^s/jer) - - 647
Necho begins the famous canal be-
tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi-
terranean sea (Blair) - - 610
This canal abandoned, after - costing
the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) 600
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes
Apries ( fZsAer) - - - 681
Apries taken prisont i" and strangled in
his palace (Diud. Siculus) • • 571
The philosopher I /thagoras comes
from Samos intr Egypt, and is in-
structed in the i.ysteries of Egyp-
tian theology ( Usher) - - 53l$
- 971
825
781
737
* The epoch of the reign of Sesostrisi is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later.
ts to the achie-\ ements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several kings,
(Utributed by th ^ Egyplian priests to Sesjstris aloae, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted.
ELE J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
307
47
40
EGYPT, continued.
Tlie line of the Pharaohs ends in the
murder of Psaramenitus by Camby-
ees (Blair) - - - b. c. , , ,
Dreadful excesses of Cambyses ; he flies from tlieir fury (Blair) b. 0. 12S
puts the children of the grandees,
male and female, to death, and makes
the coui. try a waste (ITerodo^Ms) -
He sends an army of 50,000 men across present to the parent on a feast day 129
the desert to destroy the temple of
Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish recovers his throne ; and dies - 128
in the burning sands (Justin) - 524
Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again
subdued by Xerxes (Blair) • - 487 sons perish in Egypt - - - 128
A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - - 463
Successful revolt under Amyrtseus,
who is proclaimed king (Lenglet) • 414
Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its
temples pillaged ( Usher) - - 350
Alexander the Great enters Egypt,
wi'ests it from the Persians, and
builds Alexandria (BteeV) - - 332
Philadelphus completes the Pharos of
Alexandria (^tozV) - - - 283
The Septuagint version of the Old Tes-
tament made about this time - 283
The famous library of Alexandi'ia also
da,tes about this period (Blair) • 283
Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269
Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria,
and returns laden with rich spoils,
and 2500 statues and vessels of gold
and silver, which Cambyses had
taken from the Egyptian temples
(Blair) - - - - 246
Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151
At the death of Philometer, his brother
Physcon marries his queen, and on
the day of his nuptials murders the
infant son of Philometer in its moth-
er's arms - - - - 145 ince - - - - " - 30
He repudiates his wife, and marries
her daughter by his brother (Btozr) 130
ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to
have forty shillings a year in land, 39 Henry VI., liQO.—Ruff/iead's Statutes.
Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following : act depriving
excise and custom-house oflBcers, and contractors with government, of their
votes. 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states.
ELECTORS OF GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic
body mad-b choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which
prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed
the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em-
peror.— Dr. Robertson. An eighth elector was made, in 1648 ; and a ninth
in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to
eight, in 1777; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801.
The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when
tlie crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806.— See Germany.
ELECTRICITY. That of amber was known to Thales, 600 n. c. Electricitj
was imperfectly discovered a. d. 1467. It was found in various substances
by Br. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its
power, of (onductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that
two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock
was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed the
"Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire,
and that it would fire spirits. 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning
His subjects, wearied with his cruel-
ties and crimes, demolish his stat-
ues, set fire to his palace, and he
flies from tlieir fury (Blair) b. 0.
He murders his son by his new queen ;
also his son by her mother, sending
the head and limbs of the latter as a
present to the parent on a feast day
Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he
recovers his throne ; and dies
Pestilence from the putrefaction of
vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per-
sons perish in Egypt -
Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famous
city of Thebes destroyed after a siege
of three years (Diod. Siculus)
Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to
his eldest son, Ptolemy, and the fa-
mous Cleopatra (Blair)
During a civil war between Ptolemy
and Cleofratra, Alexandria is be-
sieged by Csesar, and the famous
library nearly destroyed by fire
(Blair) - . -
Caesar defeats the king, who, in cross-
ing the Nile, is drowned ; and the
younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra
reign - - - - -
Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14
years of age) and reigns alone
She appears before Mark Antony, to
answer for this crime. Fascinated
by her beauty, he follows her into
Egypt
Antony defeated by Octavius Caesar
at the battle of Actium (Blair)
Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and
Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the
kingdom becomes a Roman prov
ince ....
BOS THE world's progress. [ EMfl
was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au«
rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769.
ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal-
vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries
of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius),
and discovered the mode of combining the metals; constructed what is
very properly called the Voltaic pile ; and extended the whole science into a
system whicli should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism.
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were
discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was established
in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France,
Gtrniany, the United States and other countries
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, ^aving more or less
bearing upon its practical use in telegraphic communication, were made by
Winckler, at Leipsic,l746; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747;
Lomond, in 1784; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of
■Galvanism," at Bolonga. 1791. Prof Volta's "Voltaic Battery," at Pavia,
1801; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in
telegraphs^ as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great
advance made by Prof Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-mag-
netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1832, patented
1840. Thf first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between
Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En-
gland, 1840. Bain's i)atent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States
in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in
Jan. 1850 extended 6,679 miles. — See Sitpplement.
ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his-
tory of the Maccabees informs us, that "to every elephant they appointed
1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants
were strong towers of Avood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus
were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber-
ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of
enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry III., in 1238. —
Baker s Chron.
ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed
by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra-
ted of all the rehgious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumol-
pus, 1356 B. G. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one
revealed them, it was suj)posed that he had called divine vengeance upon
him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis
into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo-
dosius the Great, a. d. 389.
ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art M-ere derived
chiefli?- from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens,
of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi-
dias about 500 B.C. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during
his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802; they were purchased of him by
the British government for 36.000^., and placed in the British Museum, in
1816.
EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many
thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter
were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead.
The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and
wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible.
CMF J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 309
but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal
likeness. They called the embalmed bodies mummies, some of which, buried
3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is no'w
lost. "When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last
duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh
and aloes to embalm his body. — John xix. 38.
EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is
rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to
war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven-
tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the detention of all
Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom,
owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutralit]/.
EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all essels in the ports
of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with
Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re-
pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90
days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812.
EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to
implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and
fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which
penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four
times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer
to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter.
2MBR0IDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we
learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu-
larly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very
early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23.
An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes-
try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William t. of England. See Bayeux
Tapestry.
EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in
Peru ; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no
true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is a gen-
uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II.,
who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred
that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East.
EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera-
ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American
colonies, West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales. Swan River,
Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, accordfng to official returns, 154,291. In the
decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively
of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num-
ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were
registered as born in
Great Britam and Ireland - - 148,212
Germany .... 58,018
France - - - - - 7,748
Sweden and Norway • • 903
Denmark - • - - 210
Switzerland - - - - • 319
Other countries or unknown • • 3,043
EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs.
This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter
Fatima, about a. d. 650. — Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally given
the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers
(another title being joined).
EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode uf putting criminals to
310 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ENO
death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, paiticularly
by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through
the body on a stake fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in
Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked
in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — Southern. Wil-
liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, in Rat-
clitfe Highway, London. Dec. 8, 1811. was staked in his ignominious grave.
This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive.
EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge-
nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus
Caesar was the first Roman emperor. 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor
of the Eastern empire, a. d. ZM. Charlemagne was the first emperor of
Germany, crowned by Leo IIL a. d. 800. Ottoman L, founder of the Turk-
ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia
was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal
was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825.
EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hy-
pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was
useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of
the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of
Agrigentura, about 473 b. c.
ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was
practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in
England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel
which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was
made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887.
ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art,
after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier,
A. D. 1749.
ENCYCLOPEDIA. The first work to Avhich this designation was expressly
given, was that of Abulfarius. an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century.
Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet-
ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences,
in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encyclopedie
Methodique, to which Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savans contri-
buted, was published in \'i^2etseq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En-
cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the
first in the United States. The Edmburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David
Brewster, was published. 1810 et seq., and republished in the United States..
Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of
the 7t'h edition of Encyclnpedia Britannica. edited by Professor Napier, and
published by A. &C. Black, Edinburgh, in 1840 etc.. was stated to have been
£126,000, of which i;23 000 were pa' d to the contributors. This was pro-
bably the most costly undertaking of the kind ever achieved by private enter-
prise. The Encyclopedia Mctropolitana was commenced in 1815 and finished
in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished
writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published
1796-1830 and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Americana was com-
menced in :>hiladelphia in 1829-30, Penny Cycl. (Knight's) finished 1844.
EJVGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called
Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622.
The chief engineer was called camp-master-general in 1634. Captaip
Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. Th9
corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military
force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a
fiMG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311
colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty
colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828, The
Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at
Washington.
ENGLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng-
land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative
had been used as far back as a. d. 688, but had never been, until then, rati-
fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons,
and lond, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of
Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. Englan'l
and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707,
and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated
with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and
the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
ENGLAND, NEW. See New England.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or
Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of tho
most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En-
glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had
been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English
tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry
VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the
Latin disused. May 1731.
ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an-
ticjuity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal
rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc-
tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo-
dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century.
Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The
art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United
States during the last ten years.
ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their
appearance about a. d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso,
surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The
earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses
for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it
followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis
Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532.—
De Piles.
ENGRAVING, Lithographic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois
Sennefelder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced
on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in
1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of
London in 1817.
ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im-
proved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further impioved
it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is prudacedj
was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non. about 1662 ; he com-
riunicated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished
for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscuro en-
graving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair, one
of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincography., t^c.
ENGRAVING ON STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, aftei
it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and tine impressions, in-
312 THE world's progress. [ EPl
definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of
Philadelphia, in 1819.
ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief mahlers, or manufactxirer'S
of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400; and from this sprung the invention of
printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See
Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to
Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Ley den
in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother,
and pupils. Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789. et. seq. The earliest wood en-
graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christopher
carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. d. 1423.
ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank-
ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnteus, \. d. 1739. The London
Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the
study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods
of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful.
ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors.
Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort. The court of
France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the
royal carriages, a. d. 1639.
EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure was
one of the seven wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200- broad,
and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings
contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to
perpetuate his memory, 356 b. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was
richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. —
U7iiv. Hist.
EPHORl. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con-
trol the royal power, 760 b. c. They were five in number, and acting as
censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the
kings and even imprison them, if they were guilty of irregularities.
EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See
HOMBR.
EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the
founder of it. about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a
happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but
from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with
itself. His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his
system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers.
EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the
ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin
epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all
others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow-
ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine
at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example: —
" Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum."
And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Dr
Doddridge, on the words Dum vtvimus vivamus, is the finest specimen in
our language : —
" Live while we live !" the epicure will say,
" And taste the pleasures of the present day."
" Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries,
" And give to God each moment as it flies."
Lord ! in my view let both united be,
We live in pleasure when we live to thee.— Doddridge
Expedition against Sparta - b. 0. 272
He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile,
tlifovra at him from a house-top by a
woman .... 272
Philip unites Epirus to Macedon • 2ZQ
Its conquest by the Romans - - 167
ERA J DICTIONA.iY OF DATES, 31b
EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its «arly
history is very obscure, and it is only during- the reign of this oovercign,
M^ho Avas the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto-
lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in
the temple of Delphi, about 1165 b. c.
Reign of the great Pyrrhus • B.C. 306
He enters into a league against Deme-
trius ; the battle of Beraea - - 294
Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first
battle against the Romans • - 280
^'e gains another great battle • - 279
^is conquest of Sicily - - - 278 |
His last battle with the Romans - 274 j Annexed to the Ottoman empire A D. 1468
He takes Macedou from Antigonus - 274 '
KPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It
may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33. when Peter sat in the bishop's
chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second
century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen-
tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops.
In Scotland, episcopacy was finallj^ abolished at the period of the revolution,
1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500. —
Burnet.
EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States. Episcopacy established in New-
York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of
the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn-
sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London, 1787. First
Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and
Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832.
EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro-
mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng-
land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the
epigram. — Boileau.
EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial
complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho-
ru,s from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. —
Bossuet.
EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknow-
ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to
regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu-
larly adopted. — See Eras.
Creation - - • - b. c. 4004
Deluge ..... 2348
Calling of Abraham • • - 1921
Argonautic expedition - • - 1225
Destruction of Troy - - 1184
Isl Olympiad - - - - 776
EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places
and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d, 130. When
the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle,
the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ;
once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next in
the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair.
EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity
and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067. — See Ckan-
eery.
ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order ,
a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after \vhich
14
Building of Rome •
- B. c. 753
Nabonassar
. 747
The Seleucidae
- 312
The battle of Actium •
- 38
The Christian era -
A.D. 1
Diocletian
- 284
314 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. | EMB
the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb
26, 747. The era of the Seleucidee (used by the Maccabees) commenced
312 E. c. The Olympiads belong- to the Grecians, and date from the year
776 B. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning
A. D. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro-
mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards
from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted
among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci-
ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from
Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622.
ERAS OF THE CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christians
have had divers epochas ; but in historical compufation of time are chiefly
used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the
"World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Christians havo
made their era. Tiiey did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century,
when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot
of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the
birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. —
CassLodorus Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng-
land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in
this work. — See Creation, and Christian Era.
ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most
magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ;
and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms
a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some
notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according
to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than
four days to go througli all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way
being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English
miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and
11,000 windows belonging to this edifice.
ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to,
or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires
by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a
pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the
armigeruvi, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire
was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a. d. 1345.
— Stowe. Meyrick's Ancieiit Armor.
ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis-
covered by Kunkel, in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the
chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by
count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by
Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said
to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by
Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for
about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist
and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, olf
Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi-
ment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain.
It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren. Channing,
and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi-
ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin-
burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether la
inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first
iised in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance
eve] dictionary of dates. 315
called chloroform, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first
employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh.
ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely
more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and
government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with
astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in
the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand yeara
before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not
only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments.
FTNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called
by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus
Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions
as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 b. c. There were e-uptions, 125, 121, and 43
B. c. — Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carrera. One in 1012. —
Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000
inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions eaually awful
and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669; when tens
of thousands of persons perished in the streams oif lava which rolled over
the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and
in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava
reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte
destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832.
EUCLID, Elements of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished
there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu-
able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who
reduced them to regular order, and who probablj^ interwove many theo-
rems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of
geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynaeus,
iuA. D. 1533.
EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian
and Assyrian nations ; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in
courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham-
ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 b. c. — Leng-
let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on
the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey.
EUSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken
by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British
forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It
was recovered by th€ French under the marquis de Bouill^, Nov. 26, same
year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re-
stored in 1814.
EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke in
55 ; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil
at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of
Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100,
— Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of
the adopted Evangelists.
EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated,
and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one
period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who
did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, " Do not
316 THE world's progress.
EXE
kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory brok«
up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 1265'.
EXCHANGE. One called CoUegiuvi Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 b. c.
The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind
in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag-
nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham,
June 7. 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in
Ja^. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1 S44.
EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site
of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and
finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston,
also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846.
EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting vjf officers whose
functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the
first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the
barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of Lon-
don, in the reign of Henry HL, aboiit 1221. The exchequer stopped pay-
ment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles H. X^l^.—Stowe. The English
and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816.
EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long I'ailia-
meut ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized
as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an
office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions
to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was
built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and
customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782
See Revenue.
AMOUNT OP THE EXCISE REVENUE OP GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS,
1744 Great Britain - - £3,754,072 l 1830 United Kinsdom - jei8,644,385
1786 Ditto - - - 5,540,114 1834 Ditto " - . 16,877,292
1808 Ditto - - - 19,867,914 1837 Ditto - - - 14,518,142
1820 Ditto - - - 26,-364,702 1840 Ditto • - - 12,607,766
1827 United Kingdom - - 20,995,324 | 1845 Ditto - - - 13,585,583
EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris-
tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of
the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en-
gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to
be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the
Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian
churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar
punishments in aid of their respective religions. — Phillips.
EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni-
cates by bell, book, and candle. — See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes
have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose
sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant
power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, ab-
solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death,
" his exconimunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to
bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign ;
and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208. when all
England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were
excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to
queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary inrhil-
gences were offered to all who should assist in deposing her. •
EXECUIIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. ("thirty-eight yean;)
EXP J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
317
it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed.—
Sbowe. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng-
land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the numbel
of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820,
the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years
ending 1830. they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840,
they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns.
EXECUTIOKS IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS.
In the year 1820 - 43 I In the year 1&35 - nil l In the year 1838 -nil I In the year 1841 - 1
In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1836 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 In the year 1842 - 8
In the year 1830 - 6 j In the year 1837 - 2 | In the year 1840 - 1 | In the year 1843 - 1
EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of
war; Peacock, ditto; Porpoise, brig; Relief Flying Fish, and Sea Gull,
smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads,
Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At-
tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The
Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes
(flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years,
June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp.
8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex-
pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes.
EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS of the United States from 1791.
Years. Imports. Exports. Years. Imports. Exports.
1791 - $52,200,000 • $19,012,041 1820 - 74,450.000 - 69,691.669
1792 - 31,500,000 - 20,7-53,098 1821 - 62,585,724 - 64,974;3S2
1793 - 31,100,000 - 26,109,572 1822 - • 83,241,541 - 72,160.281
1794 - 34,600,000 . 33,026.233 1823 - 77.579,267 - 74,699,030
1795 - 69,756,268 - 47,989,472 1824 - 80,-549,007 - 75,986,657
1796 . 81,4.36,164 - 67.064.097 182.5 - 96,340,075 - 99,535,388
1797 - 75,379,406 - 56,850,206 1826 - 84,974,477 - 77,595,322
1793 - 68,-551,700 - 61,527,097 1827 - 79,484,068 - 82,324,827
1799 - 79.'«8,148 - 78,665,522 1828 - 88,509,824 ■ 72,264,686
1800 . 9i;252,768 - 70,971.780 1829 - 74,492,527 - 72,-3.58,671
1801 - 111,363,511 - 94.115,925 1830 - 70.876,920 - 73,849,508
1802 - 76,333,333 - 72,483,160 1831 - 103,191,134 - 81,310,583
1803 - 64,666,666 - 55,800,033 18-32 . 101,029,266 - 87,176,943
1804 - a5,000,000 - 77,699,074 18-33 - 108.118,311 - 90,140,433
1805 - 120,000,000 - 95,566,021 18:34 - 126,-521, a32 - 104,336,973
1806 - 129.000,000 - 101,536,963 1835 - 149,895,742 - 121,693,577
}807 - 138,500,000 - 108,343,150 1836 - 189,980,035 • 128,663,040
1808 - 56,990,000 - 22,439.960 1837 - 140,989,217 - 117,419,376
1809 - 59,400,000 - 52,203.231 1838 - • 108,486,616 - 113,717,404
1810 - 85,400,000 - 66,757;974 1839 ■ 121,028,416 - 162,092,132
1811 . 53,400,000 - 61,316,831 1840 - 131.571,950 - 104,805,891
1812 • 77,030,000 • 38,527,236 - 1841 - 127,946,177 - 121,851,803
1813 - 22,005,000 - 27,855,997 1842 - 100,162,087 - 104,691,534
1814 - 12,965,000 - 6,927,441 1843 - 64,753,799* - 84,346,480*
1815 - 113,041,274 - 52,557,753 1844 - 108,435,035t - 111,200 046t
1816 . 147,103,000 - 81,920,452 1845 - 117,254,564t • 114,646,6061
1817 - 99,250,000 - 87,671,569 1846 - 121,691,797t - 113,48f>5l6t
1818 - 121,750,000 - 93,281,133 1847 - 146.545,6381 - 158,64^ ,622t
1819 - 87,125,000 - 70,142,521 1848 - 154;977,876t • 154,032,1311
EXPORTS, Great Britain. Edward III., by his encouragement of trade,
turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance
of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to 294,000*.,
and the imported to only 38,000Z.
VALUE OP EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD, VIZ : —
In 1700 -
- JE6,097,120
In 1820 -
-£51,733,113
In 1842 -
..£102,180,517
In 1750
- 10,130,991
In 1830
. . 66,735,445
In 1843
. . 100,260,101
In 1775 -
- 16,326,363
In 1835 -
- 78,376,732
In 1&44 -
- 117,877,278
In 1800
- 38,120,120
In 1840
• - 97,402,726
In 1845
- - 131,564,503
In 1810 -
- 45,869,839
In 1841 -
- 102,705,372
In 1846 -
- 134,509,11«
* Only nine montlis of 1843.
t For the year ending June 30.
318 THE world's progress. [pal
The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom
of British and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and
colonial produce, Avere, according to official returns, as follows :
In 1811 . -£116,479,678 I In 1843 - -jEl 13,844,259 I In 1845 - - JE145,961,749
In 1842 - • 116,903,668 | In 1844 - • 131,833,391 | In 1846 . - 150,879,986
In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the
United Kingdom was 85,281, 958Z; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng-
land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65.598,028Z. But even this
great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year
immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. —
Brit. Revenue Returns.
EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most
bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com-
manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were
so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians
on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss
in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807.
F.
FABIL A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from
faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they
were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and
were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war against
the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in
which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There
only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from
him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages.
FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful
as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam.
xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east-
ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma,
called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world.
— Sir William Jones. The well-known ^sop's fables (which see), were
written about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch.
FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha-
riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors,
a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, one in
coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90 Both
the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti-
cular color than the rest ; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign,
between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, the
name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in
religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense.
FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in
England by Alfred, a, d. 88Q.—Spelman. They were established by order of
Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Ferice, at which the monks celebrated tho
festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de-
mand for goods, wares. &c. They were called wakes from the people making
merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng-
land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the
first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, and
Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe.
FALKIRK, Battle of, between the English under Edward I. and the Scots
commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were slain
and vermin - - - a. d. 1315
One in England and France (Rapin) ■ 1353
Again, one so great, that bread was
made from fern roots (Stowe) - 1438
Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 1693
One general in Great Britain - « 1748
One which devastates Bengal - - 1771
At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per-
sons perish .... 1775
One grievously felt in France - - 1789
One severely felt in England - - 1795
Again, throughout the kingdom - - 1801
At Drontheim, owing to Sweden nter-
cepiing the supplies - - . 1813
Scarcity of food, severely felt by the
Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6
rVUl DICTIONARY OF DATES. 319
the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased oflf the field with
dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298.
FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of
the seven years in Egypt began 1708 b. c. — Usher ; Blair. In a famine that
raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber,
436 B. c. Livy.
Awful famine in Egypt - a. d. 42 | voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats,
At Rome, attended by plague • - 262
In Britain, so grievous that people ate
the bark of trees • - - 272
In Scotland, and thousands die - • 306
In England, where 40,000 perish - 310
Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370
So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate
their children {Dufresnoy) - - 450
In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739
Again, when thousands starve - - 823
Again, which lasts four years - • 954
Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016
In England and France; this famine
leads to a pestilential fever, which
lasts from 1193 to - - - 1195
Another famine in England - - 1251
Again, so dreadful, that the people de-
FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients : Cape hoc flabellum et
ventulumhuicsicfacito. — Tkrence. The modern custom among the ladies
was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muflfe, masks, and false
hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England
from France. — Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in
church. — Pardon.
FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows
which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street.
These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined
form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called
comedies. See article Drama.
FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations
from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other
stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church,
to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. Retained as
a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by
Moses in the wilderness, 1490 b. c, but was celebrated with the greatest
magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo-
mon, 1005 B. c. — Josephus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas,
Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be
observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469.
Jubilees in the Romish chuTch were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300.
See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set-
tled at the Reformation, et seq., see Book of Common Prayer.
FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa, a feast
which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when
sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the
dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre-
viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year.
FERRARA, A city in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, ex-
cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847.
FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner
of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a. d. 600, Tlie
32C THE world's progress. [ FIB
slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 10G8. Tliis waa
done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain
persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num-
ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XL
in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol-
ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into
Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom
20 George II. 1746. — Littleton; Rwffkead; Blackstone.
FEUILLANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues
and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where
their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins
invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate,
Dec. 25, 1791.
FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about
A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western M^ rocco
States. Leo African us describes the Mauritani as containing more than
seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth
century.
FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means
of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became
checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield,
in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, that " no fiction op law
SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO
PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional
maxim is now a rule of law,
FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert
I., A. D. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain,
before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons
(see Feudal Lav)s). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008.
FIELD OF THE CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet
Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31,
1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with
such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview
(an open plain) the name of The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the
king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and
were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain
splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the
interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler.
FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of
Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at
hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal
monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jep us Christ king at London !
Cromwell dispersed them, 1653.
FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of
computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900,
They were first known in England about the year 1253. previously to which
time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic.
FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together, Th6
poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster,
king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of
Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun-
tries of the East, 2ll5 b. c. — Justin ; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the
world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and
fir] dictionary of dates. 32 i
taught this theory about 506 b. c. — Nouv. Diet. In the Scriptures God is
said often to liave appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the
burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St,
John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels,
as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible.
FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were
brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire-
land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the
carl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at
the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who
armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the
Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the
Genoese, in 1377 ; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the
battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See
ArLUlery.
FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although ftie forcing
])ump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The
fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about
the year 1663 ; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the
present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November
1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833.
FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most
formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to
destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of
them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after-
wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement
with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapin.
t'IRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages :
they were invented in Europe at Florence, about a. d. 1360 ; and were first
exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris,
in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas-
sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with
a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected
over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than
1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard
ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by
fire- works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and
dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon.
FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America.
New York, destroying 302 stores and
dwelIing-hou.ses, and property worth
$6,000,000—4 lives lost - July 19, 1845
St. John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the
whole town destroyed— 6,000 people
made houseless - - June 12, 1846
In New York, destroying 600 warehou-
ses and rroperty to amount of $20,-
000,000 - - - Dec. 16, 1835
At Washington, destroying the General
Post Office and Patent Office, with
10,000 valuable models, drawings,
&c. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons
At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and ! burned to death - - June 14, 1846
1,158 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1838 Nantucket; 300 buildings, valued
N'ew York ; 46 buildings ; loss, $10,
000,000 - - - Sept. 6, 1839
Philadelphia ; 52 buildings ; loss,
$500,000 - - - Oct. 4, 1839
Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and
property valued about $6,000,000
' April 10, 1845
Quebec, Canada : 1,500 houses burnt,
immense loss of property, and se-
veial lives, May 28, 1845. Another,
burnmf 1,300 dwellings; in all, two
$800,000 - - - July 13, 1846
Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded,
18 persons killed - April 14, 1847
At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides
steamboats &c., 24 acres burned over,
loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17, ..849
At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, valuej
$750,000 - - - Sept. 9, 1848
At St Louis ; 23 steamboats and 1.5
blocks of houses destroyed, loss about
$3,000,000 - - ■ May 17, 1849
thi'ds of the city - June 28, 1S45 At Philadelphia, 300 houses July t>, 1850
11--
32V THE world's progress. [pto
FIRE or LONDON, the GREAT. Destroyed in the space of four <Iays eighty-
nine churches, including St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Roj'al Exchange, the
Custom House. Guildhall. Sion College, and many other public buildings,
besides 13 20U houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened
(not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three
days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of
houses. — Hume; Rapiii; Carte.
FIRST FRUITS. PrimUicB among the Hebrews. They were offerings which
made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits
were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306; and were collected in
England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng-
land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the
first fiuits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes-
sors.— Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of
the poor clergy by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of
First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., \pril
1838.
FLAGELLANTS, Sect of. They established themselves at Perouse, a. d.
1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel-
lation, and publicly lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by the
cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad
Schmidt, was burnt. 1414.
FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgas; conquered by Julius Caesar,
47 B. c. It ])assed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by
its earls subject to that croAvn, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the
house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders
sliook off the Spanish yoke in 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it
Mas annexed to the German empire. — Fricsiley. Flanders was overrun by
the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. It
was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected
into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831. — See Belgium.
FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many
ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand.
A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the
flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750.
See article Hemf.
FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of, between the English and Scots. James IV. of
Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII.
of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy ;
and .Tames, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10.000 of his army
were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry,
lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging
Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept. 9, 1513.
FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla, and en-
larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re-
built by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal-
aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found the
rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine acad-
emy, and the Accademia della Crvsca. were instituted to enrich the literature
and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it
rejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by tho
French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799 ; and was restored in 1814.
FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot
sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven-
FLO ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
323
lurer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 153y_
Hernando de Soto, wlio had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the penin-
sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few yeava
after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for
Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United
States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the
Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another
protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until
1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The
Seminole chief Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34,723 ;
in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves.
FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines, A Jloren was issued by Ed-
ward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337. — Cam-
den. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because
the latter was of the best gold. — Aske. The florin :f Germany is in value
2s. 4d. ; that of Spain 4s. A^d. ; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6d. ; that of
Holland 2s. — Ayliffe.
FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our
gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is
said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for
the first time in the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of
our gardens were conveyed by that channel. — Beckmann. With what good-
ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even
the most remote countries contribute towards them ! — Sturm. From the
reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were,
for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers
in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects
of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented
in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of
whose introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the
following : —
FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C.
Acacia, N. America, before - a
Allspice shrub, Carolina
Anniseed tree, Florida, about -
Arbor Vitae, Canada, before
Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope
Auricula, Switzerland
Azaroie, S. Europe, before
Bay, royal, Madeira
Bay, sweet. Italy, before
Camellia, China
Chaste tree, Sicily, before
Christ's thorn, Africa, before
Canary bell-flower. Canaries -
Carnation, Flanders
Ceanothus, blue. New Spain -
Canary convolvulus, Canaries
Convolvulus, many-flowered -
Coral tree. Cape
Cora] tree, bell-flowered, Cape
Coral tree, tremulous. Cape
Creeper, Virginian, N. America
Dahlia, China
Dryandra, New Holland
Evergreen thorn, Italy
Everlasting, great-flowered, Cape
Everlasting, giant, Cape -
Fernbush, sweet, N. America -
Fox-glove, Canaries
Geranium, Flanders
Gillyflower, Flanders
164U
I72«
1766
1596
1774
1.567
1640
1665
1548
1811
1570
1.596
1696
1567
1818
1690
1779
1816
1791
1789
1603
1803
1803
1629
1781
1793
1714
1698
1534
1567
Gold-plant, Japan
Golden bell-flower, Madeira
Hawthorn, American, from N. Amer
ica, before
Heath, ardent, Cape
Heath, beautiful, Cape
Heath, fragrant, Cape -
Heath, garland. Cape
Heath, perfumed. Cape
Honeyflower, great, Cape -
Honeysuckle, Chinese, China
Honeysuckle, fly. Cape
Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America
Hyssop, south of Europe, before -
Jasmine, Circassia, before
Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies -
Judas-tree, south of Europe, before
Laburnum, Hungary
Laurel. Alexandrian, Portugal, before
Laurestine, south of Europe, before
Lavender, south of Europe, before
Lily, Italy, before -
Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales
Lily, red-colored. South America -
Loblolly-bay, N. America, before
Lupine tree. Cape, about -
Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. Ameri<:
Magnolia, dwarf, China
Masnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America
Mafden-hair. Japan -
Mignionette, Italy
1783
1777
1683
1800
1795
1803
1774
1803
1688
1806
1752
1656
1548
1548
1629
1596
1576
1713
1596
1568
1460
1800
1623
1739
1793
1688
1786
1734
1714
1528
324
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[pon
FLOWERS, continued.
Milk-wort, great-flowered, Cape
Milk-wort, showy. Cape
Mountain tea, N. America, before
Mock orange, south of Europe, before
Myrtle, candleberry, N. America -
Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China -
Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before
Olive, Cape, Cape
Olive, sweet-scented, China
Oleander, red, south of Europe
Paraguay tea, Carolina, before
Passion-flower, Brazil -
Passion-flower, orange, Carolina
Pigeon-berry, N. America
Pink, from Italy
Ranunculus, Alps
Roses, Netherlands -
• Rose, the China, China
Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and
south of Europe, about
Rose, the Japan, China
Rose, the moss, before -
Rose, the musk, Italy
Rose, the Provence, Flanders
Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from
China - . - - -
1713
1814
1758
159G
1G99
1776
1596
1730
1771
1596
1724
1692
1792
1736
1567
1528
1522
1789
1543
1793
1724
1522
1567
1821
Rose, tube, from Java and Coylon - 1629
Rose without thorns, N. America, be-
fore 1726
Rosemary, south of Europe - -1548
St. Peter's wort. North America - • 1730
Sage, African, Cape - - - 1731
Sage, Mexican, Mexico - - • 1724
Sassafras tree, N. America, before - 1663
Savin, south of Eui'ope, before - -1584
Snowdrop, Carolina - - - 1756
Sorrel tree, N. America, before ■ - 1752
Sweet bay, south of Europe, before - 1548
Tamarisk plant, Germany - - - 1560
Tea tree, China, about - - • 1768
Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - - 1739
Trumpet-flower, N. America - - 1640
Trumpet-flower, Cape - • - 1823
Tulip, Vienna .... 1578
Virginia creeper, N. America, before 1629
Virgin's-bower, Japan - - - 1776
Weeping willow, Levant, before - • 1692
Wax tree, China - - - 1794
Winter berry, Virginia - ■ - 1736
Youlan, China .... 1789
FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. — Plutarch.
The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans ;
and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay
claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru-
ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Co-
relli came over. — See Mus-ic.
FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leib-
nitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler,
La Grange, and La Place.
FLYING. Artificial. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon main-
tained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general prac-
tice, A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a man
call for his wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him
call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away i>re-
viously to the accomplishment of these predictions.
FONTAINEBLEAU. Peace of, concluded between France and Denmark in
1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and
Holland, signed November 8, 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Na-
poleon and the royal family of Spain. Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fon-
tainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fon-
tainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here
Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army,
April 5, 1814.
FONTENOY, Battle op, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe,
and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the
duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the
carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and
the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end
defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which
he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring
his troops that the day would be their own ; April 30, 1745.
FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned off" in
a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early
POU J DICTIONARY OF DaTES. '62h
ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reser
voirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initia-
tion into Christianity were instituted in a. d. 167.
FOOLS, Festivals of, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and
were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of
absurdities and indecencies were committed, a. d. 1198. Fools or licensed
jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Eu-
ro)>e), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625.
FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 68
forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp-
shire Avas made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes,
pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round,
A. D. 1019-8^.— Stowe.
FORGERY IN England. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c.,
made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut
off. the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual
imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth. 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in
1634.
FORGERY, Remarkable Executions for. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro-
bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan-
uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in
the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4,200Z. : the greatest interest was made,
and the highest influence was exerted to save him, but when the case came
before the council, the minister of the day said to George III, "if your
majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he
was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London
banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer-
chant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for
forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829.
FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. —
Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory-
son's Iti7ierary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he
cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his
hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner ot
using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate
the Palian fashion since I came home to England," a. d. 1608.
FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified
cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues
v/ere afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about
A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve-
ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700.
FO THERINGAY CASTLE Northamptonshire. Built a. d. 1408. Here Richard
III. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death
is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded
in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8,
1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in Eng-
land. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England.
FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. Even in ancient times the state made provision
for the preservation of exposed children ; but foundling hospitals ai-e a
modern institution. That of Paris was established in 1640, and up to 1807
had received 464,628 children. In France, the number of foundlings in
1784, was 40,000- in 1798, over 51,000; in 1822, 138,500. The increase
in Europe during the last fifty years has been very great. In England
these hospitals are of comparatively recent date. Catherine H. built a
mostly one near Moscow, where 8000 infants were succored.
326
THE world's progress.
[trj
FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul, in
the decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Ger-
many, then inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave
the name to the kingdom ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous,
are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution,
France was divided into 32 i)rovinces ; and after that era it was divided,
first into Si. and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica
Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Views, 65 et seq.
The Franks, under their leader Phara-
mond, settle in that part of Gaul till
late called Flanders - - a. D. 420
Reign of Clovis the Great - - 481
[The Events in I'rench History and the
succession of sovereigns will be found
in the Tabular Views in this volume,
commencing p. 65.]
720. Childtric II.
737. Charles Martel ruled with despotic
sway during an interregnum.
742. Childeric III., the Stupid ; turned
monk.
THE CARLOVINGIANS.
752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar-
tel ; this race called Carlovingians.
768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great;
also emperor of Germany.
914. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also,
the Debonniire ; dethroned, and im-
prisoned in a monastery.
840. Charles 11., surnamed the Bald; poi-
soned by his physician Henault.
877. Louis the" Stammerer.
879. Carloman and Louis III. The latter
died, 882. Carloman reigned alone.
884. Charles the Fat ; an usurper.
887. Eudes or Hugh.
898. Chanes III., the Simple ; deposed and
died in prison.
923. Rudolph.
936 Louis IV., d'Outremer; died by a fall
from his horse.
954. Lothaire III. poisoned; it is said b)
his wife Emma.
986. Louis V. the Indolent ; poisoned by
his wife Blanche, and in him ended
the -ice of Charlemagne.
THE CAPETS.
987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of
kings are called Capevingians.
996. Robert the Sage.
1031. Henry I.
1060. Philip I., the Fair.
1108. Louis VI., the Lusty.
1137. Louis VII., the Young.
1180. Philip II., Augustus.
1223. Louis VIII., the Lion.
1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis ; died in
his camp before Tunis ; canonized.
1270. Philip 111., the Hardy.
1285. Philip IV., the Handsome.
1314. Louis X., Hutin.
1316. .John, who reigned only eight days.
1316. Philip v., the Long.
1323. Charles IV., the Handsome; king of
Navarre.
HOUSE OF VALOI&
1323. Philip de Valois.
1350. John II. ; died suddenly in the Savuj
in London.
1364. Charles V., surnamed the Wise; ilia
first prince who had the title of dau-
phin. (See article Dauphin.)
1380. Charles VI., the Beloved.
1422. Charles Vll., the Vict.jious.
1461. Louis XL, detested for his atrocious
cruGllics
1483. Charles VIII., the Affable.
1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed
the Father of his People.
1515. Francis I.
1547. Henry 11. : died of a wound receivea
at a tourriament.
1559. Francis II. ; married Mary Stuart.
afterwards queen of Scots ; died
the year after his accession.
1560. Charles IX. Catluerine of Medicis,hia
mother, obtained the regency, which
trust she abused.
1574. Henry III., elected king of Poland;
murdered Aug. 1, 1589, by Jacques
X Clement, a Dominican friar. In this
1 A prince was extinguished the hous*
'' v'iJ'i'. yo^Vaiois^u-
1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon,
king of Navarre ; murdered by Fran-
cis Ravillac. (See Ravillac.)
1610. Louis Xlll., the Just.
1643. Louis XIV., the Great, aiso styled
Dieu-Donne.
1715. Louis XV., the VS^ell-Beloved ; bu*,
which surname he lost.
1774 Louis XVI., his grandson ; guillo-
tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen
Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following.
1789. The Revolution commences with the
destruction of the Bastile, July 14.
1795. Louis XVIL, dies in prison.
FRENCH EMPIRE.
1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe-
ror, May 18, 1804 ; crowned by the
pope, Dec. 2, following ; assumes
the iron crown. May 26, 1805. Re-
nounces the thrones of France and
Italy, Apr. 5, 1814.
BOURBONS RESTORED.
1814. Louis XVllI. ; ascends the thron»»
May 3. 1814 ; dies, Sept. 16. 1824.
1824. Charles X. ; deposed, July 30, ia30;
retires to Rambouillet same day,
and subsequently seeks protection
in England.
HOUSE OF ORLEANS.
1830. Louis- Philippe ; declar.-^d " king ol
the French," August 9.
FRE ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 32?
FRx^NCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and an«
ciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure In Spain,
churches and monasteries were, until latel}^ franchises for criminals, as thej
were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for coun-
ties on persons having 4.0s. a year in land, 39 Henry "Vl., 1460. — Riiff head's
Statutes. See Electors.
FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church
of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in a.d. 1209, or, according to some
authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and
very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared in
England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIII.,
they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, a. d. 1536-38,
FRANKFORT on the Main. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken
several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the
iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guar-
anteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was
established here by the Rhenish confederation in 1806.
FKEDERICKSHALL, Siege of. Rendered memorable ley the death of
Charles XII., of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls,
and while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works.
He was found in that position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayer-
book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generally supposed that a pis-
tol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this cele-
brated monarch, who was too aptly styled the " Madman of the North."
FREEMASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves
masons, affirm that it has had a being " ever since symmetry began, and
harmony displayed her charms." Masonry is traced by some to the build-
ing of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African coast,
Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protec-
tion against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been
fixed at the year a. d. 674; although by other authorities it is assigned .a
much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded a. d. 926. Free-
masonry was interdicted in England, a. d. 1424 ; but it afterwards rose into
great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that
of Ireland was established in 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freema-
sons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738.
FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French
laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066.
The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in Eng-
land. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of
Edward III.. lSQ2.—Stowe.
FRENCHTOWN, Canada. This town was taken from the British by the
American general, Winchester, January 22 1813. It was retaken by the
British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the Ameri-
can commander and his troops were made prisoners.
FRENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and Eng-
land, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689. The
French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco. Me.. &c., 1690 ; but were defeated
by Schuyler at La Prairie. 1691. Peace of Ryswyck. 1697. " Queen Anne's
war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine 1703. French and Spanish
invade Carolina. 1706. Expedition from New Eng.and against the French
in Port Royal, 1707 ; and against Canada, 1710 ; both failed. Peace of
XJlrecht. 1713. Another war declared by England. 1744; Louisbourg and
Cape Breton taken by English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. Frencl) en-
328 THE world's PROGRESJ?. I FRO
croachinent on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3
Washington's mission, 1751:. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &c. taken
hy French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Louisbourg taken by the Eng-
lish general Amherst, and fort Du Qaesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticon-
deroga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W.
Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain,
Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of Paris, 1763.
French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6,
1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the
United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1707.
FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week; so called from Friga. a goddess wor-
shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same
with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility,
and riches, Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of
our Sa-viour's crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday.
FRIEDLAND, Battle of, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on
the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who com-
pletely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and
50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by whicl
Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half hei
dominions.
FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands were discovered by Tasman, .*. d. 1642,
Visited by VVallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by capt. Cook,
who called them by their present name on account of the friendly disposi-
tion of the natives, 1773.
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, England. These useful institutions originated in
the clubs of the industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into
importance they have been regulated and protected by various legislative
enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than
twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly
Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829. See Charities.
FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince
Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Han-
over disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Hol-
land by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but
Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux de Fri&e (some-
times, though rarely, written Cheval de Prise, a Friesland Horse) is derived
from Friesland, where it was invented.
FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Eng-
lishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576.
After exploring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which
has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England,
bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain
gold, and which induced queen Ehzabeth to patronize a second voyage, and
lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up to a
third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless.
t'ROSTS The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, a. d. 401.— Univ. Hist.
A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued
until February of the next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred
miles from the shore. — Univ. Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day
was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth, 1035. — Speed. The
frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that
country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the
French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorable
rUN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 329
year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the
frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses
fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the eifects
of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year
more than 400,000 men.
FRUITS OP FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are mentioned
as having been introduced into Italy, 70 b. c. et seq. Exotic fruits and
flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought
thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII., and of Mary and Elizabeth;
between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, and Flowers. Among
others of less note, were musk-melons, plum-trees, and currant-plants of sun-
dry sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips, &c. ; also saffron, woad, and
other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated with-
out success.— Hackluyt ; Lord Kaimes. The following are among the fruits
whose introduction into England has been traced : —
FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North Ame-
Almond-tree, Barbary - - a. d. 1548 rica, before - • - a. d. 1629
Apples, Syria - - - -1522 Mulberry, the paper, from .U pan, before 1754
Apple, the custard, North AmericB - 1736 Nectarine, Persia - • - - 1562
Apple, the Osage, ditto - - 1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - - - 1730
Apricots, Epirus - - • - 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, ChiHa - 1771
Cherry-trees, Pontus - - - 100 Oranges - - - - - 1595
Cornelian cherry, Austria - • - 1596 Peaches, Persia ... - 1562
Currants, Zante .... 1533 Pears, from various climes - - * * *
Currant, the havrthora, Canada - 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - - 1568
Fig-tree, south of Europe, before - 1548 Pippins, Netherlands - - - 1525
Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales 1789 Plums, Italy - - - -1522
Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 ; Plum, the d^ate, Barbary - - - 1596
Grapes, Portugal - - - 1528 Pomegranate, Spain, before - - 1548
Lemons. Spain - • - - 1554 Quince, Austria - - - - 1573
Limes, Portugal .... 1554 Quince, the Japan - - - 1796
Lime, the American, before - - 1752 Raspberiy, the flowering, N. America - 1700
Melons, before - - - -1540 Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before- 1696
Mock orange, south of Europe, before- 1596 : Strawberry, Flanders . . .1530
Mulberry, Italy - - - - 1520 • Strawberry, the Oriental Levant - 1724
M ilberry, white, China, about - - 1596 Walnut, the black, N. America, before 162^
FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in
A. D. 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in
1340. The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies
for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues
(the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689. — My-
timer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of
the Bank of England. — Anderson. The Three per cent, annuities were crea-
ted in 1726. The Three per cent, consols were created in 1731. The Three
per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea-
house. 1751. Three and a-half ^er cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annui-
ties. 1761. Four per cent, consols, 1762. Five per cent, annuities, 1797, and
1802. Five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt.
FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks
they were chiefly horse races; and among the Romans, processions and tne
mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were
abolished by the emperor Claudius, a. d. 47. Funeral orations have a hea-
then origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 b. c. They were in-
dispensable among the Romans ; the custom of led horses took place a. d
1268. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793.
FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead,
when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtain-
ed a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus. 353 b. c. Po-
pilia was the first Roman ladjMvho had an oration pronounced at her funera]
330 THE world's progress. [ G^n
which was done by her son Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Juliu*
Ctesar did the lilve for his aunt JuHa, and his wife Corneha. In Greece,
Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodo-
tus, 580 B. c.
FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs : in later times, as lux-
ury advanced, they were used by princes as hnings for their tents. They
were worn by our first Henry, about a. d. 1125. Edward III. enacted that
all such persons as could not spend lOOZ. a year, should be prohibited fhia
species of finery, 1337.
G.
GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-remes, were
invented by the Corinthians, 786 b. c. — Blair. They were built at Athens,
786 B. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting
in them, see Polybius.
GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent; it was first noticed in 1767, by
Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani. wife of Dr. Galvani
of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals; and
from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Galvani
having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the
contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenon : and
in 1791. Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject.
Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many cu-
rious facts observed, which have excited much attention among philosophers.
See Elccl.ro- Galvanism.' Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles
of galvanic electricity by Volta. presented him with a gold medal, and 3000
livres, in 1808. — Phillips. See Mesmerism.
GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the
north of Euro))e, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by
William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of
property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar.
Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters: and they protested against
ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in
1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Nume-
rous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time.
GAMING, Excessive. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was
often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. —
Camden ; Sluive. Act. prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting
tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c.. to inferior people, except at Christmas time),
33 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were hcensed in London in 1620. Act
to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and
the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George 11. 1739.
— Ruff/lead's Statutes. The profits of a well-known gaming house in London
for one season have been estimated at 150 OOOZ. In one night a million of
money is said to have changed hands at this place. — Leigh.
G' AMES. Those of Greece and Rome Avill be found under their respective
heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted ou
new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The
game.s were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See
the Capitaline, Isthmian., O'ljmpic. PijtMan. Secular, and other Gomes.
fcJ-ARDENING. Gardening was on of th>' first arts that succeeded the art of
building houses. — Walpolc. NoaJi planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine.
Of fruit, fiower, and kitche i gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doubt.
'JAR J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
331
the protuiype. — Idem. There wants nothing but the embroidery of a par-
terre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one
in that of our William III.— Idem.. The art of gardening became better
understood in England about a. d 1500, before which time many of out
vegetables were iruported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign
of Elizabeth ; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about
1700. The following came from the countries respectively named : —
ROOTS AND VEGETABLES.
Carrots
Brocoli -
- Flanders
- Cyprus
Plums -
Oranges •
Damascu
Spain
Rice, from
- Ethiopia
Beans -
- Greece
Lemons
Spain
Buckwheat •
- Asia
Peas -
- Spain
Pink
Italy
Borage ■
- Syria
Provence-rooe
. Marseille
Cresses
- Crete
FRUITS AND FLOWERS.
Convolvulus
Canaries
Cauliflowir
- Cyprus
- Asia
Arctopus
Beil-fovver
Cape
Asparagus -
Jasmine
- Circassia
Canaries
Lettuce -
- Brabant
Elder-tree
- Persia
Cherr.os
Pontus
Artichokes -
. Holland
Tulip -
- Cappadocia
Figs - -
Italy
Garlic
• The East
Daffodil -
- Italy
Date-plum -
Barbary
Shallots
- Siberia
Lily -
Syria
Mulberry -
Italy
Horse-radish
- China
Tuberose •
Java, &c.
Nectarine -
Persia
Kidney-bcaas
• East Indies
Carnation •
Italy, &c.
Passion-flower
Brazil
Gourds -
- Astracan
Ranunculus
Alps
Pomegranate
Spain
Lentils -
- France
Apples
• Syria
Rosemary
Italy
Chervil -
- Italy
Apricots -
- Epirus
Laburnum -
Hungary
Celery -
- Flanders
Currants
- Zante
Laurel
liOvant
Potatoes -
- Brazil
Damask-rose
- Damascus
Lavender •
Italy
Tobacco
- America
Hops -
- Artois
Peaches -
Persia
Cabbage -
- Holland
Gooseberries
- Flanders
Quiiice
Austria
Anise -
- Egypt
Gilly-flowers
- Toulouse
Weep. Willow Levant
Parsley -
■ Egypt
Musk-rose
- Dainascus
Fennel -
Canaries
Musk-melons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and
the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c
were brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damask-
rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about
1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead,
in Sussex. 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in Eng-
land in 1533, brought from the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several
sorts of plums were brought from Italj" by lord Cromwell. Apricots came
from Epirus. 1540. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by
archbishop GrindaL about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted
flowers unknown in England, as gilly-flowers. carnations, the Provence rose,
&c., 1567. Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots
from Vienna. 1578 ; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use,
1600. See Mowers; Fruits.
C ARTER, Order of the. This institution outvies all other similar institu-
tions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France
and Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward,
with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of Ij'.s
mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and
thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed
a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to
the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344. pubhshed ro3^al
letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign
knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tour-
naments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor ■, it
was begun by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet dia-
meter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were
entertained at the king's own expense of 100^. a week. In 1346, Edward
gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned with suc-
cess (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and
having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner ; and Edward the Black Prince.
3b2 THE world's progress. [ GEI?
his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful so-
vereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order,
A. D. April 23, 1349-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the
ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the in-
scription in old French — " Honi soil qui mal y pense " — evil to him who evil
thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled
Eqnite& aurece Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. — Beatson.
GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr.
Clayton, in 1739. — P/iil. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illumi-
nation was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first dis-
play of gas-lights was made at Boultonand Watt's foundry, in Birmingham,
on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently
used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips
and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805, Gas-lights
were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16, 1807. They
were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London
in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there ge-
nerally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London ex-
tend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States)
first lighted with gas, 1823-4.
GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first
printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because
una gazelta, a small piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it.
Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer. —
Truder. A gazette Avas printed in France in 1631 ; and one in Germany in
nib.— Nouv. Diet. Hist.
GAZETTE. THE LONDON. See Newspapers. The first English gazette was pub-
lished at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov.
7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed
to the London Gazette., Feb. 5. 1666. London Gazettes Extraordinary are
used for the publication of extraordinary official news. One of these latter
was forged with a view of affecting the funds. May 22, 1787. The fraud
succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. — Phillips. The
Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767.
GENERAL ASSEMBLY of SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the
church was held December 20, 1560. The General Assembly constitutes
the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin-
burgh in May. and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commis-
sioner, ap})ointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates
from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen.
To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its
decision is final. See Church of Scotland.
VirENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote
times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the
title of General of the French armies, a. d. 1203. — Renault. It is observed
by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissiw.o^
upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in
1629.
GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The Repub-
lic was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584.
Memorable insurrection here, February 1781 : about 1000 Genevans, in
consequence of it. applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieiitenant of Ire-
land, for permission to settle in that country: the Irish parliament voted
60 nnoz. to defray the expenses of their journey, and to purchase them
lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives came tc
GEO J DICTIOXARy OF DATES. 3b3
Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it: at this period many
Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Ge-
neva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813.
GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Ro-
mans. 115b. c, and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till
A. D. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other
magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic,
1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated
Andrew Dorla rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers.
Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745.
Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of
the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their con-
querors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17. without
effect. Genoa lost Corsica 1730. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The
city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally
starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800 ; but it was surren-
dered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The Xagurian
Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly
invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire, May 25,
1805. It surr<mdered to the combined English and Sicilian army, April 18,
1814 ; and was transferred to the. king of Sardinia in 1816. ftisurrection
against Victor Emmanuel, April 1 ; subdued April 11, 1849.
GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans,
the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, ap-
plied to them the terms ecmjers and gentilshommes. This distinction of gen-
tleman was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended,
about A. D. 1430. — Sidney.
GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge
is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing
the earth, surrounded by the sea. — Iliad. He accurately describes the
countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The
priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the
world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps,
about 568 b. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathemati-
cal bases, about 135 b. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of
Barbary and Spain, about a. d. 1201. — Lenglet. The invention of the mari-
^ ner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern
geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England
by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a
western continent, a. d. 1489.
GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical
speculation from the time of Homer ; and this science is said to have been
cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories
and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as
being opposed to the statements of the Bible ; but in this enlightened age the
astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by
scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discoveries
in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by
Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that
the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth was
framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds,
created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world
into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible
reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that
man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand years
334 THE world's progress. I GEI»
upon the earth, the phj^sical monuments of our glohe bear ■witness to tn*.
same truth ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken
of in the sacred records, geolog-y in like manner proves, not by arguments
drawn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe-
nomena, that there were former conditions of our planet, separated from
each other by vast intervals of time, during which this world was teeming
with life, ere man. and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been
called into being. — Dr. Mantell and Bishop Blovijield.
(rEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations
of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the
boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600
B. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 b. c. The doctrine of
curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic
sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 b c. The conchoid
curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. The scienoj of geometry was
taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo-
metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected
with magic, 7 Edward VI., 1552. — Stowe.
GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general
Moreau. general Pichegru. Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known
by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi-
racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII.,
Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were
sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leave
France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22.
In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, wkic/t, see.
GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Ogle-
thorpe, who, with forty followers founded Savannalr Feb. 1, 1733. Savan-
nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war. Dec. 29, 1778 ; the town
and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted
the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2., 1788. Population in 1790, 82.584 ; in 1840,
691,392, including 280 944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice.
GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German,
or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called should no longer exist; but that
instead thereof a confederation of states sliould be formed ; and this ar-
rangement was adopted in 1815. by the aUied sovereigns; and Germany is
now governed by a diet, consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any
alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi-
sion, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixt5''-five,
divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda.
GERMANY. From Germanni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman
historians about 211 b. c. : it was anciently divided into several independent
states until 25 b. c, when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans
to subdue them, although they conquered some parts; but by the repeated
efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about a, d. 290. In 432,
the Huns, driven from China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive
country; but it was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the lirst emperor,
became master of the whole, a. d. 802.
Charlemagne crowned emperor of the | Charles III. was the first sovereign who
West at Rome - - a. d. 800 added " in the year of cm- Lord" t(
He adds a second head to the eagle, to his reign .... g'/E
denote that the empires of Rome and The German princea assert their inde-
Germany are united in him - - 802 pendence, and Conrad reigns - 9j 2
I.ouis (Dehonnaire) separates Germany [The electoral character assumed about
fnm France . . - ". 814 this lime. Hee Eleclorg.] ■ ■ 9!2
<*Eil J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
335
GERMANY, continued.
Reign of Henry I. (king) surnamed the
Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns,
Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians - 919
Otho I. extends his dominions, and is
crowned emperor by the pope - 962
Henry III. f-onquers Bohemia, wasting
It with fire and sword - - 1042
Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders
through Germany, where they mas-
sacre the Jews .... 1095
Henry IV. excommunicated by pope
Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about - 1106
Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in-
vestitures, with the pope - - 1122
The Guelph and Ghibeline feuds begin 1140
Conrad III. leads a large army to Ure
holy wars, where it is destroyed by
the treachery of the Greeks - - 1147
Teutonic order of knii^hthood - - 1190
Reign olRodolph, count ofHapsburgh,
chosen by the electors - - 1273
The famous edict, called the Golden
Bull, by Charles IV. - - - 1356
Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected
emperor. He betrays John Huss and
Jerome of Prague, who are burned
alive (see Bohemia) - - - 1414
Sigismond being driven from the throne,
Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds.
(In his family the crown resides for
three centuries) - - - 1438
The Pragmatic sanction {which see) - 1439
The empire divided into circles - 1512
Era of the Reformation {Luther) - 1517
Abdication of Charles V. - -1556
'War of the two parties, the Evangelic
union under Frederick, elector pala-
tine, and the Catholic league, under
the duke of Bavaria - - -1618
■ Battle of Prague, which lost the elector
palatine the crown - - - 1620
Treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648
John Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats
the Turks in many battles, and obliges
them to raise the siege of Vienna - 1683
The peace of Carlowitz - - 1699
The Pragmatic sanction {which see) - 1722
The reign of Charles VI. is cniefly occu-
pied with wars against the Turks, and
m establishing the Pragmatic sanc-
tion, in favor of the succession of his
daughtei', Maria Theresa, married to
the duke of Lorraine - 1711 to 1742
Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries
the heiress of Austria, the celebrated
Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ;
ana is elected emperor - - 1745
Joseph II. extends his doin^nicns by the
dismemberment of Poland - -1772
Again, by the final partition of that de-
voted kingdom - - - 1795
[In the ruinous wars between Germany
and France, the emperor loses the
Netherlands, all his territories west
of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy,
1793, et seq.]
Francis I. assumes the title of empe-
ror of Austria - - Aug. 11, 1804
Dissolution of the German empire ; for-
mation of the Confederation of the
Rhine - - - July 12, 180J
General agitation among the people, i 1440.
and demands for reforia granted in
various degrees by sovereigns of
Prussia, Bavaria, &c. ; and by those
of the smaller principalities of Ger-
many - - Feb. and March, 1848
A federal union of the German States
demanded by Prussia March, 1843
Congress of deputies at Frankfort— Mit-
ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1813
German Parliament meets at Frank-
fort - - - May 18, 181^?
The archduke, John of Austria, elected
by the parliament as lord-lieutenant
of the Empire- - June 29, 1848
He is installed at Frankfort, and names
his ministers - - July 15, 1848
Great excuement in Germany on ac-
count of the execution at Vienna of
Robert Blum, a Leipsic publishei-,
for aiding the insurrection Nov. ? 1848
A. D.
800.
814.
840.
855.
875.
878.
879.
887.
899.
912.
912.
919.
936.
973.
983.
1002.
1024.
1039.
1055.
1077.
1080.
1105.
1125.
1138.
1152.
1191.
1198.
1208.
1211.
1245.
1246.
1273.
1291.
1298.
1308.
1314.
1347.
1378
1399
1400.
1410.
1437.
EMPERORS C? GE MANT.
Charlemagne the Great.
Louis the Debonnaire.
Lothaire.
Louis II.
Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned.
Louis III., the Stammerer.
Charles III., the Gross.
Arnould.
Louis IV.
Otho, duke of Saxony ; he refused the
dignity on account of his age.
Conrad, duke of Franconia.
Henry I., the Fowler.
Otho"l., the Great.
Otho II., the Bloody.
Otho III., the Red ; poisoned.
Henry 11. , duke of Bavaria ; the Holy
and Lame.
Conrad II., the Salique.
Henry III, the Black.
Henry IV. ; deposed.
Rodolphus ; killed in battle.
Henry IV. ; re-instated.
Henry V.
Lothaire II.
Conrad III.
Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned ia Bo-
hemia.
Henry VI., the Shai-p.
Philip ; killed at Bamberg.
Otho IV; deposed.
Frederic 11. ; deposed. v-
Henry VII ; killed.
William ; killed in battle.
Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, Wis
first of the Austrian family.
Adolphus; deposed.
Albert I. ; killed by his nephew.
Henry VIII. ; poisoned by a priest, is
the consecrated wafer.
Louis IV., cf Bavaria; killed by a it U
from his 1 :)rse.
Charles IV., of Luxembourg.
Wencesiaus. king of Bohemia.
Frederick, Duke of Brunswick.
Rupert, palatine of the Rhine.
Sigifmond, king of Hungary.
Albert II., duke of Austria and king a?
Bohemia.
Frederick III., archduke of Ai!.5tri&.
336 THE world's progress. r GIB
GERMANY, continued.
1493. Maximilian I. ; he married the heiress
of Burgundy.
1519. Charles V., king of Spain.
1558. Ferdinand I., king of Hungary.
1564. Maximilian II.
1576. Rodolphus II.
1612. Matthias I.
1619. Ferdinand II., king of Hungary.
^637. Ferdinand III., ditto.
1658. Leopold I., ditto
1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia.
1711. Charles VI.
1742. Charles VII.
1745. Francis L; husband of Maria Theresa,
queen of Hungary and Bohemia.
1765. Joseph II.
1790. Leopold 11.
1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of em
pei-or of Austria only, in 1806.
1806. Confederation of the Ilhme (which see).
1815. Germanic Confederation.
1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria.
(See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning
p. 76 ; see. also, Austria, BavariOy
^Prussia, Wurtemburg, «fec.)
There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to English
counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Ma.ne
(one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the
head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164.
GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed-
ward III. of England, was born here, and hence named John of Gaunt.
Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of
Marlborough in a. d. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the con-
tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great
Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814.
GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height; he was
also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb,
and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man. — Zuinglius.
••The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara.
who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia.
He was nine feet nine inches high." — Plmy. John Middleton, of Hale, in
Lancashire, born in 1578. was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter,
the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in
height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of
the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch-
es long; he died in September 1806. in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18,
20, and 30 feet high, were once rei)orted to have been found ; but there is
now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds.
GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi-
ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with
Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of
Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English
feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( GiJbel- Tarik, Mountain of
Tarik, whence its present name) in a. d. 712. In the year 1462 the king of
Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors ; and the English, under sir George
Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng,
bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon-
ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has sinco
continued an appendage to the British crown.
Gibraltar attacked by the British on the
•21st July, and taken on the ■24th, a. d. ]704
Besieged by the Spanish and French ;
they lose'lO.OOO men, and the victori-
ous English but 400 - Oct. 11-, 1704
The Spaiiiards again attack Gibraltar,
and are repulsed with great loss - 1720
They again attack it with a force of
20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the
loss of the English is only 300 - 172J
Memorable siege of the Spaniards and
French, whose pi-odigious arma-
ments* (the greatest ever brought
against a fortress) were wholly over-
thrown. The siege coniinued from
July 1779, to Feb. - - 1783
* The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops
of Prance. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear apainst the fortress, besides which, thcro
SLE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 337
GILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 b. c. ITie capitol was the first
building on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pliny. Of gold leaf for
gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole
ounce. — Pliny. It consequently was more like our plating. — Truster. A
single grain ot gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf
that will cover a house. — Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammo-
niac was first introduced by Margaritone. in 1273. The art of gilding on
wood, previously known, was improved in 1680.
GISORS. Battle of, in France, between the armies of France and England, in
which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the
day was " Dieuet mon droit'' — " God and my right;" and from this time it
was made the motto to the royal arms of England, a. d. 1198.
GL A.DIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives,
or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral
ceremonies of the Romans. 263 b. c, probably following the Greek custom
of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle.
Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 b. c. When
Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra-
tion of his triumph for 123 days, a. d. 103. Their combats on public thea-
tres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great, a. d. 325. Fi-
nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500. — Lenglet.
GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a. d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from
James II., in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest
commerce was in salmon, about 1420.
GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass
by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass-
houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for
many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of
Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were
formed of glass before a. d. 79. Italy had the first gla,ss windows, next
France, whence they came to England. Used for windows in private houses
in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported. — Anderson. The manufacture
was established in England at Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557. —
Stowe. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the
peign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit-
ted, 1845.
GLASS, Painting on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles
in a beautiful style, about a. d. 1500. It is said the art existed in England
towards the 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about
1530.
GJ.ENCOE. Massacre of. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending
and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering
in time to king William's prociamation. About 38 men were brutally slain ;
and women and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked
were 47 .sail of the line, all three-deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying
?12 suns; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats;
while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 sheila
were, daily thrown into the town , and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were ex-
pended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red hot balls,
and their whole line of works anuihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general
Elliot. Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy'? loss in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estim^ated at
upwards of 2.600,000/. sterling B it their srand defeat by a garrison of 'only 700O British, occurred
Sept. 13, 1782.
15
338 THE world's progress, [" GOB
in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black
deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691.
GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principa.
circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar
eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about
640 B. c. P^'thagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars
by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that there might be an-
tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and
eveEing star; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere ol
the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air. the si)here of fire
the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars. Jupiter, Saturn,
and the sphere of the stars, about 506 b. c. Aristarchus, of Samos. main-
tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun-,
which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so abstird, that the phi-
losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 b. c. The first voj^age
round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel-
lan's squadron. 1520-4. The first Enghsh navigator who performed the same
enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577. — See Ctrcumriavigation, and Earth.
GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints,
angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from
the Caesars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century.
The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church of
Rome, and was called doxology because it began with 5o^a, glory, a, d.
382.
GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving
of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; ana
two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove,
A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves
was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in-
corporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in
1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day.
GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity,
The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the
Priscillianists ; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became in-
famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a
complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to
extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which con-
sisted in their i)retended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which
they dift'ered among themselves as much as they did from others.
GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the
suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the
chief, called Giles Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to
have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the
scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the
same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of
all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direc-
tion of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by
the celebrated Le Brun. by appointment of the king, a. d. 1666, — Du Frei-
noy.
GODFATHERS and GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the cir-
cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose
in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ,
It was first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander ;
according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about a, d
uoo
DICTIONARY OF DATES. 339
130. In Catholic countries they ha\o godfathers and godmothers in the
bapti-mi of their bells.
GOLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has,
from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most
valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with
copper or silver : in its pure state it is twenty- four carats ; that used in our
coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no
metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The
smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to
ol)servations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests.
GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most
abundant in Africa, Japan, and South America, in which Let gold was dis-
covered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported
into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, ex-
clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730. a piece of gold weighing
ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces),
was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca,
in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ;
in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali-
fcrnia, April 1848.
GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as
stated in the Mining Journal :
Gold. Silver.
Mexico j66,436,453 = JE139,818,032
Chili ........ 2,768,488 = 1,822,934
Buenos Ayres 4,024,895 = 27,182,673
Russia 3,703,743 = 1,502,981
jei7,003,579 = jE170,326,610
The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3^
times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis-
phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia,
discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, 84,377500,. Those
of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb.
1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which
was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S.
mint in 1849 was about $6,000,000. The total annual production of gold in
the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, pi'oportioned thus : North
and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6^, Indian Archipelago,
4|. Africa 14. See Coin.
GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from
lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re-
cover his treasures, which the perfidious .^etes, king of Colchis, had seized,
after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to
Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave
occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for tke re-
covery of the golden fleece, 1263 b. c.
GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which shows
the years of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens,
about 432 b. c. — Pliny.- To find the golden number or year of the Lunar
cycle, add one to the date and divide "by nineteen, then the quotient is the
number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number.
GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been
held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour en
Friday, April 3. a. d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to
the Church of England : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Fri-
340 THE world's progress. [ GOV
day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings en-
joined on this day.
GORMAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to
the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia,
Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable^ the
oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut
away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a
miUtary sense at least, this "conqueror of the world" interpreted the ora-
cle, 33(> B. c.
fiORDONS "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George
Gordon. It consisted of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. George's
Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition
to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences
to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but
proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging burning, and pulling down
the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several
other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at-
tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overci ming ine civil
power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of
the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties,
then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com-
menced June 2 ; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private
mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened;
among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the
5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the
rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in
the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George
was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780.
— Annual Register.
GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel a. d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ;
St. Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found
buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in
485. — BnLler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was
thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was tasen out unhurt,
and b-anished to the isle of Patmos. — Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings
of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of
Christ. — Hammond. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for
propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701.
GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who
first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery :
it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of
their professing to folloAV and preach only the gospel, a. d. 1377: — Bishop
Burnet.
Gr«)THS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian,
Pontus. Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire a. d.
251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a. d. 269. After
the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under
Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained
their dominion till a. d. 553. when they were finally conquered by Narses,
Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king-
dom, whiclir continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens.
GOVERNMENT, cost of, in EUROPE and the UNITED STATES. In an
elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847, this result is reached, viz. .
QRiU J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
34.
in the United States : aggregate of
national expenditure, lor each in-
habitant - - - - $0 97
Aggregate of State expenditure, for
each inhabitant - - - 0 50
Aggregate of town or city expendi-
ture, for each inhabitant - - 0 92
Total cost of Government in the
United States, per head - - $2 39
or $47,800,000 if the population is
20 millions.
In England, according to Maccul-
loch, the average
head, to
equal, per
Li France, according to Chevalier,
in 1833, the cost was about 1,250
millions of francs, or 40 francs per
head — say - - - -
Thus, France pays about three
times, and Great Britain five times
as much for Government as the
United States. (See Administra-
tions of the United States.)
$12 33
«7f^*
GRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the
altar of friendship, and held sacred upon that Account. They would not
partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits,
to their gods ; and hence came the short prayer said before and after meat
in all Christian countries from the earliest times. — Lenglet.
GRAMMARIANS; or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera-
ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed
at Rome so early as 276 b. c. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci-
cero, Messala, Julius Caesar, Nicias, .^lius Donatus, Remmius Palemon,
Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenjeus. and other distinguished men, were of
this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati-
cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's
said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis-
cover one error."
GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure
food for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn
from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea-
sury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome. —
Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000
quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads,
thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in-
crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe.
GRANICUS, Battle of, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the
Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the
Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000
horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20,000 horse.
— Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers,
and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken
by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334
B. c. — Bossuet.
GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their
halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large
stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There
were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were
most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about a. d. 1200.
See Chimneys,
GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the
Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters,
about A. D. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about a. d. 1615 ; and Hook pub-
lished it a« a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at
Florence, about 1633 ; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton,
about 1687.
GRiECIA MAGNA That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies
342
THE world's progress.
I^ORI
but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the
southern parts of Italy ; and others suppose that Magna Grsecia compre-
lieuded only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was
likewise peopled by the Greek colonists. — Lempi-iere.
GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an-
cient world, were tlie progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece
was so called from a very ancient king named Graecus ; and another king
named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls
the inhabitants, inditferently, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains. For
1 ancient Grecian history, see Tabular Views, p. 5 et seq.
Sicyon founded (Eusebius) • b. c. 2089
Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) • 2142
Revolt of the Tilans - • • * *
War of the Giants - - - * *
Kingdom of Argos begun (Eicsebitcs)- 1856
Reign of Ogyges in Bceotia (idem) - 1796
Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in
Greece by Phoroneus- - -1773
According to some authors, Sicyon was
now begun (Lenglet) - - - 1773
Deluge ol Ogyges {which see) • - 1764
A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy
under GEnotrus : the country first
called CEnurtria, afterwards Magna
Groicia (Eusebius) - • • 1710
Chronology of the ArunJelian marbles
commences (Eusebius) - • 1.582
Cecrops comes into Auica (.idem) - 1556
The Areopagus instituted - - 1506
Deluge ot Deucalion (Eusebius) • 1503
Reign of Hellen (idem) • - • 1459
Cadmus, with the Phoenician letters,
settles in Bceotia - - - 1493
Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards
called Sparta .... 1490
Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship
ever seen in Greece - - - 1485
He gets possession of Argos. His fifty
daughters - ... 1475
First Olympic games celebrated at Elis,
by the Idabi Dactyli (Eusebius) - 1453
Iron discovered by the Idai Dactyli - 1406
Corinth rebuilt, and so named - . 1384
Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches
the art of making bread - - 1.383
The Isthmi«.i games instituted - - 1326
Mycenae created out of Argos - - 1313
Argonautic expedition (which see) - 1263
The Pythian games by Adrastus - 1263
War of the seven Greek captains . 1225
The Amazonian war ; these martial fe-
males penetrate into Greece - - 1213
Rape of Helen by Theseus ■ -1213
Rape of Helen by Paris - - 1198
Commencement of the Trojan war - 1193
Troy taken and destroyed on the night
of the 7th of the month Thargelion
(27th May, or 1 1th .June) - - 1184
^neas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and
arrives in Italy - - - 1181
Migration of the foliar? colonies, who
build Smyrna, &c. - ■ 1124
Settlement of the lonians from Greece
in Asia Minor .... 1044
The first laws of navigation originate
with the Rhodians - - - 916
Homer flourishes about this time
(Arundelian Marbles) ■ ■ 907
Olympic games revived at Elis - 884
The first Messenian war • b. c. 743
The second Messenian war - - 685
The capture of Ira • - - 670
The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and
give their own name Messene to Zan-
cle (now called Messina) - - 668
Sea-fight, the first on record, between
the Corinthians and the inhabitants
of Corcyra - - - - 664
Byzantium built by the Argives - 658
Sybaris, in Magna Grajcia, destroyed,
100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat
300,000 Sybarians - - - 508
Sardis taken s-nd burnt, which occa-
sions the Persian invasion - • .504
Thrace and Macedonia conquered - 496
Battle of Marathon (which see) - - 490
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 480
at Thermopyla; by I.eonidas -
Battle of Salamis (m)^/cA see) • - 480
Mardonius defca'ed at Piataea - - 479
Battle of Euiymedoh - - - 476
The third Messenian war - - 465
Athens begins to tyrannize over the
other states of Greece - - 459
Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles - 455
The first sacred war - - - 448
Herodotus reads his history ir; ♦.he
Council at Athens • - - 445
The sea-fight at Cnidus - - - 394
Battle of Mantinea • - - 633
Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes
all the cities of the Phoceans - 348
Battle of Chaeronea ■ - - 338
Alexander, the son of Philip, enters
Greece ; subdues the Athenians, and
destroys the city of Thebes - - 335
Commencement of the Macedonian or
Grecian Monarchy . - - 331
Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the
throne of Darius - - . 33(il
Alaric invades Greece - - a. D. 395
The empire under Nicephorus com-
menced - - - - 811
Greece mastered by the Latir.s - - 1204
Reconquered .... 1261
Invaded by the Turks - - - 1350
Its final overthrow. See Eastern Em-
pire 1353
[This country, so long illustrious for the
military exploits, the learning, and
arts of its people, became of late
years the scene of desperate con-
flicts with the Turks, in order to re-
gain its independence, and the coun-
cils of the great powers of Europe
were friendly to the design.]
Great struggle for iudependence • 1770
ore]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
343
GREECE, continued.
The first decided movement in these lat-
ter limes, by the Servians - a. d. 1800
The Servians deleai ilw Turks at Nyssa
April 2, 1807
100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha,
overrun the country, committing the
most dreadlal excesses - - 1813
Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla-
chia, in which the Greeks join - 1821
Proclamation of prince Alexander to
shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821
The Greek patriarch put to death at
Constantinople - April 23, 1821
10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al-
though not engaged in the revolt - 1821
Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha-
rest; even the women and children
not sjiared .... 1821
Independence of Greece formally pro-
claimed - - Jan. 27, 1822
Siege of Corinth - - - Feb. 1S22
Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ;
most horrible massacre recorded in
modern history* - April 23, 1822
"Victories of the Greeks at Larista.
Thermopylee, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822
National Congress at Argos - April iU, 18^3
Victories of Marco Botzaris - June, 1823
Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote
himself to its cause - August, 1823
Lamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis-
solonghi - - Aoril 19, 1824
Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at
Samos - - August 16, 1824
The Provisional Government ofGreece
instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824
The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca-
pitan Pacha - - June 2, 1825
The Provisional Government ofGreece
invites the protection of England
July 24, 1825
Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging
Turks are defeated in a formidable
attack upon it - August 1, 1826
The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet
Jan. 28, 1826
GREEK CHURCH, A difference arose in the eighth century between the
eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a
half terminated in a separation : this church is called Greek in contradis-
tinction from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior-
ity as usmg the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and
many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho-
lics ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established reli-
gion of Russia.
GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli-
nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century,
Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by
assault - - April 2:3, 1826
The Greeks land near Salonica ; battle
with Omer Pacha - June 1, 1820
Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the
Mainotes - August 8 and 9, 1826
Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. 15, 182S
Tioaty of Loudon, between Great Bri-
tain, Russia, and France, on behalf
of Greece, signed - July 6, 1827
Battle of Navarino ^which see); the
Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 1827
Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi-
dent of Greece - - Jan. 18, 1828
The Panhellenion or Grand Council of
State established - Feb. 2, 1828
National Bank founded - Feb. 14, 1828
Greece divided into departments, viz.
Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Uppei Hesse-
nia. Lower Messenia, Laconia, and
Arcadia, and the islands formed also
into departments - April 26, 1828
Final evacuation of the Morea by the
Turks - - - Oct. 30, 1828
Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829
Greek National Assembly commences
its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829
The Porte acknowledges the indepeiju-
ence of Greece - - April 25, 1830
Prince Leopold finally declines the so-
vereignty - - May 21, 1830
Count Capo d'Istria, President of
Greece, assassinated by the brother
and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote
chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831
The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1831
Otho I. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833
Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833
A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en-
force ministerial responsibility and
national representation, is consum-
mated - - - Sept. 14, 1843
The king accepts the new constitution
March 16, 1844
[See Athens, Macedon. Sparta, Thrace, and
other states of Greece.]
* The slaughter lasted 10 days; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire
which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000
Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guar-
anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even they were, every man of riiem,
butchered ! Tlie only exception made during the massacre was in favor of the young and more
beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun-
der, violation, and crime, while the infidel army was let loose upon the captured citv. is too long
uid too shocking for transcri]:>tion here.
34€ THE world's progress.
Kihtk
in order tc destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general
of the emperor Pogonat's tleet, and 30,000 men were killed. The property
of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, ac-
cording to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine-
gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of
copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The in-
vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ;
but it is now lost.
GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe
about A. D. 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned
English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia-
tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honor +o teach Erasnius,
1490. — Wood's Athen. Oxon.
GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about a d, 980,
and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter
country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England
to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Company, 2
James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind
by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when
the company's ships brought them home. — Tindal. The Greenland Fishing
Company was incorporated in 1693.
GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at thu solicitation of sir Jonas Moore
and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill,
so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro-
nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the
meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observatory
contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet
by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector
The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re-
flector ; and among other tine instruments and objects is a famous camera
obscura.
GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregory XEL,
from whom it derives its name, a. d. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic
states of Europe in that year ; into most other states in 1710; and adopted
by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca-
lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to
eleven days. See Calendar, and JSew Style.
GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715; it was the last kingdom pos-
sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ;
the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered
by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the
French, 1650; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was
ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again, in
1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the
French landed some troops and caused an insurrection in this island, which
was not finally quelled till June, 1796.
GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant
"ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edward III, The
Grocers" Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon-
don, incorporated in 1429.
GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d. 1498. It was colonized by
the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763.
Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810 ; and in order to allure
»\7r ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345
the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was.
however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814.
GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have
been derived from Hiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The desig-
nation began in Italy, a. d, 1139, and distinguished the contending armies
during the civil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the
Ghi])elines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal
family of England. — See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood
was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards
George IV., in 1816.
(JUILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise
obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be
seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolics Questiones of Achilles
Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there
called the Mo.vmaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see Halifax ;
Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the
regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France,
from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his
name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god-
father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some
hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a
prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the
Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six,
enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues.
GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first
coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were
then valued at 30s. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced
in currency from 22s. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were
coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of
an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold.
GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber-
tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns-
wick, in Germany, about a. d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was
known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chi-
nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition,
moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his
treatise De Nullitate Magice, which was published at Oxford, in 1216.
GUNPOWDER PLOT in ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by
this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des-
troying the three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there
assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was
projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the
enterprise. Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords,
preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of
the family of Northumberland) were killed ; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood,
Winter, Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner,
as did Guy Faux, January 31. 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in
which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the
late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices.
CMJY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin
to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who. after having be-
stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder
of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the
erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It
15*
346 THE world's phogress. [ hau
cost him 18,793/!., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense sum
of 219,499(5, A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,000Z. was made to this
hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ;
his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829.
GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were
performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also
philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrest-
ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymna-
sium— guvinos, nudus. Tliey anointed themselves with oil to brace their
limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasped.
The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in
Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826.
GYTSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu-
liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d.
1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des-
cendants of a great body of Egyptians who revolted from the Turkish yoke,
and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the vvorld, while their
supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal rece^. tion in ^hat age
of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and
from most countries soon after, they are yet found in every part of Europe,
as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con-
trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against theii
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Cliarles I. thirteen persons were ex-
ecuted at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month
contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London,
was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants. May 1797. There were
in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120,000 gypsies, and
many communities of them yet exist in England ; and notwithstanding their
intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners,
customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged.
H.
HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' PFri^ of Right, passed for the security and
liberty of individuals, May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to
Magna Charta. for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En-
gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is
shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus-
pended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and
when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a
portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected
persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. — ■
Blackstone.
HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob-
horse {haquenee) was let out on hire for short journeys : these were latterly
harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle
called coche-a-haquenee : hence the name. The legend that traces their ori-
gin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in
1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of
London. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised,
1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of
Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on
the outside of the vehicle.
HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the
States-General, and residence o^ the former earls of Holland, the p in^s o/
KAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347
Holland, &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip
U. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the five articles of the re-
monstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort, Treaty of the Hague,
entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed
by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces
here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in Janu-
arj, 1795; favorea by a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where the
inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued
and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and
escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in Isiovember 1813, shortly
after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions
and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce between
England and Holland, December 16, 1837.
HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and
hence the appellation Gallia comata ; and cutting off the hair was inflicted
as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a par-
ticular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear
long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic
institution. — Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear
long hair, a. d. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate
of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion
in 1795 ; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into
use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it in England,
which yielded 20.000Z. per annum.
HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after
the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the
year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase
was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or
of brief tranquilHty, the septem placidi dies of human life. — Butler.
HALLIDON HILL. Battle of, near Berwick, between the English and Scots,
in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13,000 slain, while a com-
])aratively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward HI., July
19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of
Scotland. — Robertson.
HALIFAX, Yorkshire. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma-
nufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys,
shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, the
town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any crim-
inal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny,
by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment ; but king
James I. in the year 1620. took this power away: and the town is now under
the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden.
HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the
Jewish hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The
meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were
first introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 584 b. c. ; and their intro-
duction from the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome,
one of the primitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390. — Cave's Hist. Lit.
HAMBURGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296.
France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper
Tandy, (see Napper Tandy.) October 1799. British property sequestrated,
March 1801. Hamburgh" taken by the French after the battle of Jena in
1806. Incorporated with France, January 1810. Evacuated by the French
on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813 ; and -estored to its
848 THE world's progress. [iiap
independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814, Awful fire here, which
destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses; it con-
tinued for three days, May 4, 1842.
HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it
to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his
mother, Jane Seymour, died ; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of
our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and
the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was
held, in 1604. the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and th^
members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the
Bible. See Conference.
HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar-
ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble-
man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of
execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and
their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447.
— Stovje. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu-
merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in
chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834.
HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George
I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen, Verden, and other duchies and
principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a. d. 1692. It was
seized by Prussia. April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ;
and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the
crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdom,
Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in
November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke
of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom
of the press and other concessions. March 17, 1848.
HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an
act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise
of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia,
of Hanover and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the
granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of
Brunswick Luneburgh elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the
throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714.
HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was
formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other
against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in
1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns
situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in-
creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be
admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They
grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark,
about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12,000
regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who
ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their
effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association.
In 1630, the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the
name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen.
HAPSBURGH, House of. One of the most illustrious families in Europe.
Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near
Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria,
HAS ] DlCTiONARl? OF DATES. 349
whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century,
when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany
and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273. See Germany.
HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian, who
so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance
used to call him Harleq^uino, little Harley. — Menage. Originally the name
implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now means an expert dancer at
a play-house.
HARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of
harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebra-
ted Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious
amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes-
saly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about
350 B. c. It is affirmed that the mother of William I., of England, a fur-
rier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a
character, that our odious term harlot is derived from her name. — Dr. John-
son. In England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party :*olors,
and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III.,
1352.
HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings,
in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har-
mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather
by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty-
four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were
first formed by an Irish gentleman named Puckeridge. — Franklin. The in-
vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760.
HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp
before Saul. — 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the
moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very
few strings. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele-
brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more
ancient harps, with wire.
HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in
1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured
him the reward of 20.000Z., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longi-
tude was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was per-
fected in 1772.
HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from
the New England States opposed to the war and to the administration of
Madison, met Dec. 15, 1814.
H ,'\ STINGS, Battle of, one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which
more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of Eng-
land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and
kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned
king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con-
quest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066.
HASTINGS, WARREN, Trial of. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India,
tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but
acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his government
which, it was thought, ought to have led to a diflerent result. Among other
charges against him, was his acceptance of a present of lOOOOOZ. from the
nabob of Oude and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means
of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three months,
b50 THE world's progress. |"heo
1788-95, Sheridaii's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has-
tings, attracted universal admiration.
HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They
are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium-
phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and
surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the
use of liats and cai)s is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place
of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats
were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510 : before this time
both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Stowe. Very high
crowned hats were w^orn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns
were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng-
land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811.
HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the
English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy,
in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a state of blockade,
Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping: here failed, August 7,
1804.
HAYTI, OR Haiti, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus Ji
1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have de-
stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including
women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St.
Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des-
salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29,
1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac-
ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of
color, became president in Feb. 1807. and was crowned emperor by the title
of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince.
Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died,
and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed
suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821.
Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected
president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849.
HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain-
ville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was rvot connected, but
composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774,
ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the
name they now bear.
HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen;
but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they
possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sac-
rifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen; and in the end, to lessen the
expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. — Potter.
HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. About
twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson.
The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic
mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland.
HEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina,
which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d. 622 ;
the era commences on the following day, viz : — the 16th of July. Many
chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July ; but Cantemir
has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the
first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Mahometism
and Medina.
DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 35 i
HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the
river Neckar, was formerly tlie capital of the Palatinate ; the protestant
electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody Avar ensued, in which the
famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann-
heim. Here was the celebrated HeildelbergTun, which held 800 hogsheads,
and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University oi
Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346
contained in 1840, 622 students.
HELEN", Rape of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was tliu
most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very
lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however,
she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers ; and after her return to the
court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece,
and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by
the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and, to defend her person and character
from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice ol
Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his
hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen : carrying her away, though
not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris Priam,
received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the
princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath: and the siege and destruc-
tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his wife
being (Enone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida ; and at his
diath by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc-
tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to CEnone. whom he
had so basely deserted; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however,
still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed
it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart.
HELENA. St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival
of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it
until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India
company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by
the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12. assigned it
to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's
captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death. May 5,
1821.
HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it
was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer-
chandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England
by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was
ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of
the British crown.
HELIOMETER. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in-
vented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Chi'isto-
pher Scheiner in 1625.
HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among
the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise-
above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks
was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a
plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English
king? had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland. 1249, had
a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was
surmounted by a crown, 1306. — GwiU^.n.
HEX .CIS The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore despomte
352 THE world's progress. [HEb
resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 8,83 b. c. The Spartans, not satisfied
with the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery ;
and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the
prisoners of war, by the degrading name of HclotcB, and further exposed
them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the Pelo-
ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward
ed with their liberty, 431 b. c. But this act of justice did not last long; ana
the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the
Lacedemonians. — Herodotus.
HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directec}
to be sown for fishing-nets, a. d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage ita
cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made by the government
and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im-
ported from Russia in British ships, 17.695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John
Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about
100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage
of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails.
HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings) in England
was gradually formed from a. d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent,
and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a. d. 828,
when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of
England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain.
HERACLIDtE, The, or the return of the Heraclidae into the Peloponnesus : a
famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his-
tory, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This
return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after
the destruction of Troy, 1104 b. c.
HERALDRY, Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of
the world. — Ntsbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the
Romans, an eagle : the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a
horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, which
see. Heraldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed
in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800 ; and in the next,
to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152 ; it began and grew with the
feudal law. — Sir George Mackejizu. It was at length methodized and
perfected by the crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in
1095.
HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with
Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a. d. 79. Herculaneum was
buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper
under the surface. All traces of them were lost until a. d. 1711, from which
year many curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil-
ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS.
were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir
William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum,
where they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the
museum of Portici.
HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here-
tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca-
tholic church. — Bacon. Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by
torture in Roman Catholic countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simon
Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome a. d. 41. Thirty heretic?
came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were
higJ dictionary of dates. 353
branded iu the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets id
the depth of winter, where, none daring to relieve them, they died of hun-
ger and cold, 1160. — Speed. In the reign of Henry YIII. to be in possession
of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re-
pealed, 25 Henry VIE., 1534-5.
HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to
avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and
meditation. They were also called anchorets ; and commonly lodged la
dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with-
out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli-
gious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the
Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebais,
and became the first example of a monastic life, about a. d. 250.
BERO AND LE ANDER : their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so
great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the
night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to
have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she 'di-
recting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews,
Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from
her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 b. c. — Livy, Herodotus.
HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as
the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of
preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 3390, and gave rise to
the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British
Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750.
HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, The. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet re-
flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus {which
see\ March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in
1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope,
which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun-
tains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles-
copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new
nebulse, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars which he
had discovered.
HESSE, House of. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge,
daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was
descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl
of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry
v., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended.
There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and
it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Six
thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion
being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,000^. three per cent, stock, was
transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the
American war, at 30Z. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again
hired by England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion
there in 1798.
HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures
and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodward. Hiero-
glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Tha
earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters,
and some monuments whose objects were described \>j exaggerated tradi-
tion, or when forgotten, imagined. — Phillips.
HIGH CHURCH and LO^ '^ CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by
354 THE world's progress. [ HOI
the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for
two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions
of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against
the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents
Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anue, 1710. The queen, who favored Sa-
cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St, Andrew's, Holborn.
He died in 1724.
HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating
the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to
British liberty, the 25th of Edward HI. 1-552. By this statute two living
witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal
of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer-
set— it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day.
By the 40th George HI. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial
for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life
of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the
case of an indictment for murder. See Trials.
HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and
sometimes Your Gra^e, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but
about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High-
ness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty.
HINDOO ERA. or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 b. c. or 756 before the De-
luge, in 2348 : and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the
sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era,
A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations.
HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are
vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian
Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer,
are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is con-
sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy ^ a. d.
476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d.
800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the
English universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius professor-
ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of
history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was
succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850.
HOHENLINDEN, Battlb of. between the Austrian and French armies, the
latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated
with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and
their loss in prisoners to 10 000 more, November 3, 1800.
HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who
derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been
obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and
established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and
the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of
their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion
of Francs and Frisians.
Sovereignty founded by Thierry, first
count of Holland - - a. d. 868
Tlie county of Holland devolves to the
counts of Hainault - - - 1299
It falls to the crown of Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy - - - 1436
100,000 persons are "drowned by the sea
breakma in at Don - • 1446
Burgundy and its dependencies become
a circle of the empire - - - 1521
They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and
religious persecution cause a revolt
in Batavia - - - - 1566
The revolted states with William,
prince of Orange, at their head, en-
ter into a treaty at Utrecht - - 1579
ROL.]
DICTIONARY- OF DATES.
355
HOLLAND, continued.
They elect William as Stadthol(Jer •
The Stadcholder, William, is assassi-
nated - - - - -
The Dutch East India company found-
ed - - - - -
After a struggle of thirty years, the king
of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba-
tavians free - - - -
The republic wars against Spain in the
East, and in America ; the Dutch ad-
miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa-
nish galleons, value 20,000,000/. ster-
ling - • - -
Cromwell declares war against Hol-
land, and many naval battles are
fought ; Blake signally defeats Van
Tromp . - - - -
William, prince of Orange, having
married Mary, daughter of James II.,
is called to the British throne
The office of Stadtholder is made here-
ditary in the Orange family
Era of the civil war
The French Republican army march
into Holland ; the people declare in
their favor - - . - -
The Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15,
He arrives in England - Jan. 21,
Battle of Caraperdown, Duncan sig-
nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11,
The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the
line, with thirteen Indiamen, surren-
dered to the British admiral Duncan
without firing a gun - Aug.
A new constitution is given to the Ba-
tavian republic ; th-e chief officer (R.
J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title
of Grand Pensionary - April 26,
1579
1584
1602
1635
1653
1747
1787
1793
1795
1795
1797
28, 1799
1805
Holland erected into a Kingdom, and
Louis Bonaparte declared king
June 5, I80fi
Louis abdicates - - July 1, 1810
Holland united to France - July 9, 1810
Restored to the house of Orange, and
Belgium annexed to its dominions
Nov. 18, 1013
The prince of Orange is proclaimed so-
vereign prince of the United Nether-
lands - - - Dec. 6, ISIJ
He receives the oath of allegiance
from his subjects - March 30, 1814
And takes the title of king as William
I. - - - March 16, 1815
The revolution in Belgium (which see)
commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830
The Belgians take the city of Antwerp
{whicii ,.ee) - - Oc- 27, 1830
Belgium is sepax'ated from Hol]--.nd,
and Leopold of Cobourg is elected
king - - - July 12, 1831
Holland renews the war against Bel-
gium - - - Aug Sj 1831
Conference in London on the affiiirs ot
Holland and the Netherlands termi-
nates, see Belgium - Nov. 15, 1831
Treaty between Holland and Belgium,
signed in London - April 19, 1839
Abdication of William I. in favor of
his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840
Death of the ex-king • Dec. 12, 1844
The king promises his assent to all re-
forms passed by the chambers
March 14, 1848
New constitution appears, April 17, 1848
Death of William II. . March 17, lt49
STADTHOLDERS, ETC.
..D 1554 William the Great succeeds his cou-
sin Rene, to whom the United Pro-
vinces owe their foundation and glo-
ry : killed by an assassin, hired by
Philip of Spain.
1584 Henry Philip William.
1618 Maurice, a consummate general.
1625 Frederick Henry.
1647 William II.
1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672,
and king of England in 1689.
1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass
ing a ferry in Holland.
1711 Charles Henry Frizo.
1747 William IV., first hereditary 8tad^
holder.
1751 William V.
KINGS.
1813 William I.
1840 William U
1849 WiUiam IIL, present king, (1852.)
See Belgium.
HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first
discovered. In 1605, etseq., various parts of the coast were traced by the
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the
south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast,
called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's
name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botany Bay, New South, Wales, and
Van bleme7i's Land.
HOLY" ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and
Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them-
selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all
their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem-
ber 26, 1815.
HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.—
Ashe.
356 THE world's progress. [ HOf
HOJMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish xne two
most perfect Epic* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that
has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of
Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after
the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Con-
stantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written
in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long.— t/^iw. Hist.
The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to
mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to
sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwi7i.
HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 b. c.
He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another
that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not
deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister,
daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds,
assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews,
wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly
to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high
priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power,
wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis-
tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees
of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder.
HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such
as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious
drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a
moon's age. after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of
Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu-
rope, drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-day, that he
died in the night from suffocation, 453 a. d. His death is. however, ascribed
to another cause. See Attila.
*• HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Sails-
bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward
III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words : '■'■ Honi soit qui niai
y fense,^'' " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the
motto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un-
supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsmith.
HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly
among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that
people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about
B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship by C. Marius, about 102
B. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter
that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius
ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby
to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to honor.
HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and were
used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were un-
wholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed,
and their use was prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there ar»
between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the
* The epic poems of Homer and Virgil, the Gierusalemme of Tasso, the Paradise Lostoi
MiT.TON. and the Henriade of Voltaire, are the noblest that exist j and Milton's is considerec
to rar:k i;ext to Homer's. " Paradise Lost is lof the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr. IoHM
eoM. " only because it is not the txsV—Butle
HUD ] DICTJONARY OF DATES. 357
culture of nops in England. They are grown chiefly in Herefor i, Kent, and
Worcestershire.
HOKATII AND CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and tha
Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on
each side to determine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman
knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective
countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the
Horatii, united Alba to Rome.
HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably
were the first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke
them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori-
ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for
hi^ chariots, and 12,000 horsemen. — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the
horse is equal to that of five men. — Smeaton. A horse can perform the
work of six men. — Bossuet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering
to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were
only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced
into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions
of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thouisand agricultural
horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse-
tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses
in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " only in England,
amounts to about 350.000Z. per year. See Race Horses.
HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem,
who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the
reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d. 1048. They became a monastic
order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta.
HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in-
stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni-
ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark,
a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793Z., and
endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499Z. See Infirmaries.
HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros-
tration enjoined, in a. d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontifi* who
decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to
the adoration of the host, which is done to this day. — Dr. A. Rees.
HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when
L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome.
Previously to the invention of water-clocks {which see), 158 b. c, the time
was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the day into
twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round,
instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the
measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult : one expedient was
by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning
twenty-four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour-
glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886.
HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a
North- West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610 ; but in fact, this part
of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by
Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further
north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was,
with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The
Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. The
forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782.
358
HE world's progress.
iiun
HUE ANJ) CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing- " with horn and
with voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers
and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all loss occa-
sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken;
but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed
by riotous assemblies.
HTTGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term
of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of the
reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. Tha
memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St
Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. — See Bartholomew, St. A oon
siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame-
rica, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas.
HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was
formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I.,
1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury
and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini-
cans and Cordeliers, in 1570.
HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11
B. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the
Christiar era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after-
wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements
were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were
expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, neaded by Attila,
whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of "The Scourge of
God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed
with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians Croats, Russians, and Vandals; be-
sides German settlers, as Austrians. Styrians, Bavarians. Franks, Swabians
Saxons &c. Hungary was annexed to the emi)ire of Germany under Char-
lemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920.
Stephen receives the tiUe of Apostolic \
king from the pope - - A. d. 997 1
The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061
Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under
the sonsof Jenghis Khan, throughout
Hungary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq.
Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga-
ria, Servia, and Dalmatia - - 1342
Louis carries his arms into Italy - 1342
He dies, and the history of Hungary
now presents a frightful catalogue of
crimes ..... 1378
Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth,
queen of Louis, is drowned, and kin^*
Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis-
mond, marquis of Brandenburg, and
causes the rivers of Hungary to flow
with blood .... 1378
The unhappy Hungarians call the
Turks to their assistance - - 1380
Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond
in battle .... 1389
Sigismond recovers from this blow,
and makes Wallachia and Moldavia
tributary to him - - - 1390
He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and
is elected emperor of Germany - 141C
Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne
of Hungary, thus laying the founda-
tion ofthe subsequent power and
greatness of the house of Austria - 1437
It passes to the king of Poland - 1439
Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in-
vades Hungary, and takes Buda;
battle of Mohatz (which see) - - 1526
Buda sacked a second time by the
Turks, and all the inhabitants put to
the sword - - - - 1540
Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540
Temeswar taken by them - - 1552
Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556
The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men
in a fruitless attempt to take Buda
from the Turks - - 1684
He at length carries Buda by storm,
and delivers up the Mahometans to
the fury of the soldiers - - 1686
Temeswar wrested from the Turks by
prince Eugene .... 171«
* The Hungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of aueen ; and conse-
5ueniiy, whenever a female succeeds to the throne'of Hungary, she reigns with the title of king.
bus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Charlos Duras, came to the crown, she was style.:
King Mavy.
CUN j
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
359
HUNGARY, continued.
Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey
at the peace of Belgrade - • 1739
Temeswar incorporated with the king-
dom of Hungary - - -1778
The struggle for independence com-
menced in - - - - 1848
Count Lomburg, Austrian commission-
er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27,
The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the
emperor of Austria ; martial law
proclaimed ; Jellachich, Ban of Cro-
atia, appointed to the supreme gov-
ernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848
Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi-
dent of the defence committee and
dictator - - - - Oct. 1848
[Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.]
Hungarian army advances within six
miles of Vienna ; Jellachich also ad-
vances there, October 11; Kossuth
retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th,
Hungary declares itself an independent
republic - • - Dec. 1848
Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered
by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 1849
Ukase of Russian emperor Nicholas,
declaring his purpose of aiding Aus-
tria against Hungary - April 26,
Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren-
ders the Hungarian army to the Aus-
trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, 1349
The war ended by the complete subju-
gation of Hungary, and the flight or
execution of her leaders.
See Germany.
KINGS OP HUNGARY.
A. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king.
1038 Peter I., deposed.
1041 Otto, killed in battle.
1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is
again deposed, and has his eyes put
out.
1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother
Bela.
1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous
tower.
1063 Solomon, deposed by his son.
1073 Geiga I.
1076 St. Ladislaus.
1095 Coloman.
1114 Stephen II., sumamed Thunder; turn-
ed monk.
. 1131 Bela II. ; he had his eyes put out by
his uncle Coloman, so that his queen
ruled the kingdom.
1141 Geisa II.
1161 Stephen III.
1173 Bela III.
1191 Emeric.
1200 Ladislaus II.
1201 Andrew II.
1235 Bela IV.
1275 Stephen IV.
1278 Ladislaus III., murdered.
1291 Andrew III.
1301 Wenceslaus.
1304 Otho.
On the deatli of Charles VI., in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had
married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived, of her
father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length
overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary,
Austria, and. Bohemia are at this time governed bv their descendants. See
Germany. ^
HirNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 12C}0
years ; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in a. d. 93, and
the remnants settled on the "Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the
Danube, in 376 ; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their
arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by
them, about a. d. 433. 100.000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham-
pagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battlea
during feight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceased to appear as
1309 Charles Robert.
1342 Louis I. the Great.
1383 Mary.
1389 Mary, and her husband Sigism tod.
1437 Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons.
1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the
Turks.
1444 Ladislaus V., poisoned while an infant.
1458 Matthias I., son of Huniades, late re-
gent.
1490 Ladislaus VL
1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the
Turks.
1526 John Sepusius, deposed.
1527 Ferdinand, king of Bohemia.
1534 John Sepusius, again.
1539 John II.
1561 Maximilian, afterwards emperor (V
Germany.
1573 Rodolphus.
1609 Matthias II.
1618 Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany
1625 Ferdinand III., ditto.
1647 Ferdinand IV.
1656 Leopold, emperor of Germany.
1687 Joseph, ditto
1711 Charles VJ ditto.
1740 Maria Theresa.
1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany.
See Germany.
'660 THE AVORLd's progress. f lAM
a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the
name of Hungary, wkic/t see ; see also Attila.
HUSS, JOHN ; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to
issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a refor-
mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give
an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis-
mund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the
strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon
thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be
burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig-
nation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the same
fortitude and constancy of mind by Jerome of Prague, the intimate com-
panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup-
porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416.
See Cranmer, and Martyrs.
HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as
they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup-
posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their
first onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were
oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on
their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather,"
— Pardon.
HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth
century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is
not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs
of it are to be found. — Beckmann. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d.,
and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science
in 1746.
HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about
300 B. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250
B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120
B. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The
science was revived by Galileo, about a. d. 1600. The theory of rivers was
scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscilla-
tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714, A scientific form was given
to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738.
HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise
of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and
Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said
to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches,
about A. D. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with
trumpets, drums, and cymbals.
I.
TAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira. wife of Celeus, king of
Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over
Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes,
stories, and poetical efiusions ; and from her free and satirical verses have
been called Iambics. — ApoLlodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about
700 B. c, by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam-
bes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor,
richer than the poet ; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on lh«
old man's avarice, that he hanged himself — Herodotus.
IDO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 361
ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than tht water which
composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by
means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782.
Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a
vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common
salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the
zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze
mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid,
so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold.
iCE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor,
of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to
Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are
capable of containing 141,832 tons.
ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to
leave their native country, a. d. 871 ; according to some accounts, it had
been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the
Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol-
canic eruption on record ; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and
a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to
pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising
to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that
flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken
breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally
overwhelmed by fire or water ; and 34 others were materially injured.
ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their
library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS, and many books, burnt, September
26, 1847.
ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by
some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image represen-
tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter
with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a
chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his
heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her gegis ; Venus,
drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho-
logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects ;
and to the representation of the true God in various forms ; and to images.
The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the
early part of the eighth century. See Idols.
IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each
month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was
the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones,
and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on
which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other
conspirators, 44 b. g.
IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In-
sanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national
institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is
one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in
every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812.
IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni-
nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi-
nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c. — Dufresnoy.
Constantino, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be de-
stroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a. d. — Dufresnoy. In Britain, the
16
3(>2 THE world's progress. I mj»
religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti-
tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon
overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the
week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity aftei
the coming of St. Augustin. See C/iristianity.
UjIUM. a city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b, c.
Troy {which see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 b. c. ; and
Ilus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 296
years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The
Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen,
whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelaus,
king of Sparta, 1204 b. c. See Helen. More than 100,000 warriors engaged
in this expedition ; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns
and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1198 b. c. Troy was taken after ten
years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the
inhabitants to the sword, or carried them oti' as slaves, 1184 b. c.—ApcUo-
dorus.
ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho-
kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of
1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants ft-om other states since 1800. In 1789 it
was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri-
tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Population
in 1810, 12,282 ; in 1830, 157,575 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has
always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in-
exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847.
ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were
called Alumbrados, about a, d. 1575; and after their suppression in Spain,
they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou-
chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, and
attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A secret
society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May,
1776.
ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments,
drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of
great antiquity ; and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted.
Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, Which he embellished with
their likenesses, about 70 b. c. — Plin. Hist. Nat.
IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia-
ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12th
and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the
great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parlia-
ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb.
13, 1788 ; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal
Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 1806,
Inquiry into the charges preferred b}^ colonel Wardle against the duke oj
York, • commenced Jan. 26. and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquitta'
Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, be-
fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on
her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place,
Nov. 10, 1820. See Quee7i of George IV.
IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of
Great Britain became Imperial ; and the first Imperial parliament, admit
ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritual
peers into the house of lords, was held at Westminster, Januarj 22, 1801.
IMP J
DICTIOx^ARY OF DATi.«5,
368
The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus ; in the Commons, since
(he passing- of the Reform Bill {which see), in 1832, there are 471 English ;
29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members— in all 658. In the Lords,
459 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers
of Ireland ; and 16 representative peers of Scotland, See Commons, Lords,
Parliament, and Reform.
IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE in the UNITED STATES. See Exports, &c.
Table, p. 817.
VALUE OP IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD.
In 1710 - JE4,753,777 I In 1800 - JE30,.^70,605 I In 18^ - je46,245,241
1750 - - 7,289,582 \ 1810 - - 41,136.135 | 1840 - • 62,004,00(1
1775
7,289,582 ,
14,815,855 I 1820
36,514,564
1845
• 85,281,958
iriPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other im-
postors, would fill a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every
country, and have existed in every age. The following are selected from
various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : —
Boleyn. She and her confederates were
hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.—
Rapin.
In the first year of Mary's reign, after her
marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth
Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was se-
creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made
for the purpose, uttered many seditious
speeches against the queen and the prino?,
and also against the mass and confession,
for which she was sentenced to stand upon
a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser-
mon-time, and make public confession of
her imposture, 1553: she was called the
Spirit of the Wall. — Baker's Chron.
William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our
Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy,
34 Eliz., 1.591.
James Naylor, personated our Saviour ; he
was convicted of blasphemy, scourged,
and his tongue bored through with a hot
iron on the pillory, by sentence of the
House of Commons, under Cromwell's
administration, 1656.
"^'"alentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor,
who pretended to cure all diseases by
stroking the patient ; his imposture de-
ceived the credulous, and occasioned very
warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in
England, where it fell into disrepute, in
1666, upon his examination before the
Royal Society, after which we hear no
more of him. Birch's Memoirs of the
Roy. Society.
Dr. Titus Gates. See Conspiracies.
Mary Tofts, of Godalming. by pretending
she bred rabbits within her, so imposed
upon many persons (among others, Mr.
St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they
espoused her cause, 1726.
The Cock-lane ghost imposture by William
Parsons, his wife, and daughter. 1762.
Johanna Southcote. who proclaimed hei
conception of the Messiah, and had a mul
titude of followers ; she died in Dec. 1814.
IN THE UNITED STATES.
Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed lo
be the Messiah, New-York. ia30-31.
Joseph Smith. See article Mormons.
IMPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed bv Sir M. Foster to be of ancient
Aldebei't, who, in the eighth century, pre-
tended he had a letter from the Redeem-
er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ;
he seduced multitudes to follow him into
woods and deserts, and to live in imitation
of John the Baptist.
Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to
be the angel Michael ; he was burnt by
the inquisition of Spain, in 1360.
George David, son of a waterman at Ghent,
styled himself the nephew of God, sent
into the world to adopt children worthy of
heaven; he denied the resurrection,
preached against marriage, in favor of a
community of women, and taught that
the body only could be defiled by^sin ; he
had many followere ; died at Basle, 1556.
Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre-
tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of
Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had
put to death ; but he maintained that ano-
ther child had been substituted in his
place : he was supported by the arms of
Poland ; his success astonished the Rus-
sians, who invited him to the throne, and
delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign-
ing czar, and all his family, whom he
cruelly put to death : his imposition being
discovered, he was assassinated in his
palace, \&0^.~D'Alembert's Revolutions
of Russia.
Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused
the Turks and Jews a long time at Con-
stantinople and other places, by person-
ating our Saviour, 1666.
IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH
HISTORY.
Two men crucified, both pretending to be
the Messiah ; and two women executed for
assuming the characters of the Virgin
Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry III.,
1221.
Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of
Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma-
tion, by pretending to inspirations from
heaven, fortelling that the kinsr would have
an early and violent death if "he divorced
Catherine of Spain, and married Anne
364 THE world's progress. ' IND
practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well
known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355.
Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to he illegal by the Bri-
tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service
above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at
sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons,
and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub-
lic boards, and none except by an oflScer with a press-warrant.
INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and
Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to
death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429 ; and
it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII. , 1528.
IN(JEST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and
Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in-
stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns Physcon married his
brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughttr by his
brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt.
In our own country. Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own
daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria,
queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June. 1760; and
the son of that incestuous marriage, Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, mar-
ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of
Portugal was betrothed to his niece. Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna,
in Oct. 1826. she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was
early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the
Commonwealth, in 1650.
INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new imposts
In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons,
and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with
France. — Rapin. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799: and again in
1802; but Avas abandoned. In 1803, it was revived, at the rate of 5 per
cent, on all incomes above 150/., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In
1805, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent,
embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced —
In 1804, at Is. in the pound - ^£4,650,000 1 In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - JBI 1,500,000
In 1805, at Is. Zd. ditto - ■ 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,985
The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657. 937^. ; from fund-
ed and stock properties, 2,885.505/. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088/.
and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456/. ; total, sixteen millions and a half.
Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax
of 2/. I85. 4<^. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22,
1842: it produced about 5.350,000/. a year. This tax was renewed for three
years more, in March, 1845.
INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They
are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation
may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa-
sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and
prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm
that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex-
communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was
that by Henry Jacobs, 1616.
INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of
Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent.
iKD j
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
36£
The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures wag
forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull ol
pope Clement VUI. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works
of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited.
— Ashe.
tIS'DIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty-
rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by
Alexander, 827 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and
the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan ia
reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. —
Re7i'/iel.
whom 123 perish in one night. See
1000 Blackhole. - - May 19, 1756
1205 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards
lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at
Plassey - - June 20, 1757
Warren Hastings becomtJS governor of
Bengal - - - April 13, 1772
India Bill. See India Bill June 16, 1773
1237 Supreme court established - - 1773
Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778
The strong fortress of Gualior taken by
1398 major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778
Hyder Ali overruns the Camatic, and
defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780
He takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780
1399 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of
Madras - - - June 22, 1781
1497 I Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre
I Coote ... - July 1, 178)
I Death of Hyder, and accession of his
1525 ] son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 178P
! Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast-
1555 j ings, Trial of - Feb. 13, 1788
Definiiive treaty with Tippoo ; his two
I sons hostages - - March 19, 1792
Government of lord Mornington, after-
wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798
1660 Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo
I Saib killed - • ' May 4, 1799
1738 I Victories of the British ; the Carnatic
I conquered .... igOO
1738 Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803
I Marquis Cornwallis resumes the gov-
1739 i ernment - ■ July 30, 1805
i Act by which the trade to India was
1749 thrown open ; that to China remam-
ing with the company July 31, 1813
Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823
Lord William Bentinck arrives as"go-
vernor-general - - July 4, 1828
Act opening the trade to India, and tea
trade, &c. to China, forming a new
era in British commerce ■ Aug. 28, i833
Lord Auckland, governor-general ; he
leaves England - - Sept. 1835
Battle of Ghizny ; victory of Sir John,
now Lord Keane. (See Ghizny)
July 23, 1S39
Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty,
and he and the British army enter
Cabul - - - Aug. 7, 1839
English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 184C
Kurrock Singe, king of Lahore, dies ; at
his funeral his successor is killed by
accident, and Dost Mahom»--d, next
heii-, surrenders to England - Nov. 5, 18tf
General rising against the BiHish at
Irruption of the Mahometans, under
Mahmud Gazni - - a. d.
Patna, or Afghan empire founded
Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most
bloody conquerors of the world ;
14,000,000 of the human race perish
by his sword, under the pretence of
establishing the worship of one god ;
he died .....
The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct
of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer-
lane, invade Hindostan
Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de-
feats the Indian army, makes a con-
quest of Hindostan, and butchers
100,000 of its people -
The passage to India discovered by
Vasco da Gama
Conquest of the country completed by
the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo-
gul empire ....
Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the
greatest prince of Hindostan -
Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions
extending from 10 to 35 degrees in
latitude, and nearly as much in longi-
tude, and his revenue amounting to
32,000,000^. sterling -
Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or
Kouli Khan ....
At Delhi he orders a general massacre,
and 150,000 persons perish
He carries away treasure amounting
to 125,000,000/. sterling
Defeat of the last imperial army by the
Rohillas ....
(The Mogul empire now became mere-
ly nominal, distinct and independent
sovereignties being forme 1 by nu-
merous petty princes. The empe-
rors were of no political consequence
from this period.
BRITISH POWER IN INDIA.
Attempt made to reach India by the
north-east and north-west passages - 1528
Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579
Levant company make a land exped'
tion to India
First adventure from England -
First charter to the London company
of merchants -
Second charter to the East India com
pany ....
Calcutta purchased
Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla
See Calcutta. ....
He imprisons 146 British subjects, of
1591
1600
1756
366 THE world's progress. [jiu
INDIA, continued.
Cabul; Sir Alexander Burnes and
other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841
Lord EUenborough appointed governor-
general - - - Oct. 13, 1841
Sir William Macnaghten treacherously
assassinated - Dec. 25, 1841
The British, under a convention, evacu-
ate Cabul, placing Lady Sale,&c., as
hostages in the hands of Akbar Khan ;
a dreadful massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842
Ameers of Scmde defeated by Sir Char-
les Napier ; Scinde is afterwards an-
nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 184-3
Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar;
the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gib-
raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29 '813
Sir Henry Hardinge appointed gover-
nor-general - - May 2, \SAA
THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE SIKHS AND THE BRITISH.
The citadel of Lahore is occupied by
the British under Sir Hugh Gough ;
and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846
Great battle between the British under
Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under
Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar. Nov. 22, 1843
Moultan taken, after a long siesre, Jan 3. 1849
Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough
Feb. 21, 1849
The Punjaub formally annexed to the
British crown - March 29, 1849
The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river,
and attack the British post at Feroze-
pore, which was held by Sir John
Littler - - - Dec. 14, 1845
Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated
Jan. 28. 1846
Battle of Sobraon; the enemy defeated
with immense loss in killed and
drowned - - Feb. 10, 1846
[The Sikhs lost 10,000 men ; the British
2,338 in killed and wounded.]
INDIA COMPANY, the East. The first commercial intercourse of the En-
glish with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted
out iu 1591 ; only one of them reached India, and after a voyage of three
years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought home in another
ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to
a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600,
Their stock then consisted of 72,000Z., and they fitted out four ships, and
meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since, India stock sold
at 500Z, for a share of lOOZ., in 1683, A new company was formed in 1698 ;
and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and en-
larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784.
INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the
British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India,
passed June 16, 1773. See East India Bill. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill
passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr.
Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784.
INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from
South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several
plants produce various kinds of elastic gum ; but that in commerce is
chiefly the juice of the Siphonia Elastica, or syringe tree. Incisions in the
bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub-
stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceedingly
elastic ; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions
made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it
' flows then most abundantly. — M. Macquer.
INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by tho
French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement mado
by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Sufiered
much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into
the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840,
685,866.
INDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent
continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They
have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of the
white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbers
wd] dictionary of dates. 367
are yearly becoming- smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England,
1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At-
tacked by Capt. Church, 1704 ; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704 ; and Haver-
hill, N. H., 1708; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715; again joined the
French 1754-9; CheroKces subdued, 1761; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763.
[During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both
sides, but chiefly by the British.] 'Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with
the Creeks, 1790 ; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe,
1790 ; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791 ; treaty
with Six Nations, &c., 1794 ; with the Dela wares, 1804 ; Gov. Harrison de-
feated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida,
Gen. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jack-
son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with
Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed
May 27, 1832 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1832 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug.
27, 1832 ; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832 ; war against the
Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines,
Tessup, &c.; 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows :
Number of Indians emigrated frorn the Atlantic States to the lands provided for
them west of the Mississippi - ..... 31,357
Number yet to be removed .--...-.. 72,13]
Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between thf> 3Iississippi and the Rocky-
Mountains .... 150,341
Total within the territory of the United States ■ - 352,879
Treaty with the Sioux, they relinquishing 5,000,000 acres west of Missis-
sippi for $1,000 000, Sept. 29, 1837 ; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837 ; PoweU
alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo-
rida, Oct. 20, 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans,
Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory — the Mandans
tribe entirely destroyed — Nov., Dec, 1837; fight in Arkansas between the
Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees — Ross and about 40 others killed, June
28, 1839 ; 150 Chippewas treacherously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet-
ing for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1. 1839 ; Cayuse Indians
in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and, carried off 64 pri-
soners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe
engagement, Nov. 29, 1847.
CNDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used
in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage
round the Cape of Good Hope it was conveyed like other Indian products,
partly through the Persian Gulf and partly by land to Babylon, or through
Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so
little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by
letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality
of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call
indicum is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beckmann. The first men-
tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1681. The first brought to
Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina,
in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b.,
and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b.
INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. III., about a. d. 800 ; were
much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro-
maij pontifis in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement
V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517,
Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, when the prac-
tice led to the Reformation in Germany, in 1517, and to the Reformation in
368 THE world's progress. [ INC
England, in 1534. — Bower's Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were fbr the
pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre-
sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and
signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe.
INFIRIMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis-
eased persons, however, were carried to the teni})le of ^sculapius for a cure,
as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder-
working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra-
vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and
the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste-
ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be
visited, a. d. 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the
sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen-
tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir-
maries, occurs in 1437. — Beckmann. See Hospitals.
INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they
being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished in-
formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to
Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particularly in London,
numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per-
sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed,
subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class.
INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and
Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black ; but they had likewise various
colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them of ver-
milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and
must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages,
most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity.
It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com-
posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckmann.
INNS OF COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different
periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of
which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the
Outer) was originally founded in the Temple church, built by the knights
Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temj)le were made
inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the 0»ter not until the
reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. — Stowe's Survey.
INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in
England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian-
ople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the
first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721.
The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy
from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr
Tenner, January 21, 1799; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had
been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was
voted 10,000Z. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na-
poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe-
berated Dr. Wickham when a prisoner of war, at Jenner's request, and
subsequently the emperoi liberated whole families of English, making it a
* Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair ny our grandfathers. The London Daily
Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph :— " We hear that the son and daughter of Thomai
Davi.son, esq.,-of Blakestone, have been inoculated in this town (Newcastle), and that they are
both we]] recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfuily up to 1754, and Dr.
Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II.. empress of Russia, in 1768. See Small Pox.
/NS j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 36^
point to refuse him nothing- that he asked. Innoculation introduced ia the
United States by Dr. B.Waterhouse, 1800. See Small Per and Vaccination.
tNQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantine the Great, the bishops
only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica-
tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as
were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates.
Tills continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power
was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con-
vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth
century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui-
sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It Avaa
instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203 , and Gregory IX. in a council held
a,t Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of
it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the
direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in France,
by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms of Spain. It was
established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated
in 1781 ; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the
work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still :?xer-
cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoining ridiculous penances and priva-
tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books.
TNdANITY. In England within twenty years, insanity has mpre than
tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than
it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in
England is as follows: lunatics 6806— idiots 5741 — together 12,547; but
allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14,000 — an ave-
rage of one to every tkousand of the population. In Wales : lunatics 133 —
idiots 763 — total 896 ; and adding for parishes that have made no returns,
they may be set down at 1000 — a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland
has 3652 insane persons — or one to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num-
_ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however,
were not completed. — Sir Andrev) Hallidaij. The number of insane persons
and idiots in the United States in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums
capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of
late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr. A. Brigham of Utica,
formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this
cause.
INSOLVENCY in the UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a ' commercial crisis'
was at its height. The 'heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone
amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans
to the amount of $27000 000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov.
1. 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay-
ments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately
after.
INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it
was of limited operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were
passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The
benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act. was taken in England,
by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a
period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have
been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose
debts are less than 300^., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose
compositions and have fro tern, protection from all process against his per-
son and pioptjrty, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended. 8 Vict., Aug., 1844.
INSURANCE ON SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that
16+
370 THE world's progress. [ INU
Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 43. Insurance was in genviral use
m Italy in 1194:. and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in
Florence in 1523. The tirst law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601.
Insurance of liouses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year
following that of the great tire of London. An oliice was then set up for
insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of
the tirst and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular
office set up in London was the Hand-in~Haiid^ in 1696. A duty was laid
on insurances of Is. Qd. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782 : this duty was
increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first i» ■
surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained.
li^^SURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in JMassa-
chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur-
rection in Pennsyh^ania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts
of Conspiracie.' , Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c.
rNTEREST OF MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twelfth cen-
tury. Fixed at twelve per cent, in Spain. Germany and Flanders, by Charles
V. in 1560. — Rohirtion. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow-
ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there-
fore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law in
England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII.. 1546. This law was repealed by
Edward VI. ; but it was restored by Elizabeth, In those days the monarch
could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest
was reduced to eight per cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21
James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent.\ and so
confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne, 1714, at
which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent.; regulated 14
George III.. 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury,
and punishable by the statute. — Btackstone. Jhe law does not now apply to
bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Laws.
INTEREST OP MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ-
ent States, viz: — In La. five ^r. ct., in Maine, N. H.. Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn.,
N. J., Pa.,' Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso.,
Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In
N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and
Flor., eight per ceyi^. Laws against^ usury, with penalty of forfeiting tho
whole debt, in Me., Conn., N. Y.. N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury,
and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void
in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark.
INUNDATIONS, . It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous
catastrophes which class under this head; the following are among the most
remarkable: —
An inundation at Glasgow, which (irowned
more than 400 families, 738. — Fordun.
Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town
and harbor of Ostend totally immersed,
1108. The pre?-ent city was built above a
league from the channel where the old one
lies submerged.— ///s?o/re de Fiandre.
hi the Texel, which first raised the com-
merce of Amsterdam, 1400.
The sea broke in at Don, and drowned 72
villages, and 100,000 people, and formed
the Zuyder Sea (see Durt), April 17, 1446.
The Severn overflowed during ten days, and
carried away men, women, and children,
in their beds, aid covered the tops of many
aaouritaius ; the water.<^. settled upon the
lands, and were called The Great Waters
for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 1483,—
Hollinshed.
A general inundation by the failure of th«
dikes in Holland, 1630 ; the number oi
drowned said to have been 400,000.
At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perish-
ed, 1617.
An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock
opened, and poured out water to the heiglit
of a church steeple, 1686.— Fzde Phil.
Trans.
Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants
were drowned, and incredible damage waa
done at Hamburg. 1717.
At Madrid, several of the Soanish n«bii^
lOM'
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
371
EKIJNDATIONS, continued.
and other persons of distinction perished,
1723.— Du Fresnoy.
In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their
lives by the torrents from the mountains,
Sept. 1787.
At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the
Danube, by which 24 villages and their
inhabitants were swept away, April 1811.
By the overflow of the Da tube, a Turkish
corps of 2000 men, on a s nail island near
Widdin. were surprised, and met instant
death, Sept. 14, 1813.
In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the
ruin of the French arm) under Macdonald
was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po-
land 4000 lives were supposed to have
been lost, same year.
In Germany, 119 villages were laid under
water, and great loss of life and property
was sustained, in March 1816.
Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by
the Vistula breaking through some of its
dikes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and
4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous
At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in-
habitants laid under water. Feb. 1830.
10,000 houses swept away, a' »; c.b(>ui lOOO
persons perished, at Cantor, ir China, in
consequence of pi ir '^i_dation, occasioned
by incessant rains. Equal or greater ca-
lamity was pruduced by the same cause
in other parts of China. Oct. 1833.
Awful inundation in France ; the Saone
poured its waters into the Rhone, brokij
through its banks, and covered 60,000
acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon
100 houses were swept away ■ 218 houses
were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and
Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such
a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4,
18^0.
Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or-
leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood-
ed. May 12, 1849.
The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi.
&c., at different times, have caused great
destruction of property, and (at times) of
life.
lives lost, April 9, 1829.
INVOCATION OF THE VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish
church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the
prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great,
about A. D. 593. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by
calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di-
vine offices ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca-
nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives
gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies,
prayers and oblations for and to them.
IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a
manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 ; the discovery was pursued with
great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active ; it is of a
violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable
blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel-
low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of
iodine form iodic acid.
IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty
of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and
Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power,
November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of
England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands
are now among the free states of Europe, Corfu is the principal, and the
seat of government.
IONIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement
on the Doric, was founded by the lonians. about 1350 b. c. — Vitruvius by
PerrmiU.
TONIC SECT OF PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c.
This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under
the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax-
imenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates.
TOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses-
sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchajed in 1803
under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the
Indians in Iowa was made in 1882. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter-
litory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111
372
THE world's progress.
[mft
IPSUS, Battle of, by whicli Seleucus is confirmed in his kingdom by the de-
feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo-
nus and his son ; on the other Selencus, Ptolemy. Lysimaclms, and Cas-
sander. ^The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and
10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in
fantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots, iflnti
gonus and his son were defeated, 301 b. c. — Plutarch.
IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country wat
originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the
first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about
2048 B. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b. c. This was
followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali-
cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171
kings.
Arrival of Heremon - - b. c. 1070
A colony from Spain bring with them
the Phoenician letters, about - - 500
Arrival of St. Patrick - - A. D. 448
The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is
crowned at Tara - - - 1002
Battle of Clontarf which terminates
the power of the Danes - - 1039
[In the twelfth century Ireland is divi-
ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster,
Leinster, Meath^ Connaught, and
Munster ; besides a number of petty
principalities, whose sovereigns con-
tinually war with each other.]
Adrian IV permitted Henry II. to in-
vade Ireland, on condition that he
compelled every Irish family to pay
a carolus to the Holy See, and held
it as a fief of the church - - 1157
Henry II. lands near VVaterford, and re-
ceives the submissions of the kings
and princes of the country, settles the
government upon a footing similar to
that of England, and makes his son
John lord of Ireland - - - 1172
Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210
English laws and customs introduced
by king John 1210
Henry VIII. assumes the title of king.,
instead of lord of Ireland - - 1542
The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to
expel the English, and cruelly mas-
sacre the Protestant settlers m Ulster,
to the number of 40,000 persons, com-
menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641
Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole
island to obedience between 1649 and 1656
Landing of king William III. at Car-
ricklergus - - June 14, 1690
Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke of
Schomberg killed • July 1, 1690
Memorable Irish rebellion commenced
May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup-
pressed until the next year - - 1799
Legislative Union of Great Britain and
Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1801
Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803
Roman Catholic emancipation. (See
Roman Catholics') - April 13, 1829
Great repeal movement ; meeting at
Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843
O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844
O'Connell died at Genoa, aet. 72, May 15, 1847
Famine and great distress in Ireland
throughout - - - - 1847
Relieved by England, and by voluntary
gifts from the United States.
Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland
passed parliament - Dec. 20. 1847
Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848
Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848
Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel-
lion put down - - Aug. 5, 1848
IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the
mount having been burnt by lightning, 1482 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles.
The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass
to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain.
Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were
placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds,
Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of
Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude. in Sussex,
in 1543. — Rymer's Pozdera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into
bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first
introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of
iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamors,
&c., see Steamers.
* Tiiere is iron enough in the blood of fcrty-two men to make a ploughshare weighing tweiity-
fom poimds.-
ITA J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 373
IKON-MASK, THE MAN of the. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a
maslv, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pigneroi. Sainte Mar-
guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was
treated with profound respect ; but his keepers had orders to dispatch hina
if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his
table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an
Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died
ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois,
son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp
before Dixmude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of
BeaufV.i t, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia ;
while ?till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon-
mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on
Tower-hill But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been
a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIIL, his father being the duke
of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was con-
cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have
caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703.
ISLAMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca,
where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two
Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the
other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his
Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times
from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he
publicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of
God, A. D. 604. See Koran, Mecca, c^c.
ISLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 ; but the Dutch
were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at
Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and
many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos-
session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony, ^qq, Mauritius.
[SMAEL, Siege of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who
lost 20-000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December
22, 1790 ; when the Russian general, SuAvarrow, the most merciless and sa-
vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting
of 30 000 men, to the sword ; every man was butchered ; and Suwarrow,
not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of
his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were
murdered in cold blood.
tSSUS. Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle
with him ; Darius loses 100.000 men, and his queen and family are cap-
tured, 333 B. c— Plutarch. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse
in the field ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus
Slculus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot
and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were
left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Justin.
[STHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received
their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti-
tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted
in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred
and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it. 1259 b. c —
Arundelian Marbles.
fTALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re-
ceived its name from Italus, a king of the covn'.ry, or from Italos, a Greek
word signifying an ox. The aborigines ol Italy vere the progeny of
SU
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[JAl
Mesbec'i, the sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, . the Gomerites oi
Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into
Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di-
vided into three grand parts, viz. — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the
Celts ; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants ; and Magna
Grsecia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy
may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely
to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and w^ho founded on its ruins the
kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular Views
410
447
553
568
596
697
774
800
Rome taken and plundered by the Visi
goths under Alaric. See Rome A. D.
The Huns ravage the Roman empire
under Altila, " the Scourge of God'^ -
The 'Western Roman empire is de-
stroyed by 'he Heruli. whose leader,
Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 476
The reign of Totila, who twice pillages
Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to
such distress, that the ladies and peo-
ple of quality are obliged to beg for
bread at the doors of the Goths - 511 to 552
The power of the Goths destroyed, and
their kingdom overthrown by the ge-
nerals of the Eastern empire -
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the
Lombards from Germany into this
country ....
The Lombards overrun Italy
Venice first governed by a doge
Charlemagne invades Italy -
He repairs to Rome, and is crowned
emperor of the West -
[During the reign of Charlemagne, the
pope of Rome, who had hitherto been
merely a spiritual minister, finds
means to assume a temporal power,
not only independent of, but superior
to all others.]
Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus-
es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053
Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde-
brand, pretends to universal sove-
reignty, in which he is assisted by the
countess Matilda, mistress of the
greater part of Italy, who makes a do-
nation of all her estates to the Church 1076
Disputes between the popes and empe-
rors, relative to the appointment of
bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate
Italy and Germany during several
centuries.
The Venetians obtain many victories
over the Eastern emperors - -1125
Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208
The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and
Reggio are created - - - 1228
Milan erected into a duchy - - 1277
The papal seat removed for seventy
years to Avignon, in France - - I'Soi
The cardinals not agreeing in the elec-
tion of a pope, they set fire to the con-
clave, and se[>arate, and the papal
chair is left vacant for two years - 13; 4
Louis Gonzaga makes himself master
oi' Mantua, with the title of imperial
vicar .... 132£
Lucca becomes an independent repui.
lie 137U
Naples conquered by Cwarlcs VIII. - 1492
The republic of Venice loses all its Ita-
lian provinces in a single campaign,
assailed by the pope, the emperor,
and the kings of Spain and France - 1502
Leo X. having exhausted all his finan-
ces, opens the sale of indulgences and
absolutions, which soon replenishes
his treasury .... 1517
Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545
Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of
Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569
Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen-
dar. See Calendar - - - 1582
Ambassadors from Japan to the pope.
See Jeddo .... 1619
The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese,
and choose Theodore for their king.
See Corsica .... 1736
Milan vested in the house af Austria by
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748
Division of the Venetian states by
France and-Austria - - - 1797
Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by
Bonaparte - - - - - 1798
The Italian republic - - - 1802
Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo-
leon crowned - - - - 1805
Eugene Beauhamois made Viceroy of
Italy 1805
The kingdom ceases on the overthrow
of Napoleon - - - - 1814
[The various other events relating to
Italy will be found under the respec-
tive heads of Genoa, Lomburdy. Mi'
Ian, Naples, Rome, Venice, ^c]
The population of the whole of Italy proper now amoimts to 23,677,000.-
Alm. de Gotha.
J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du
Fresnoy.
JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re-
volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association
of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminate.
JAN J DICTIONARY Ol LaTES, 37*
political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from theii
meeting- in the hail of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nu-
merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin-
cipal towns of the king-dom. From its institution, one principal object was,
to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the
national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They
are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo-
cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand
spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. The
religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules
of St. Dominick. See Dominicans.
JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba-
radaeus. a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and
seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites.
They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul-
sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed
their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites ; the dis-
tinction is now entirely lost.
JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked,
and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history,
the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bona-
parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by the British in
, June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred
3800 prisoners by Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted.
JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from
the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables
in 1655 ; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St.
Domingo. An an'ful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was
desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June
1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose
against the English, and M'ere not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous
hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses
washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned. October
1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which
numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroy-
ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared
the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here, Aug. 26,
1843. The Cholera in 1850.
JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly
reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by
Amurath I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to
an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them
were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman
was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards,
JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres
about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "Augusti-
nus.'' a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace,
and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro-
versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a buU of pope Ur-
ban Vlll.
--ANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a
divinity among the early Romans. See next oj-tide. January was added to
the Roman calendar by Numa. 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol-
stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside
over the beginning of all business. This g' id was painted with two faces
376 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ JEM
because, as some persons have it, on the one side the firstof January looked
towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first
day, it Avas customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other
presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among
us, was originally taken.
JANUS, Temple of, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in
the tune of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during
above 700 years, viz : — under Numa, 714 b, c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c. ;
and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed
in war,
JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after
an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was
driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About
this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher,
and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris,
March 31, 1814.
JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo ; and
was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous iis
the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period beg\ns
with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year
660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num-
ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under-
went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See
Jeddo.
JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20 000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch,
sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740,
and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon
their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August
8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the Enghsh, and the hereditary
prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland
in 1814.
JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1,680,000 inhabitants, a num-
nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the
court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion,
which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis-
sionaries ; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over-
turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expelled in 1622^^ and the
inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of
indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars
of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories
high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con-
cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city.
JEMMAPPES, Battle of, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern
times; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in
woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number
of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle,
whhh lasted four days. According to the most authentic accountf*, the
number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,009, on that
of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792.
JRNA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the
French and Prussian armies ; the one commanded by the emperov Na-
poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with
the loss of 30,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoner* lit
JES I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377
this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced U
iierlin, Oct. 14, 1806
JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy
of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con-
queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A
b<^dy of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and
compelled him to sign a capitulation; but major Pierson, the commander ot
the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked
the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was
killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781.
JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found-
ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October
30, 1004 B. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ — Blair ;
Usher ; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by
Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one
of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews
perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by
the emperor Adrian, a. d. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu-
doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614 ; by the Saracens
in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword,
1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from
the Christians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the
Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in
February 1799. See Jews.
JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as " a witty and jocose
person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other
men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English
kings kept jesters, and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court
in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards.
JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized),
a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army.
Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d.
1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi-
litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi-
cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage
to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order
in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul III. who
made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of
chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the
holy see. the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by
which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken
off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and
Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow-
erful and numerous. But though Fran9ois Xavier, and other missionaries,
the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable
globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Firis. The
Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution,
as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful.
Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order,
have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng-
land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put
down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated,
1764; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV.
in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerat- 1 in othe»- states.
378
THE world's progress.
[ JEA*
and even where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a se-
cret and extensive existence.
JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, a. m. 4004, in the year ol
Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence-
ment of the common era. Christ's baptism by John, and
his first ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted
the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri-
day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5 ; ascended
to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following- : and his
Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost. May 24^
A. D. 33.
JTEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex-
travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia
Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322.916Z. sterling. Jewels
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex-
tensively encouraged in England in 1685, See article Dress.
JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidas until
the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them.
They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years
and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish
time to ours, subtract 3761 years.
JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They
derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa-
ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b. c. See Tabular
Views, p. 6 to p. 42.
JEWS, Modern History of.
Tilus takes Jerusalem ; the city and
temple are sacked and burnt, and
I.IOU.OOO of the Jews perish, multi-
tudes destroying themselves A. D. 70
100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur-
dered by the Jews about Gyrene - 115
Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects
a temple to Jupiter - - - 130
More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain
by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136
[They are now banished from Judea by
an edict of the emperor, and are for-
bidden to return, or even to look back
upon their once tiourishing and be-
loved city, on pain of death. From
this period, the Jews have been scat-
tered among all other nations.]
GENERAL HISTORY.
Jews first arrive in England - - 1078
Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at
a solemnization of the Passover, they
sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich
tradesman at Paris, for which the
criminals are executed, and all Jews
banished France - - - 1080
The Jews massacred in London, on the
coronation-day of Richard I., at the
instigation of the priests - - 1089
500 being besieged in York castle by
the mob. they cut each other's throats
to avoid their fury - - - 1190
Jews of both sexes imprisoned; their
eyes or teetli plucked out, and num-
bers inhumanly butchered, by king
John - - - - - 1204
They circumcise and attempt to cruci-
fy a child at Norwich; the offenders
are condemned in a fine of 20,000
marks ..... 1235
They crucify a child at Lincoln, for
which eighteen are hanged - - 1255
700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew
having forced a Christian to pay him
more than 2s. per week as interest
upon a loan of 20s. — Stowe - .1262
Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free-
hold, passed .... 1269
Every Jew lending money on interest
compelled to wear a plate on his
breast signifying that he was a usu-
rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274
267 Jews hanged and quartered for
clipping coin .... 1277
They crucify a child at Northampton,
for which fifty are drawn at horses'
tails and hanged - - - 1282
15,660 Jews are apprehended in one
day, and are all banished England.—
jRapin 1287
Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the
peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in
a castle, where, for want of weapons,
they throw their children at their en-
emies, and then destroy one another 131
A fatal distemper raging in Europe,
they are suspected of having poison-
ed the springs, and l,oOO,000"dre mas-
sacred. — Lenglet. - - - 1348
500,000 Jews are banished Spain, and
150,000 from Portugal - - 1492
They are banished France • - 1494
After having been banished England
365. years, they are re-admitted by
Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with
Manasseh Beu Israel - • . 1C53
JUD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 37 3
JEWS, continued.
Statute to naturalize them in England,
passed - - - - • 1753
This act i-epealed on the petition of all
the cities in England - - - 1754
The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and
Avignon are declared to be citizens
of France - - - -1790
Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris,
convened by the emperor Napoleon
Jan. 20, 1807
London Society for promoting Christi-
anity among the Jews - - 1808
Alexander of Russia grants land on the
sea of Azoph to converted Jews,
Sept. 1, 1820
Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng- i
land, lost on the second reading, by a
majority in the Commons, 228 against
165 - - - May 17, 1330
Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff
of London ; and knighted by the
queen, being the first Jew on whom
that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 18J7
Ukase of the emperor of Russia, per-
mitting the title of citizen of the first
class to be held by any Jew who ren-
ders himself worthy of it - - ISiJ?
Owing to the disappearance ol a Greek
priest, a persecution of the Jews be-
gan at Danascus. — See Damascus
Feb. 1, 1840
JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine
of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of
Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles
VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised
the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the En-
glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the
enterprise. May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession
cf the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429.
In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct.
She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed
any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne,
May 25, 1481 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, Avas burnt for a
witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her
age. — Voltaire's Pucelle (V Orleans.
JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well
known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and
since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard
Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses.
JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty
years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by
pope Boniface VIII. , in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years
by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban
VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at
which period it is now fixed
FUDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciariui
Anglice: these judges continued until the erection of tlie Coiirts of King's
Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Angluz
was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward 1.
1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, Wil-
liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent-
ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des-
potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of
Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench
1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535,
Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken otf the bench
and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of
them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the
crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by
the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the
judges in England was established by making their appointments patents
for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges,
380 THE world's progress. [ jni
one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took liis seat as
vice-chancellor, May 5, 1813.
JUDGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in
number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and
Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have
been John Jay, appointed, 1789; William Cushing, of Mass., 1796; Oliver
Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Cir-
cuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States
are thus appointed : —
By the Governor and Legislature^ or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Loaisana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan.
By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersej-^
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas,
Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois.
By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky.
By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York,* and Maryland.
The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good
behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina. Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois.
Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut.
Until sixty-tive years of age, in Missouri.
For periods varying from two to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala-
bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan; and for
one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont.
They are removable —
By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court
of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of As-
sembly, in New York.
.JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of
Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire
land in cases of lunacj^ — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts,
of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad — from the Courts of the
Isle of Man, the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William
IV. 1833.
JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venera-
tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two
rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted Vermil-
lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god
is stated at 1.200,000 annually: of these a great many never return, and
to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed with human bones : the
temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years.
JUGURTHA, the War with. A memorable war against the Numidian to re-
duce his kingdom, commenced 111 b. c. and continued five years. Csecilius
Metellus was first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and
afterwards Sylla and Marius ; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to
Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and w^ars of Jugurtha have been
immortalized by the pen of Sallust.
JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the
lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It con.sists of 798C
* The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new consU
tution of 1846.
JUR] DrCTFONARY OF DATES. 38!
years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput-
ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period
antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mun-
dane eras used at diflferent times. By subtracting 4713 from the Juhan
period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from
4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year.
JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of
C. Caesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month
in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the
year, 713 b. c. See those months severally, and article Year
JTJNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year,
ft had its name Junius, which some derive d. Junone, and otliers a Juniori-
bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons.
When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is
now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year.
JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political
writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They
were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power-
ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British
literature. Tliese letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes,
Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. J.
Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge-
neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but '.iie matter is still
hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall
perish with rae." — Junius. And recently to Horace Walpole.
JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans: to the for-
mer, it is said 3000, b. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens,
made about 600 b. c, and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this
chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter
were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610 ; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed
some acquaintance with them about twenty years before.
JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep-
tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen
appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property,
and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false
verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed
to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of
the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be
one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 ^dward III. 1353.
By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge
peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord of parliament,
and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge
any of his peers.
JURIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used
to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common
law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A
jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree
upon a verdict ; and maybe confined without meat, drink, or candle, till
they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their
pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though
they did not eat it. — Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to
agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the
court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791.-—
PMUips.
382 THE world's progress. [ KIE
JUSTICES OF THE PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex-
tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish-
ment by tlie king's bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of the
peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076.
— Stoive. In the United States the office is held by special appointment,
and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years.
JUSTINIA.N CCDE. Wherein was written what may be termed the statute
law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529.
To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and
Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body
of civil law {corpus juris civilis). A digest was made in 533. — Blair.
K.
KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro-
duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr,
Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument
perfected in 1817., when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in-
tended to assist Jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the
formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number.
KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis-
covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of
by Russia in 1697 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by
• Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be
considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year
being dreary winter.
KENILWORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected
subsequently by John of Gaunt; and its remains now form one of the most
picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred
on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en-
tertained Mithin its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment
of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily lOOOZ. a vast
expenditure in those times.
KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone,
an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775.
Was a pa^t of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad
mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73 677 ; in 1810, 406,511 ,
in 1830, 688,844 ; in 1840, 779.828, including 182,258 slaves.
KEYS. The inventionXif them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny,
about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of
Troy, 1193 b. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form
was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient
keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze.
The late P>ancis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter-
minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this
descrii)tion were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again
upon divorce or separation.
KIEL. Treaty of. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan-
uary 14. 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously
the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent
a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The mission
was fruitless. On the contrary, the Enghsh blockaded the ports of Norway,
and the Swedes entered by land. The Norw^egians fought some brave actions,
but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and thp
die*" elected the king of Sweden to be their king.
gm I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 38S
KING. The Latin Rex., the Scythian Bets, the Spanish Rey. the French Rot,
all come from the Hebrew Rosc/i, chief, or head. Nimrod was the tirsi
founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Dtt Fresnoy. Misraim built cities in
Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of king in that division of tho
earth. Saul w^as the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states
were governed by kings; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians
understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo-
ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, tht
sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject : there wa.s
a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public
and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he sbould
devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice..
the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served,
were all prescribed.
KING o-F ENGLAND. The style '■ kiig of England," was first used by Egbert
A. D. 828; but the title Rex gentis Angtorum, king of the English nation,
existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we,
us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of '• king of Ire-
land." by British sovereigns, was not assumed until 542, when Henry VIII.
changed turd of Ireland into king. The style '■ Great Britain " was adopted
at the imion of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707; and of the 'United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan-
uary 1, 1801. when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus : — •
^'Georgius Tertius, Dei Ch-atta Britanniariim Rex^ Fidei Defensor,''^ '-George
the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith."
KING OF THE FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title oi
" king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that oJ
" king of the French," October 16. 1789. The royal title was abolished in
1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I.
was invited to the monarchy under the style of the '• king of the French."
August 9, 1830. See France.
KING OF HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term
queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds
to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals ot
Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See
Hungary.
K-ING OF THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest
sons might be chosen their successors in their own lifetime politically ob-
tained them the title of -king of the Romans," this people being compre-
hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in
1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to
Germany, wheie he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected
next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in
succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style '■ king of Rome " was revived
by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811 :
but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, Ai^ril
5, 1814.
KING'S BENCH, Court of, in England. Obtained its name from the king
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the
judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdi>
tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control
as others, because the law presumes the king to be here in person, Tlie
name of this court has been altered to that of Queen's Bench, since x.\w
384 THE world's progress. [ KNi
accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions In
immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign.
KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England,
The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar
ciedulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four-
teen years, 92,107 persons were touched ; and, according to Wiseman, tho
king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an-
nounced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch
publicly for the cure of the evil ; and touching for it continued a custom un-
til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714.
KING'S SPEECH. The fiist royal speech from the throne was delivered by
Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accus-
tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become
chief of a new administration, said — " Canning being now minister, of one
thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati-
cal blunders in king's speedies ; these things will still be wi itten in the
same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in
a perspicuous and pure style." — Cobbett.
KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to
have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ ; he was the founder of the Babylonian
monarchy, 2215 b. c. — Usher. Menes. or Misralm, makes his son Atholas,
surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Toso-
thrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 b. c. — BLalr. Ninus founds the As-
syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c. — Lenglet.
KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing
was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas
approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss-
ing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns,
and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century.
From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling
to his lord in homage, first practised, a.d. 709.
KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and
gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, for the purpose of
promoting the Erotestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they
efiected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele,
and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of
the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook,
who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and
who served them with pastry. — Bowyer's Life qf Queen Anne.
KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived
from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in
Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who.
after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about
750 B. c. — Livy.
KNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations,
particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and
Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the cru-
saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the chief
amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood,
and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights
travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and figlit in the
cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Don
Quixote.
RNIGHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after
KNI 1
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
385
confession and consecration of the sword, during- the Saxon Heptarch/
The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state was Athti-
Stan, on whom Alfred bestowed this new dignity, a. d. 900. — Spelmav: The
custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed
in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. — Ashmole's Institutes. All persons
having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine,
38 Henry III. 12f)4:.-- Salmon.
KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chi-
valry, knighthood is to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de-
cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state ol
anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his man-
sion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle.
Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the w^omen and
treasure were carried ofi' by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich
fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and
to protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow.
and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being- men ot
the highest rank and largest possessions, adiiission into the order was
♦leemed a great honor.
MILITARY, RELTCVTOUS, AND
Alcantara, instituted - - A. D
Alexander Nevskoi, Russia
Amaranta, Sweden
Angelic Knights, Greece
Annunciada, Mantua
Annunciation, Savoy-
Argonauts, Naples
Avis, Portugal
Band, Spain
Bannerets, England, 1360. Renewed,
See Bannerets - - - -
Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See
Bath - - -
Bear, Switzerland -
Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by-
Frederick I. -
Blood of Christ, Mantua
Bro-.heiiy Love, instituted ' •
Burgundian Cross - - -
Calatrava, Castile, instituted by San
cho III. . . . -
Carpet, England - - -
Catharine, Russia
Chase, instituted by the duke of Wir-
temberg
Christ, Livonia -
Christ, Portugal
Christian Charity, France
Cincinnatus, America
Conception of the Virgin
Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris-
tian Ernest, elector of Brandenhurgh
Crescent, Naples ■ - - -
Crown Royal, France -
Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by
Waldemar II., 1219 ; revived by
Christian V. - - - -
Death's Head, Female Order, by the
widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe
Mersburgh
Dove of Castile
Dragon, Hungary
Earof Corn, Brittany
Elephan'. Denmark, by Christian I.
tCr-mine, France -
Garter England
1485
17-25
1213
1701
1608
1708
1535
1156
1553
1698
1719
1203
1319
1590
1783
1619
1660
1448
802
1671
-1709
-1379
-1439
- 1050
-1478
- 14.50
-1350
Generosity, Brandenburgh - - 1685
Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by
Philip, surnamed the Good - - 1429
Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel - - 1785
Golden Shield and Thistle - - -1370
Golden Spur, by Pius IV. - • 1559
Guelphic, Hanover - - • - 1816
Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived - 1559
Holy Ghost, Rome - - -1198
Holy Trinity ]'21l
Hospital ler.s {ichich see) • - 1092
Januarius, Naples - - - - 1738
.lerusalem. See Malta - - - 1048
.Jesus, France - - - - 1206
Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John
XXIL, 1415. Reformed by Paul V. 1610
Knot, Naples .... 1351
La Calza, Venice - - - - 1400
Legion of Honoi-, France, instituted by
Napoleon Bonaparte - - - 1802
Lily of Arragon - - - - 1403
Lily of Navarre .... 1048
Loretto, Lady of • - - - 1587
Malta. See Malta. - - - 1531
Martyrs. Palestine - - - - 1319
Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain 1792
Mauritians, Savoy - - - 1430
Merit, instituted by the landgrave of
Hesse Cassel • - • - "
Merit, Prussia ....
Noble Passion, Germany -
Oak of Navarre, Spain -
Passion of Jesus Christ, I'tance
Pius, founded by Pius IV. - - •
Porcupine, Fran-,e
Red Eagle, Prussia - - - -
Redemption, instituted -
Rosary, Spain - - - -
Round Table, Endand— See Knighta
of the Round Tlible -
,St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes
to this saint the introduction of Chris-
tianity into Muscovy)
St. Andrew, Scotland, 809; renewed
1452 ; and again by James VI. • 1605
St. Anthony, Ethiopia - - 357
1785
1740
1704
722
1382
1559
1393
1792
1212
1172
528
1698
17
.36
THE world's progress.
[ KN
St. Michael, Germanj •
St. Patrick, Ireland -
St. Paul, Rome -
S'. Pe(er, Rome
St Riipeit, Germany, by tl.aarchbish
op olSaltzbiu-gh
St. Sepulchre, Palestine
St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis.
grand-duke of Tuscany
St. Thomas of Aeon -
Saviour, Greece - - June
Seraphinis, Sweilen -
Shij) ami Crescent, France
Sincerity, instituted by the elector of
Saxony ....
Slaves of Virtue, Germany
Swan, Cieves
Sword, Cyprus -
Sword, Sweden, 1523 ; revived
Templars. — See 'rt-mplata
Teste Morte, Wurtemburg -
Teutonic, 1190 ; renewed in Prussia
Thistle of Bourbon
Thistle of Scotland, 812; revived •
Trinitarians, Spain
Truxilfo, Spain
United l,adies for the honor of Lie
Cross, in Germany
Virgin Mary - - . .
Virgin of Mount Carmei, France
V^^arfare of Christ, Poland -
Warfare of Christ, Russia
Wing of St. Michael, Portugal
Wladimir, Russia
1618
1783
1540
1520
1701
lOOi
1561
1370
1833
1331
126-1
169H
1662
960
119^
1772
1118
1652
1522
1370
1540
1594
1227
1233
1607
1705
1325
1165
1682
K^'IGHTHOOD in EUROPE, confmueJ.
St. Anthony, Hainault - - ■ 1382
St. Blaze, Aeon - - - 12.50
St. Catharine, Palestine - - - 1163
St. Catharine, Russia - - 1698
St. Denis, France - - - 1267
St. George, Austria - - - - 1470
St. George, Carinthia - - - 1279
St. George, Defender of the Immacu-
late Conception, Bavaria - - 1729
St. George, England ; instituted by Ed-
ward 111. See Garter - - 1349
St George ; tutelary saint of Genoa, by
Frederick 111. - - - - 1460
St. George, Rome - - - 1496
St. George, Russia - - - - 1782
St. George, Spain - - - 1318
St. George, Venice • - - - 1200
St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of
Juliers and Clevos • • -1417
St. .lame.s, Holland - - ■ - 1290
St. James, Portugal - - - 1310
St. James, Spain - - - - 1030
St. Jerome, Germany - - • 11.54
St. John of Aeon - - - -1370
St. John of Jerusalem - • • 1048
St. John of Malta - - - -1522
St. John of Rhodes - - - 1300
St. Julien, of Alcantara • • -1176
St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman-
uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - - 1572
St. Louis. France - - - - 1693
St. Mark, Venice, 830 ; renewed - 1!562
St. Mary the Glorious - - - 12.33
St. Mary de Merced, Spain • - 1218
St. Michael, France - - - - 1469
KNIGHTS, Female. The title of knight, which was given to men of superioi
worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to womer
also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved the
city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their
stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the
Moors were forced_to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors were
granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion.
KJ^IGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about a. d.
528. — Asset's Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward
III. at Windsor, upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the
recovery of France, whicli descended to him in right of his mother, became
anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest and thereupon
projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a
solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise.
He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return
of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those
jousts and tournaments. — Beatson.
KT>fIGHTS OF THE SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by
Doomsday-book, were 700 in number, but being split into small parts, were
greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but the
latter, or lesser barons were allowed to choose two representatives, hence
called knights of the shire, a. d, 1307.
EKIt^HTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted a. d. 1118
They came to England early in Stejjhen's reign, and settled at the Temple
in London ; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knights
were arrested in France in one day. being charged with great crimes, and
possessing great riches ; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oct.
LAB I DICTIONARY OF DATES, 387
1-307. Those in England were all seized the same year. Thei. order waf
abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Vienne, in 1312;
and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given
to the knights of Malta. See Malta.
KNIVES. First made in England in 1563. They were the earliest branch of
cutler5^ and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Bridge, Lon-
don, 5th Eliz., 1563. — Chavtberlahi' s England, edit. 1683. See Forks.
K'ORAN, OR ALKORAN op MAHOMET, written about a. d. 610. Its genera]
aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in
the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under
certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro-
phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which cer-
tainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho«
met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twenty-
three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful,
fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are de-
scribed, it is sublime and magnificent". Mahomet admitted the divine mis-
sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ. — Dr. Jortin. The leading artujle of
faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and
a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet
is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in
1143 ; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq.
It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran ;
Islaviism; Mecca; Maliometism, d^c.
LA HOGUE, Battle of, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under
admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded hy admiral
Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a
splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight
more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon
England, May 19, 1692.
LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed
from France for the Pacific, with the Boussok and Astrolabe under his com-
mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay,
in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search
of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the
East India ship Researck, ascertained that the French ships had been cast
away on two different islands of the New Hebrides — a fate authenticated by
various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought
with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards.
LA VENDEE, War of. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were
successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought be-
tween July 12, 1793, and January 1. 1794, when they experienced a severe
reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success,
until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800.
LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history : the first was built by
Daedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b. c. ;
the second in Egypt in the isle of Moeris, by Psammeticus, king of that
place, 683 b. c. ; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the
Hetruriae, about 520 b. c. — Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of
Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with
pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture. — Herodotus.
The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of
388 THE world's PftOGRESS. [ LAM
Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry 11. ; there is a curious Maze at Hampton
Court that is much visited.
liACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in Fraace and
Flanders in 1320 ; and tine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills foi
the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace
was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien-
nes. Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An
ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounda
in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty
pounds, ten times the price of standard gold.
LACED^MON. See Sparta. Lelez begins the kingdom of Lolegia, in Laco-
nia, 1516 b. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Lacedse-
mon, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 b. c. The city of Sparta
was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is mosi
known. The Lacedaemon republic became famous in nistory after 700 b. c,
particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71
B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. — Thucydides ; PriesLley.
LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the
poor weekly with their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were
therefore called Lcf-days — two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the
words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady,
that is. Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of
Louis Xn! of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properly
belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom
has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women
of enunence or gentility. See Lord.
LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in nun*
ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives
having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft,
he named the islands the Ladroncs, or Islands of Thieves, which they are
called to this day.
LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a. d. 850,
according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century accord-
ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought
to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called
the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its
chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con-
nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In
England; before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th
of March.
IxA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of American
independence ; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nineteen
years old. He raised a corps at his own expense ; was wounded at Brandy-
wine ; employed in Rhode Island, 1778 ; visited France, promoting new re-
inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumphal
reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure, Aug. 13, 1824 ; re-
ceived from Congress the sum of S200 000 and a township of land in reward
for his services ; returned to France in the frigate Brandy wine. September
7, 1825.
LAMPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; they
were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic-
tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 3000
drachmas, a. d. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of jMfred.
Lamps were in general use through the streets of London up to the close
LAN] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389
of the 18th century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boy &
London streets were first hghted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas lamps
in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture; of this kind
is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, et seq.
See Safety Lamp.
LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual
instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell; they were not
much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's sys-tem attracted general
attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder
who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from
1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of
them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in
Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819.
LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Henry VIII. 1544.
The whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,000Z. in 1600. It was
about 14,000,000?. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of
10 ^er cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50
millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40
millions; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior
class of houses. See Income Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has
been recently estimated in parliament at 1 27 millions, but authorities vary
much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S.
LAXDGrRAYE. This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do-
minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century; it be-
came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the
rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse
Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse.
LANG-SIDE, Battle op; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the
earl of Murray, and the army of Mary queen of Scots, in which the latter
suffered a complete defeat, May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal
battle, the unfortunate Mary tied to England, and landed at Workington, in
Cumberland, on May 16 ; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Ehzabeth.
LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from hea-
ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced-by
Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the
former opinion by the great majority of the Jews and Christians, and the pro-
foundest philosophers of Erance and England. It has been affirmed that
Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam : but others deny this, and say that
the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has
for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring
to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two
children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they
were two years old : they were then brought into his presence, and they
both pronounced the sound leccos, the Phoenician term for Iread. He there-
fore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to all other
nations, G47 B. C. — Herodotus, Polyczn., Straho.
LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The
original European ones are thirteen, viz: Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian,
spoken in the east : Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in
the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Illyrian, the Jazygian, remain-
ing yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic,
in East Priesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. Prom the Latin
spruDg the Italian, French and Sianish ; and from the Spanish the Portu-
guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From the High
Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danisli, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch,
nOO THE AVORLD'S progress. [ LAT
&e. There are 3664 kuown languages now used in the world Of these,
937 are Asiatic; 587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American languages
and dialects. — Professor Adelung.
LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn
were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn
was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign,
A. D. 872-901. — Stowe's Ghron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns,
with glass sides, a. d. 1415. The pellucid laminas of the ox horn have served
for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses are
preferred. See article, Lamps.
LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally
allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages-
ander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and of great eminence
as statuaries ; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group ia
allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by
human hands.
LATERAN, COUNCILS OP the. They were held in the Basilica of the La,-
teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five : by the first, the right
of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry
v., 1122; by the second council were secured the temporalities of ecclesias-
tics, 1139; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179; the fourth on
church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots; and the fifth was
the famous council of Julius II., 1512.
LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to shape
them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude
construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 b. o.
Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe engines
frequently cost thousands of pounds.
LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and
from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the
Latini, and the Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most
beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be
spoken in Italy, about a. d. 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adel-
mus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred
years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings from the Tweed
to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more
or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon-
tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731.
LATITUDE, First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 b. c. It is
the extent of the earth or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to
either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude,
and made it 69.493 ; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it
69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732; and
Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it
69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12; and Biot,
68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63 — less than at
the equator; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro-
late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and others,
while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid.
LATIUM. Now the city of Romania ; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum,
who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines, 901 b. c.
Laurentura was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium
under ^neas. and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally
known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus had
founded the city of Rome in their country.
LAWj DICTTOXARY OF DATES. 391
LATTER-DAY SAINTS. A new sect, whose principles are variously repre'
sented. By some we are told that their tenets do not vary much from thoso
of the Church of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the
foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of
curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work
ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generatioi
of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire
and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. G-real
numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States.
LAWS, ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807
B. c, were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe-
nians, 623 B. C. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of
Solon, 578 B, C. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 B. C. ; they
remained in full force for TOO years, and are calculated to raise our admira-
tion, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a race
of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman
laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermoginian
codes were published in a. d. 290. The' Theodosian code in 435. The Jus-
tinian code, in 529, and the digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Law.
LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the
Saxon, in a. d. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's
code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, waa
compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated
his- laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of general liberties, 1136: Henry Il.'a
confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194.
See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation
by Henry III., 1216, et seq. See Magna Charta and Forests, Charter of the.
Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench,
' That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the
fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Mansfield,
LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro-
jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller-
general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta-
blishing a bank, an East India,' and a Mississippi company, by the profits of
which the national debt of Prance was to be paid off. He first offered hia
plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful
enough to ruin himself The French ministry accepted it in 1710 ; and in
1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke
of Orleans, regent of Prance ; and most of the people of property of every
rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed
both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal
bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so
that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the
current specie in Prance. But the following year this great fabric of false
credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government,
ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des-
perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same
fatal year, 1720.— Rist. of France, Nbuv. Did.
LAWYERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been
first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign 1291. Serjeants, the highest
members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common
Pleas. The first king's counsel under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis
Bacon, in 1604. There are about 12uO barristers in England : and the num-
ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor-
neys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers ia
the United States, was published in New York. 1850.
392 THE world's peogeess. [li:a
LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Bri-
tain, and in some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydes-
dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland and
Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. The finest sort of black lead,
that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great
quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use
in 1236.
LEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELiaiOUS. The League of the Public Good,
was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and othei"
princes against Louis XI. of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was
entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The
League of Smalcald, 1529 The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so
called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the
Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi-
nence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France, who was then of the
reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The League of Wurtzburg,
1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League and Covenant in
Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal
authority, 13 Charles 1 , 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686.
LEAP-YEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono-
mers of Julius Caesar, 45 B. c. The}'- fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours,
comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another;
the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the
fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was
called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile. This almost
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through-
out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, when
the calendar was altered to its present state. See Galendo.r. The difference
between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds,
and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in
the course of years caused 1700 and 1800 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900
be a leap-year; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Year., Gregorian
Calendar, &c.
LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the
Greeks during the fourth century b. C. ; and with the Romans with the com-
mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined
until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about a.d,
1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors,
that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from
Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, et seq. After the dark ages, came Brunetto, Latini,
and numerous enlightened men ; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou-
ragement to literature and the arts.
The illustrious Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550.
— Fontana. And about this time literature began to flourish in France,
Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the
"golden," by others, the "Augustan age" of English literature.
LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of
ma.^ufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations.
The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 B. C. The ancients un-
derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England,
and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into
many uses : a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times,
and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. The duty on leather produced
annually in England, 450,0002., and in Ireland, about 50,OOOZ. It was abo
'\shed in both countries. May 29,1830.
LEP] DICTIOXART OT DATES. 393
LEGHORN. Livorno. This citv suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741.
It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 11, 1796,
but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously
removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken
the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital-
ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813.
LEGrlON. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first
formed by Romulus, under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse,
about 750 b. c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 b. c, the legion consisted
of 5000 soldiers; and under Marius, in 88 b. c, it was 6200 soldiers, besides
700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept
at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions,
about 5 B. c. ; and the peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these
formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions.
A Legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with
a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men.
LEGION" OF HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions
in the army, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such
individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to tha
state, military deeds, and for public virtue ; instituted by Napoleon Bona-
parte, when first consul, May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon
family, Louis XVIIL confirmed this order, April 1814.
LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus,
king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept 7, 1631, The siege of Leip-
sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In
the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Leipsic in vain, but they took it
two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars
it has frequently fallen into adverse hands. See next article.
LEIPSIC, Battle of. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive of
modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the
one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; the
former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost
by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies,
turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in
the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of
artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by
the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army.
The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em-
peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe-
den, entered'Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813.
LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church from Ash-
Wednesday {which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institu-
tion. The primitive Cliristians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday
which is now called the first Sunday of Lent; and the four days beginning
were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of
fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England by
command of Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640. — Baker's Ghron.
LEPANTO, Battle of. The great naval engagement between the combined
fleets of Spain, Venice, and Pius Y., and the whole maritime force of the
Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, winch consisted
of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys of which,
after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30,000 men in killed
and prisrners ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of Turkey,
. Oct 7, 1571. — Voioaire.
17*
394 THE wokld's peogeess. [lex
LETTERS. Those of the alphahet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian
1822 B.C. — Unher, Blair. The first letter of the Phcenician and Hebrew
alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other
nations to A. Tlie letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so
vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the
alphabets which are known. See Alphabet.
LETTERS OF MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued m
England by Eld ward L, for the seizure of the enemy's vessels and for repri-
sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Rymer^s Fcedera. They were
first granted in 1295. — Baker's Ghron. They are usually granted in time of
war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of
belligerent nations. — Fowel.
LETTERS BE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in
use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the
earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree
their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1189. —
Kist. of the French Revol.
LEUCTRA, Battle of. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought at
the village of Leuctra, between Platsea and Thespia, between the Thebans,
under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotns, king of Sparta,
the victory being with the former. Fn this battle, Cleombrotus and 4000
Lacedemonians were slain, and not more tlian 300 Thebans ; July 8, 37.
B. c. From this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece,
which they had maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the
Thebans. — Plutarch. Xenophon says 1400, out of whom 400 were Spartans.
LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all
things to a level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of
this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck
were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the
churches which Luther had left standing ; and then finding an array in their
followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc-
tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head ot
40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the ma-
gistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march to enforce
these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun-
try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him; 7000 of the enthusi-
asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled ; he was taken and be-
headed at Mulhausen, in 1525. — Nouv. Diet. Hist At the period of the French
Revolution some knots of persons stj'led levellers appeared in England.
LEWES, Battle of. Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort,
earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In th'S
battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard
king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I.,
were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body of
Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing
the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort
used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own de-
struction. See Evesham.
LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese
language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters as having been compiled 1100
B. C. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fif-
teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap-
peared about A. D. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was pubUshed in 1759.
See article. Dictionary.
LEXINGTON, Battle of. This battle claims distinction as being the first
fought between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the war
.IB]
DICTIOXARY OF DATES. 395
of independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Bos-
Ion to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by the
Americans and 273 of them were killed and wounded, April 19, 1175.
LEYDEN, Siege of. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain,
and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, a. d.
1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce«
leb rated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575.
The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel lade::
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large
part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807.
LIBEL. By the laws of Eome (those of the XEI. Tables), libels which affectec
the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteem
of the world, is deemed a libel. " The greater the truth, the greater the
libel," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed.
Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz.: Lord George Gor-
don's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprison-
ment for five years and fined 500Z., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times' libel on
the Prince of Wales, afterwards George lY., Feb. 1790. The Morning Posies
libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000Z. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel
on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Amhigu, of which he was found guilty, Feb.
21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of-
fender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England 1820. Act
regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York
and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was
made with good motives and for justifiable ends.
LIBERIA. Colony in West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by
American Colonization Society, 1822 ; Jehudi Ashmun was the first supei-
intendent of the colony; new Constitution — Roberts elected president —
Oct. 5, 1 847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au-
gust 1, 1849.
LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads
were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever
was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no
sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple
was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body;
that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom ; religion a mere state trick;
with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in a. d. 1 525 ; and
the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since.
LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account in
history was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 B. C. The second of any
note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B. c. It was nearly de-
stroyed when Julius Cajsar set fire to Alexandria, 47 b. c. 400,000 valuable
books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. The
first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 B. c. — Straho. The
first library at Rome was instituted 167 b. c. : it was brought from Ma-
cedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens,
86 B. c. This Ubrary was enriched by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's
works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantino the Great,
about A. D. 335 ; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed
from the remains of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con-
sisting of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens,
who heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead
of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. — Nonv.
Diet. Hist. Pope Gregory I. ordered that the library of the Palatine
396
THE WOPvLD S TROGRESS.
[lib
Apollo should be comraittod to the flames under the notion of confining the
clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learn-
ing which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has been
emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The earl^
Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the
destruction of the Alexandrian library ; their emperor, Chee-wang-tee,
ordered all writings to be destroyed, that everything might begin anew as
from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered by suc-
ceeding emperors with great difficulty.
IJBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, contain-
ing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus pub-
licly accessible are in this proportion, viz.: in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit-
ants, there are 417 books; in Denmark, 412; in Bavaria, 339; in Tuscany,
261; in Prussia, 200; in Austria, 167; in France, 129; in Belgium, 95 ; in
Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention
of printing, is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of
England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas
Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li-
brary for the use of the public, a, d. 1436. It was enlarged by Qosmo de
Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Vienna,
(imperial,) 1440; Vatican, 1465; &c. See talk, below.
In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,000 volumes
each (of wliich there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are
not taken into the account :
France has 170 Public Li-
braries, containing 4.000,000 vols.
Belgium has 14 do. 538,000 "
Prussia " 44 do. 2,400,000 "
Austria " 48 do. 2,400,000 "
Taking the capital cities we find the following results :
Paris has 9 Public Li-
braries, containing 1,474,000 vols.
Brussels has 2 do. 143,500 "
Berlin " 2 do, 53li,000 "
Vienna " 8 do. 458,000 •'
Milan " 2 do. 230,000 "
Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as
follows : —
Vols.
824,000
600,000
446,000
435,000
412.000
410,000
313,000
300,000
200,000
200,000
187,000
180,000
Saxony has 6
containing 554,000 vols.
Bavaria " 17
do. 1.267,000 "
Denmark " 5
do. 645,000 "
Ttiscanv " 9
do. 411,000 »
G. Britain " 83
do. 1,771,493 "
Dresden has 4 containing 340,500 vols.
Munich " 2 " 800,000 '"
Copenhagen " 8 " 557,000 "
Florence " 6 " 818.000 "
London " 4 " 490,500 "
Founded.
1595
1550
1753
1550
1650
1440
1656
1712
1604
1765
1781
1797
1624
1760
1714
Paris (1) ISTational Lib.,
Munich, Eoyal Lib.,
Petersburg Imperial Lib.
London, British Museum
Copenhagen, Eoyal Lib.,
Berlin, Eoyal Lib.,
Vienna, Imperial Lib.,
Dresden, Eoyal Lib.,
Madrid National Lib.,
Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib.
Stuttgard, Eoyal Lib.,
Paris''(2) Arsenal Lib.,
The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order
Milan, Brerea Lib.,
Paris (3), St. Genevieve,
Darmstadt, Grand Ducal,
Florence, Magliabecchian,
Naples, Eoyal Lib.,
Brussels, Eoyal Lib.,
Eome (1), Casanate Lib.,
Hague, Eoyal Lib.,
Paris (4\ Mazarine Lib,
Eome (2), Vatican Lib.,
Parma, Ducal Lib.,
FouTided. Vols.
1839
1760
1661
1465
1760
170,000
150,000
150,000
150,000
150,000
133,500
120,000
100,000
100,000
100,000
100,000
Founded. Vols.
Gottingen,TJniv'tyLib., 1736 360.000
Breslau, University Lib., 1811 250.000
Oxford, Bodleian Lib., 1597 220,000
Tubingen, Univ'ty Lib., 1562 200,000
Munich, University Lib., 200,000
Heidelburg, Univ'ty Lib., 1708 200.000
Cambridge, Public Lib., 1484 166,724
Bologna, University Lib., 1690 150,000
Prague, University L'b., 1777 130,000
Founded. Vols.
Vienna, University Lib., 1777 115.000
Leipsic, University Lib., 1544 112,000
Copenhagen, University Lib., 1730 110,000
Turin, University Lib., 1436 110.000
Louvaine, University Lib., 1639 105,000
Dublin, Trinity College Lib., l04,2S9
Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000
Erlangen, University Lib., 1748 100,000
Edinburgh, University Lib., 1682 90,864
lib]
dictio:n-aey of dates. S91
The largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of the
Founded. Vols. I Founded. Vols.
1 British Museum, London, 1753 435,000 Eoyal Institution, London,
2 Bodleian, Oxford, 1598 220,000 London Institution,
3 University, Cambridge, 1484 160,724 London Library,
4 Advocates. Edinburgh, 1682 148,000 ! Sion College, &c.
5 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 104,239 I
LIBRARIES IN THE UXITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief
pubhc and college libraries in the Uaited States in 1849, was stated to be
1.294,000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over
10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000 ; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the
prec(^dence of the largest as to numbers stood thus •
Vols, i Vols.
1 llarvard College, including Divin-
ity and Law Schools, 72,000
2 Philadelphia and Loganian Lib., 60,C00
S Boston AthenfEum, 50,000
4 Library of Congress, 50,000
5 New York Society Library, 32,000
The Astor Library is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected.
The Smithsonian Institution at Washington has not yet commenced collecting
its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of the
State of 'Rew York, in 1849, was 1,338,848. There are 10,621 school dis-
tricts, and 1,785 incorporated or private schools. The mercantile libraries,
chiefly for merchants' clerks, in the large cities, are of comparatively recent
date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and
contains 32,000 volumes; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,631 volumes;
in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12,200 volumes. There are similar
ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c.
The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (accord-
ing to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus : —
6 Mercantile Library, New York, 32,000
7 Georgetown College, D. C, 25.000
8 Brown UHiver^itv, 24,000
9 New York State Library, 24,000
10 Yale College, 21,000
11 Astor Library, New York, 20,000
Vols.
Vols.
1 Alabama, has 1 Public Library,
6,000
Brought up.
84,
453,609
2 Columbia, Dist. of, has
2,
53,000
12 New Jersey,
has 3,
28.500
8 Connecticut,
6,
81.449
18 New York,
" 12,
157,411
4 Georgia,
1,
13,000
14 North Carolina,
" 1,
10,000
5 Kentucky,
1,
7,000
15 Ohio,
" 1,
80,497
6 Louisiana,
1,
5,500
16 Pennsylvania,
" 14,
15!»,200
7 Maine,
8,
88,800
17 Ehode Island,
" 3,
87.1S5
8 Maryland,
1,
12,000
IS South Carolina,
" 2,
30,000
9 Massachusetts,
14,
200,000
19 Tennessee,
" 2,
16.0^0
LO Missouri,
2,
14.300 20 Vermont,
" 2,
16,254
11 New Hampshire,
2,
22,500 21 Virginia,
" 4,
41.000
84 453,609 Total ... 72, 979,656
The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not include school,
parish, and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent.
The city of Paris alone lias 1,474,000 volumes, in large pubhc libraries •, i. e.
half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Pari. Eep. BroL
Mus. ; Prof. JeweUs Rep. Smithsonian Inst. ; G. Liver more in K Amer. Pev.,
July 1850, &c.
r lEGE. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and con-
vents, "the pai'adise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of wO'
men." In the time of Louis XI. of France, a.d. 1461, Liege was a large
and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of ahncst sovereign
power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, iu 1702 ;
and by the French and other powers, at various times, up to 1796, when it
was annexed to France. Liege was incorporated with the Netherlands, iii
1814.
398 THE WORLD S PEOGKESS. pLIB
LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial people,
and called Tors, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar ; that of
Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet hisrli, and visible forty-two miles; the Pharos
of Messina ; the Colossus of Rhodes, &c. There are forty-two round the
coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel,
and fourteen in the Irish channel. There are seventeen on the Scottish
coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts.
LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of
Genoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnly invested at Genoa,
August 10, 1802. The Ligurian republic was incorporated with Prance, it
having demanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged
into the kingdom of Italy.
LIMAv^ See America and GolumUa. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Peru,
was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a
city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings.
This Spanish name it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known as
Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by
annual festivals, a.d. 1586, 1630, 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it
was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which see.
LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in ves-
tures of fine linen. — Gen. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in
England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III., 1253.
Before this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A company of linen
weavers established itself in London in 1368; and the art of staining linen
became known in 1579. A colony of Scots, in the reign of James I., and
other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that country in the suc-
ceeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ire-
land, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encou-
raged by the lord deputy Went worth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread,
and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696.
This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture
there. The Irish Linen Board was established in 1711 ; the Linen-hall, Dub-
lin, was opened 1728; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfermline in
Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnesley in Yorkshire, are, in Great
Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture.
LINN^ AN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne, a Swede,
or, as his name is Latinized, Linnaeus, was commenced about 1725-30 ; and
his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes,
orders, and genera; he classed the plants according to the number and situ-
ation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and fniit the test of his vari-
ous genera. The Linnsean Society in London was instituted in 1788, and
was incorporated March 26, 1802.
LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city
when they conquered it, a.d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November
1, 1755. See Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and the court
fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the 30th) the French
army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle
of Vinieira, in which they were defeated by the British, under Sir Arthur
"Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Mas-
sacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal.
USLE, Siege op. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the
allies ; and though its immense fortifications were deeaied impregnable, it
was taken after a tliree months' siege, in 1*708. It was restored by the treaty
of Utrecht, in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications
TJV] DICTIONAEY OF DATES. 399
of Dunkirk : this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern his-
cory. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from
the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 1, 1792.
LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about
A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Gre-
gory T., in or about 595. — Newton on the Prophecies. The first English litany
was commanded to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII. in
lb4:^.— Collier's Ecc. Hist.
LITERARY PROPERTY, in England. See Copyright. The statute of queen
Anne, 1*709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memorable
decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copy-
right was overruled Feb 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have
an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living,
the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acts
extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time,
then to the remainder of his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right
is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death ;
but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for
42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death is
to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript ; act passed July
1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The
International Copyright bill, passed July 31, 1838; this act secures protection
in England to works of authors of any country which concedes the same
protection to Enghsh authors.
LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, FUND, &c. The various societies connected
with literature in London, will be found in their respective places through
the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson,
and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765.
The Literary Fund, in Lincohi's-Inn Fields, was founded in 1790, to relieve
authors and literary men who b}'- age or infirmities are reduced to poverty;
this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Societv of Literature was
established Sept. 15, 1825.
LITHOGrRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose
first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was
announced in Germany, and was known as poly autography. It became par-
tially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction may be
referred to Mr. Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in
1841.
LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman churches the word Liturgy was
restrained to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first
composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The
offices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same
form in which we now have them, but other parts were different. Upon the
solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to
very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland, in the Eng-
lish language in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, in 1637.
Again altered in 1661. The hturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly
chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pil-
kington, and dean May, and secretary Smith.
LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their
vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families ; they were originally a
single article of dress, or a particular color used on a part of some one gar-
ment, and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings. — Ashe.
LIVERPOOL, This town, which within the last century has, by a progressive
400 THE WOKLD'S PKOGRESS. [lOC
increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first
rank after the metropolis, in Enp^land, is supposed to be noticed in Domes-
day-book under the name Esmedune, or, Smedune. In other ancient records
its various appellations are, Litherpul, and Lyrpul, signifying probably, in the
ancient dialect of the county, the lower pool ; though some have deduced
its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the " Liver,"
or from a sea-weed of that name; it was but a small fishing place, until, in
1172, its fiivorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the
notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation
of his troops for the conquest of Ireland. In 1843, the number of ships
which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows; British, 2,G15, of the
aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons; foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons.
The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 5th Jan-
uary, 1844, was £4,121.522.— Par^. Bet.
LLOYD'S, London. The coffee-house in connection with the Eoyal Exchange,
and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side
of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of
eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, <fec. ; and here are
effected insurances for all the world on ships and merchandise. The books
kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are
remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs.
LOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful productions of the earth. Its
virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive qua-
lity had been taken notice of from very remote times. — Siurmius. Aristotle
assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of it
under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck v/ith its
attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said,
known m Erance before A. D, 1180 ; but this honor is accorded to Roger
Bacon about 1267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its
virtues to steel or iron; and Flavio Giojo of Amalfi, was the inventor of
the mariner's compass. See Compass.
LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally bor-
rowed at Antwerp until after tlie reign of Elizabeth. In 1559, that queen
borrowed 200,000Z. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own
coin, and sir Thomas G-resham and the city of London joined in the secu-
rity.— Rapin. The amount of the English loans, during four late memo-
rable periods, was, viz :
Seven years war from 1 755 to 1763 - - £52,000,000
American war from 177(5 to 1784 - - 75,500,000
Trench revolutionary war ... - from 1793 to 1802 - - 168,500,000
War against Bonaparte .... from 1 803 to 1814 - - 200,300,000
Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one
millions and twenty-two millions ; and it deserves to be recorded that a
subscription loan to carry on the war against Erauce was filled up in Lon-
don in fifteen hours and twenty minutes, to the amount of eighteen mil-
lions, Dec. 5, 1796. •
LOOHLBVEN CASTLE, Kinross. Built on an island in the celebrated lake
of Loch Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander III. and
his queen were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the
English in 1301, and again in 1335. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of
St. Andrew's, .was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl
of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefly re-
markable as the place of the unfortunate queen Mary's imprisonment, in
1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary was
compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which an
interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in The Abbot : and of which,
lom]
DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 401
also, some new and affecting particulars are given by Mr. Tytler, in the 7th
volume of his History of Scotland, published in August, 1840.
LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy con-
trivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange
mentions locks and padlocks as early as a. d. 1381. The French are ac-
counted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the English the best. Bra-
mah's celebrated patent locks were registered in 1784, Locks have been
made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of exquisite work-
manship, all with different keys, so that none of them can open any but its
own lock, yet a master key will open all. See Keys.
LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently
superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of
these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt
and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perished, 128 b. c. The country of
Palestine was infested with such swarms tliat they darkened the air, and
after devouring the fruits of the earth they died, and their intolerable
stench caused a pestilential fever, a. d. 406. A. similar catastrophe occurred
in France in 873. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground
about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great numbers fell in the
streets, and were preserved by the curious ; they resembled grasshoppers,
but were three times the size, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4,
1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June
1816.
LODI, Battle of the Bridge of. One of the great early achievements in
Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed
to the Austrians commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant
and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands
of the imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made
prisoners. May 10, 1796. The conqueror pursued his advantage with won-
derful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and
the republican flag floated in Milan a few days afterwards.
LOG-LINE, used in navigation, a. D. 1570; and first mentioned by Bourne
in 1577, The log-hne is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which
the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly
the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used
in the rojal navy is forty-eight feet.
LOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of num-
bers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an eminent
Scotchman (sir John Napier) in 1614. The method of computing by means
of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence
called Napier s bones. The invention was afterwards completed by Mr.
Briggs, at Oxford.
LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic
religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick-
liffe. — Chaucer, The origmal sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315 ;
he was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples
of Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account
of religious opinions was William Sawtree, the parish priest of St. Osith,
London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed
by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or
persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. — Moreri ; Carte.
LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be com-
posed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence,
or Yenice. — Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England
402 THE woeld's peogeess.
[loo
by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, communities, and private
persons, who were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected
throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III., 1229.
They had offices in Lombard-street, which great banking street is' called
after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion
from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth.
LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the
marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their bravery. They were invited
into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths. To reward their ser-
vices, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, a. d. 548 They
passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at Milan,
in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and made considerable
conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, and
annexed his territories to the German empire. — La Comhe. See Milan, &c.
LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that
a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 854
years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes
54 B. c. and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In a. d. 61, it was
known to the Romans as Lundinium. Lundinium or Colonia Augusta was
the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of trade
and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony. — Tacitus. It
is said, but not truly, to have derived its name from Lud, an old British king
who was buried near where Ludgate formerly stood ; but its name is from
Llyn-Din, the " town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c.
LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, though
rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to
have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of
Charles I., being the oldest man on anything approaching to authentic
record for upwards of 3000 years. — Greig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of
Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and
considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in per-
fect health; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov. 15
the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried
in Bolton church-yard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There are
some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia; and at Dantzic a man
is said to have died at 184; and another to be living in "Wallachia, aged 186
years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the
greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Plood;
but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained ; hence there is no
fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch.
LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree
in the Canaries, 162 B. C. Harrison made a time-keeper in a. d. 1759, which
in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required
by the act of parhament, 12th Anne, 1714; and in 1763, he applied for the
reward of 20,000Z. offered by that act, which he received The celebrated
Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the
chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguet bring the longitude almost
to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain ; but Newton
has said it will yet be discovered by a fool.
LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in
England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lambeth,
in 1673. — Salmon. The French excelled in their manufacture of them in the
last century ; but the English have brought their factories to great perfection
of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single plate, the
walls of large rooms.
lot]
DICTIONARY OP DATES. 403
LOOM-ENGrlNE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought
into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the
general principle of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical in-
genuity. There are about 250,000 hand-looms in G-reat Britain, and 75,000
power-looms, each being equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two
yards each per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 180t.
LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for
the supreme majesty of God and Christ, and in that sense cannot be ap-
plied to any other being. "With us, it is a term of nobility. — See Lords and
Baron. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables: it was originally
Hlaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by
contraction Lord. "The etymology of this word," a writer observes, "is
worth observing, for it was composed of hlaf., a load of bread, and ford, to
give or afford; so that Hlaford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread; be-
cause in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the
poor; for which reason they weie called givers ofhread.'" — See Ladies. The
nickname of "My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons,
is from the Greek word lordos, crooked. — Haydn.
LORDS, The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the
1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitzosborne, the first
peer, was made earl of Hereford ; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury ;
Copsi, earl of Northumberland : Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and
Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were
made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests
for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefore a peer can-
not be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his per-
son ; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same
reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns ; or,
in case of a riot, from attending the posse comiiatus. See Baron; Earl;
Ma/rquesa, &c.
LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned ad consulendum, to
consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and "7 John, 1205.
The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until
some ages after the conquest. — Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs
were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258. — Goldsmith. And
writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265 ; but several historians maintain
that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was
held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well
as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold cer-
tain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in
this house. The temporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility :
some sit by descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as all new-
made peers; and others by election, since the union with Scotland in ITOT,
'- and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ire-
land 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for hfe
The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 21 marquesses, 115
earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 EngUsh
prelates, and 4 Irish bishops — in all 456 peers.
LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at
the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, January 11, 1569, and continued
day and night until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the
fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate.
The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1 630. Lotte-
ries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large
annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublin
404 THE world's progeess. [lut
ID 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France by a decree of the national
convention, Nov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England, 1826 ; and an act
was passed imposing a penalty of 50Z. for advertising foreign or any lotteries
in the British ne^vspapers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote
of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New Eng-
land ; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the states
there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures
LOUISIANA, One of the United States. First explored by the French, and
received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIV., and a
settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful
attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a
colony. His efforts were followed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, whf
held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the
year 1717, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company,
at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and
Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In
1731, the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded
the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province
to the French, of whom it was purchased by the United States, in 1803, for
$15,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States W. of
the Mississippi. In 1812 the present State of Louisiana formed a constitu-
tion, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76,556 ; in 1820,
153,407 ; in 1830, 215,575; in 1840, 352,411, including, 168,452 slaves.
liOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign
of Dagobert, a. d. 628 ; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now
called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of
painting's, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief
of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's ai'ms^
but most of them have since been restored to the riglitful possessors.
liUOCA, The Duchy of, adjoining Tuscany. On the fall of the Lombard king-
dom, a. d. 774, it was annexed to the German empire In 1 8 1 5 it was occupied
by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of
Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's
demand for '-eCorms, Sept. 3, 1847 : appointed a regency and again fled,
Sept 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of ^^215,-
000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria
Louisa, present duchess, Oct. 10, 1847.
liUCIA, St First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several
times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French
negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Domi-
nica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, were taken by the British, St. Lucia was
restored to France at the peace of 1 802 ; but was again seized on by Eng-
land the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814.
See Colonies.
liUNEVILLE, Peace of, concluded between the French republic and the em-
peror of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo
Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form
the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian,
Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb, 9, 1801,
LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman
people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572
B. c. Every five years were called a IvAtrum; and ten, fifteen, or twenty
years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four IvjSlra.
LUTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. pub-
lished his indulgences for money ; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who was
LYC] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 405
deputed with others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such
a height as to declare his commission unbounded ; that no crime could be
committed too great to be pardoned : and that by purchasing indulgences,
not only past sins, but those whicli were intended, were to be forgiven.
Against these practices Luther openly preached with wonderful si;ccess, and
thus began the Reformation in Germany. — Melchior Adam, in Vita Lutheri.
LUTZEN, Battle of, between the "French army commanded by Napoleon on
the one side, and the combined armies of Hussia and Prussia, commanded by
general Wittgenstein, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened
tlie campaign of that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed tl le
victory, it was manifestly on the side of France; but in this engagement
marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and Wurt-
zen immediately followed (Maj^ 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when
the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to.
and afterwards prolonged, but unfortunately for the French emperor it did
not produce peace.
LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, Battle of ; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden,
against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus,
the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protestant
religion in Germany, and in alhance with Charles I. of England, was foully
killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the battle
of Ijippstadt.
LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken
and pillaged by the French in 1543; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544;
by the French in 1684; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken
by the French in 1 701 ; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town,
and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief
occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century ; it
surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795.
The garrison, on the capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the re-
public of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of the
Rhine immediately after.
LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the his-
tory of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been
enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine,
muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and
black game from the Umbrian forests. — Lardner. Lucullus, at Rome, was
distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals; his halls were
named from the different gods ; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to
surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been
prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to
serve it in the hall of Apollo ; this feast for three persons casually met,
would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England,
luxury was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were con-
hned to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course,
except on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a
free estate of lOOZ. per annum, from wearing furs (see Furs), skins, or silk;
and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone ; to all
others it was prohibited, A. n. 1837. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of
France, which said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup
and two dishes," 1340.
LYCEUM. The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a tem-
ple of Apollo Lyceus ; or rather, a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, son
of Apollo. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks of the Ilis-
sus in Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy ; and as he generally taught
406
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[lyr
his pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripatetics, and his phi-
losophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 b. c.
— Stanley.
liYDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of
whom was Croesus, whose riches became a proverb : he was conquered by
Cyrus, 548 B. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with
many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as-
cribed to the Lydians. A number of illustrious men flourished here. — Hero-
dotus.
Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns
in Lydia.— 5ero<f. . . b. c. 1223
The kingdom of Lydia, properly so
called, begins under Ardysus I. —
Blair 797
Alyattes reigns 761
Meles commences his rule . . 747
Reign of Candaules .... 735
Gyges, ftrst of the race called Merm-
nadffl, puts Candaules to death, mar-
ries his queen, usuips the throne,
and makes great conquests .
Ardysus II. reigns; the Cimbri be-
siege Sardis, the capital of Lydia . 680
The Milesian war commenced under
Gyges, is continued by Sadyattes,
who reigns 631
Reign of Alyattes II , . . .619
Battle upon the river Halys between
the Lydians and Medes, intercepted
by an almost total eclipse of the sun,
which superstitiously occasions a
conclusion of the war.-Blair. May 2S, 586
[This eclipse had been predicted many
years before by Thales, of Miletus. —
718
Croesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to
the throne, and becomes celebrated
for his victories and conquests, b.o. 562
Ephesus falls into his hands ; the loni-
ans, JEolians, and other parts of Asia
Minor are subjected to his dominion 554
All the nations west of the Halys are
conquered, and that river becomes
■ the boundary of the kingdom Blair 550
Croesus, dreading the power of Cyrus,
whose conquests had reached to the
borders of Lydia, crosses the Halys
to attack the Medes, with an army
of 420.000 men and 60,000 horse 548
He is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, be-
sieged in his capital, and taken 648
The conqueror oi-ders Croesus to be
burned alive, and the pile is already
on fire, when he calls on the name
of Solon in agony of mind,andCyru8
hearing him pronounce it, spares his
life 548
Lydia, the kingdom of the "richest of
manki nd," is made a province of the
Persian empire . ... 548
Blair.]
-^sop, the Phrj'-gian fabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet who wrote in a
style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Auacreon of
Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. The country remain-
ed subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexan-
der, about 330 b. c. It next became part of the new kingdom of Pergamus,
founded by Philseterus, the eunuch ; Attains afterwards bequeathed it to the
Romans, and finally the Turks conquered it from the Eastern Emjaire, a. d.
132Q.—Friestley.
LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 b. c. The city was reduced to ashes in a
single night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two gen-
eral councils were held here in the I3th and 14th centuries. The silk man-
ufacture commenced in the reign of Francis L, 1515. Lyons was besieged
in 1793 by the convention army of 60,000 men, and surrendered Oct. 7,
when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention
decreed the demolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the
Austrians, March, 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans,
which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21,1831.
Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyons,
Nov. 4. 1840. See Inundations.
LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and
accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three
strings, is due to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several
strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 673 b. c. Phrynis, a musician
of Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 b. c.
mac]
DICTION AEY OF DATES.
40)
M AGED ON. The first kingdom was founded by Carqnus, about 814 B. c. It
was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under tlie protection of Athens,
sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip, the
father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and ex-
ploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to his
son's greatness. Macedon had twenty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexan-
der inclusive: after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divided
among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new king-
dom. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 37.
Eeign of Caranus - - b, c. 814
Eeign of Perdiccas I. - - - 729
Eeiga of Argseus I.- - - 678
Eeiga of Philip I. - - - 640
Eeign of ^ropas; he conquers the
Illyrians . - - - 602
Eeign of Amyntas - - - 547
Eeign of Alexander I. - - - 497
Eeign of Perdiccas II. - - 454
Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas,
murders the legitimate heirs of his
father, and seizes the throne - 413
He is surnamed the "Patron of
Learning" - - - 411
He is murdered by a favorite to
whom he promised his daughter in
marriage, yet gave her to another - 399
Eeign of Amyntas II. - - - 399
He is driven from the throne - 398
Eecovers his throne, and puts Pau-
sanias to death - - - 397
The Illyrians enter Macedonia, ex-
pel Amyntas, and put Argaeus,
brother of Pausanias, on the throne 392
Amyntas again recovers bis kingdom 390
Eeign of Alexander II. - - 871
He is assassinated - - - 370
Eeign of Perdiccas IIL - - 366
He is killed in battle - - 360
Eeign of Philip II. and institution of
the Macedonian phalanx - - 360
Philip gains the battle of Methon
over the Athenians - - 360
He defeats the Illyrians in a despe-
rate engagement - - - 359
He takes Amphipolis, and receives an
arrow in his right eye. See Archery 353
He conquers Thi-ace and lilyria - 356
Birth of Alexander the Great - 356
Philip adds to his conquests - - 848
Close of the first sacred war - 348
Illyricumoverrunbythearmyof Philip 344
Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 343
Aristotle appointed tutor to the
young prince Alexander - 343
War against the Athenians - - 841
Philip besieges Byzantium - 341
Battle of Chseronea; Philip conquers.
See Chcero7iea - - - 338
Philip is assassinated byPausanias, at
Egaea,duringthecelebrationofgames
in honor of his daughter's nuptials 836
Alexander III., surnamed the Great,
succeeds his father - - - 836
He enters Greece - - 335
The Greeks appoint him general of
their armies against the Persians 335
The Thebans revolt; he levels Thebes
to the ground ; the house of Pindar
is alone left standing - - 335
The Almighty favors Alexander with
a vision, in Avhich the high-priest of
the Jews appears to him, exhorting
Mm to enter Asia. See Jews - 334
He passes into Asia, and gains his
first battle over Darius. See Gra-
nicus, Battle of - - - 334
Sardis surrenders to the conqueror ;
Halicarnassus is taken, and nume-
rous cities in Asia Minor - 334
Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Da-
rius takes the field with 46l),000 in-
fantry and 100,000 cavalry - 338
Battle of Issus {which see) - - 333
Alexander, in his way to Egypt, lays
siege to Tyre, which is destroyed
after seven months - - 332
Damascus is taken, and the vast trea-
sures of Darius come into the pos-
session of the victor - - 332
Gaza surrenders - - - 332
Alexander enters Jerusalem; and
Egypt conquered - - 332
Alexandria founded - - - 332
Great battle of Arbela, the third and
last between Alexander and Da-
rius ; the Persian army totally de-
feated. See Arbela - - 331
Alexander proclaimed master of Asia;
he enters Babylon In triumph - 831
GRECIAN OR MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.
Alexander sits on the throne of Da-
rius at Susa - - - 380
Parthia and Hyrcania are overrun by
Alexander - - - - 829
Thalestris. queen of the Amazons,
visits him, attended by a retinue of
800 women. See Amazons - 329
He puts his friend Parmenio to
death, on a chai-ge of conspiracy,
supposed to be false - - 829
Alexander makes more conquests - 323
His expedition to India ; Porus, king
of India, is defeated and taken ;
and the country as far as the
Ganges is overrun - - 827
Calisth'enes is put to the torture for
refusing to render divine homage
to Alexander - - - 326
Subjection of the Cosseans - - 326
Death of Alexander - - - 323
His conquests are divided among Ms
generals - . - - 823
His remains are transported to Alex-
andria, and buried by Ptolemy - 823
408 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [mAD
Reign of Antiffonus Gonatus b. o. 271
PyiThusinvadosMaceclon,defeatsAn-
tigouus, and is proclaimed king - 274
Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored - 272
Antigonus takes Athens - - 268
The Gauls again invade Macedon - 268
Revolt of the Parthians - - 250
Reign of Demetiius II. - - 242
Reign of Philip, his son - - 232
His war against the Rhodians - 202
Philip is defeated by the Romans - 198
He is totally subdued - - 196
The reign of Perseus - - - 179
Perseus defeated by the Romans - 171
MACEDON, continued.
The Greeks defeated by sea and land
near Cranon {which see) - B. c. 822
Thebes rebuilt by Cassander - - 815
Seleucus recovers Habylon - 812
Cassander puts Roxana and her son
to death, and usurps the throne - 811
Battle of Ipsus {which see) • - 801
New division of the empire - - 301
MACEDON II.
Death of Cassander - - - 298
Reign of Alexander and Antipater - 29S
Demetrius murders Alexander, and
seizes the crown of Macedon - 294
Irruption of the Gauls - - - 279
The consul JEmilius Panlus enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman
province. Perseus and his sons are made prisoners, 168 B. c, and next year
walk in chains before the cliariot of vEinilius in his triumph for the conquest
of Macedon. The country is finally conquered by the Turks under Amurath
II. in A. D. 1429. Friestley.
MACHIAYELIAN" PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicho-
las Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and The Prince. By
some they are stigmatized as " the most pernicious maxims of government,
founded on the vilest policy;" and by others as "sound doctrines, notwith-
standing the prejudice erroneously raised against them." The work appeared
in 1517 ; and was translated into English in 1761.*
MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands in the world, discovered by Lo-
renzo Almeida a. d. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist a race
of dwarfs, with a strange peculiarity of form ; but this rests on the unsup-
ported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved
pigmy which he had brought from Madagascar. A paper describing the
pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in ] 809.
MADEIRA. So called on account of its woods ; it was discovered, it is said, by
Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England for
an illicit amour. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French
lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to Pedro,
king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was discovered
by a Portuguese, a d. 1345. Bat it is maintained that the Portuguese did
not visit this island until 1419, nor did tney colonize it until 1431. It was
taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admiral
Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained in
trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to the
Brazils. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown.
MADRAS. Colonized by the English, and Fort George built by permission of
the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1620. Madras was taken hy the French
in 1746, and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle.
MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was
sacked A. D. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. The
Escurial was built in 1557, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734.
Tlie French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family
had retired into France ; and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arras to
* The writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator says) "the
doing of any act to compass or brinjj about those things which are neither honorable nor just,
whereby ambitious sovereic;ns or evil ministers may accomjilish what their extravagant desires
prompt them to, at the expense of their subjects' peace, or their country's safety." — Fergusan.
mag]
DICTIOXARY OF DATES. 409
expel them, when a dreadful conflict and carnage took place. Joseph Bona-
parte entered Madrid as king- of Spain, July 20, 1808; but soon retired.
Retaken by the French Dec. 2, same year: and retained till Aug. 12, 1812,
when Madrid was entered by the British army. Ferdinand YII. was restored
May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the
late civil war, for which see Spain.
MAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1 570, and was taken by the
prince of Parma in 1579, In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a
memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Louis XIV.
took it in 1673 ; Wilham prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676; but,
in 1 678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1748, it was besieged by the French,
who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being
restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maes-
tricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters
of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to
the allied forces.
MAGDALENS and MAGDALBNETTES. Communities of nuns and women,
the latter class consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. The convent of
Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, a. d. 1324. That at Metz was insti-
tuted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by
pope Leo X., in 1515; and Clement VIII. settled a revenue on the nuns, and
further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died without
will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have
their bequests sanctioned by the law unless they bequeathed a part of their
effects to the Magdalen institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth,
1594, The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally
under the direction of Dr. Dodd. In ISTew-Tork, a similar institution called
" A Home for the Friendless " was founded, 1846,
MAGELLAN", Straits of. They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fer-
nando de Magellhaens) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by
the emperor Cliarles V., in *1519. The first voyage round the world was
undertaken by this illustrious navigator ; and his vessel performed the enter-
prise although the commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here,
since called cape Famine, because the garrison had aU perished for want of
food,
MAGI, OR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of
the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God. whom, not know-
ing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular
homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars
nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent
God within walls ; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and
their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and
their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so
that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, till they were
finally confounded with the magicians, Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the
reformer of the sect of the Magi: he flourished 1080 b, c, — Bu Fremoy.
MAGIC LANTERN, This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon,
England's great philosopher, about a. d. 1260. Bacon first invented the con-
vex magnifying glasses in 1252 ; and he afterwards, in his many experiments,
applied them to this use.
MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to liave
been derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henry I. and his
successors, Stephen, Henry II.. and John. But the Charter more particularly
meant, was a body of laws, the great charter of our rights granted by Johu
18
410 THE world's progress. [maj
and signed at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took
arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was many times confirmed,
and as frequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand charter
was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward
I. It is remarked, that when Henry III, granted it he swore on the word
and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it. For this grant
a fifteenth of all moveable goods were given to the king, whether they were
temporals or spirituals; yet sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it
had been confirmed above thirty times.
MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Epistola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the
attractive quality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time im-
memorial ; but, that it was our countryman, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester, in
Somersetshire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its pro-
perty of pointing to the north pole. The Italians discovered that it could
communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the
same was taken notice of by Helvelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of
Naples, invented or improved the mariners compass, in 1302. The impor-
tant discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made
about 1576 (published 1580) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's
experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather
improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, an-
nounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849.
MAHOMETISM. See Alcoran and Koran. The creed of Mahomet was pro-
mulgated A. D. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned
general and politician; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant.
Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel
during a period of twenty-three years. It was written in the Koreish Ara-
bic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered
as possessing every fine quality of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword,
500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and written in
various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is
said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before,
by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and
immortal, as he had declared himself to be. — Prideaux.
MAIL-COACHES in ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and
were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they be-
came general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the
invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath ; the mails had been previously conveyed by
carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback.
MAINE, one of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bristol.
The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a
governor and council. It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 by
the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334; annexed to Massachusetts, under
charter from William & Mary, in 1691: became a separate State m 1820.
Population in 1790 was 96,540; in 1810, 228,705; in 1840, 501,793.
MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial family were ad-
dressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of
state. Popes also had the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany
took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to themselves.
It was first given to Louis XL of France, in 1461. — Voltaire. Upon Charles
V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the
style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of
England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your
Majesty, 1520. — '^ee Field of the Cloth of Gold. James I. coupled this title
with the term "Sacred," and " Most Excellent Majesty." See Titles.
man]
DICTIONARY OF DATES. 411
MAJORCA AND MIII^ORCA. For occurrences relating to these islands, see
Minorca.
MALPLAQUET, Battle of. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and
prince Eugene, against the arms of France commanded hj marshal Villars.
The armies consisted on each side of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers, and the
victory was with the allies ; but this action was attended with great slaugh-
ter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid
by the capture of Mons; fought Sept. 11, 1709.
MALTA, Knights op. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of
St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some
merchants of Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of
Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and
whom they received with zeal and charity, a. d. 1048. They afterwards
founded a hospital for the sick, from whence they were called Hospitallers.
This foundation was laid in a. d. 1104, in the reign of Baldwin, and they
now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality
entered, and changed their names into knights. After the Christians had
lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired
to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290 ; then
they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domi-
nions, where they stayed till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes,
under the grand master Foulques de Vallaret, and next year defended it
und3r the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens ; since when, hia
successors have used F. E. R. T. for their device, that is, Fortitudo ejus
Rhodum tenuity or, he kept Rhodes by his valor ; from this they were called
knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they
retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VL granted them the
city of Viterbo for their retreat ; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave
them the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself
grand-master of the order in June, 1799.
MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon
the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by
general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798.
He found in it 1200 cannons, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the Hne,
a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 muskets; besides an immense treasure
collected by superstition; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at
liberty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and
was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, ] 800 ; but at the peace of
Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The
British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between
tlie two nations: but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was gua-
ranteed to Great Britain.
MA MELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in
Egypt. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were
estabhshed by the sultan Saladin as a kind of body-guard, a.d. 1246. They
advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so until
Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into
pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. On the
conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia. As-
sisted by the Arnauts, who were introduced into the country in the war, the
Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government In 1811
they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain.
MANNHEIM. First built in a.d. 1606; and became the court residence in
1719; but the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 caused the re-
412 THE world's tkogress. [mar
moval of the court to Munich. Battle of Mannheim, between the armies of
the allies and the French, fought May 30, 1793, Mannheim surrendered to
the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. On the
25th of the same month, the Austrians under general Wurmser, defeated the
French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in
the neighborhood during the late wars Kotzebue, the popular dramatist,
was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtzburg, named Sandt,
April 2, 1819.
MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest
the East, about a.d. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and
particularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, left
him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or envoy
of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or comforter that
Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the one good,
and the other bad ; the first he called light, which did nothing but good,
and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil. Several
other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to death by Sapor,
king of Persia, in 290. His ofl'ence against this prince was, his havnig
dismissed the physicians of the court, pretending he could cure one of the
royal family by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his arms. —
Nouv. Diet Hist.
MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isles ; a great mart of Spanish com-
merce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was
taken by the English in 1757; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. The cap-
tors humanely suJTered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million ster-
ling; but great part of the ransom never was paid. Since the estabhshment
of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1783, the usual
Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued ; and
the commerce to the Manillas and other parts, is carried on in private bottoms
by free companies of merchants. — Butler.
MANTIISTEA, Battle of, between Epaminondas, at the head of the Thebans,
and the combined forces of Lacedfemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia.
The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time
Thebes lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states, 363 B.C. —
Strdbo.
MANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near the city. Mantua surrendered to
the French, Jan. 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months; and it was attacked
by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it surrendered
after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again
obtained possession of it ; but they delivered it up to the Austrians in
1814.
MAPS AND CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesian
philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer
on record, 570 B.C. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A
celestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century. —
Freret. And sea-charts were first brought to ' England, by Bartholomew
Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent,
A D. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520.
Mercator's chart, in wLich the world was taken as a plane, was invented in
1556. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at .Dantzic, in 1647. See
Charts.
MARATHON, Battle of. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history
The Greeks were only 10,000 strong, tlie number of the Persians not known.
The former were commanded by Milliades, Aristides, and Themistocles, who
defeated the Persians. Persian loss 6,400— Athenian 192. Among the
mar] dictionaet of dates. 413
number of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war ; the remainder
of the Persian army were forced to re-embarii for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 b. c.
MARBLE. Lipsenus and Scj^lhs, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who
sculptured marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously to their
time being of wood, 568 B. c. — Pliny. Marble afterwards came into use for
statues, and the columns and ornaments of fine buildings and the edifices
and monuments of Rome, were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine
marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which
were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than
those of even Rome itself. These latter were discovered by some English
travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. See Palmyra.
MARCH. This was the first month of the year, until Numa added January
and February, 713 b. o. Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave
to this month the name of his supposed father Mars ; though Ovid observes,
that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romu-
lus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year for-
merly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Tear.
MARENGO, Battle of. In this ever-memorable engagement the French army
was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies
of valor, hfs army was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix
(who was afterwards mortally wounded in this battle) turned the fortunes
of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful : the Austrians lost
6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon ; and though the
French boasted that the loss on ilieir side did not much exceed 3000 men,
it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, ] 800, By a treatj^ be-
tween the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on
the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into pos-
session of the latter : and he became, in fact, the master of Italy.
MARBSCHAL, or MARSHAL. In France marshals were the ancient esquires
of the king ; and by their first institution they had the command of the van-
guard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encamp-
ment. Till the time of Francis I., in a. d. 1515, there were but two French
marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of
peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance,
the number was without limit, and the command supreme. During the em-
pire of Napoleon, the marshals of France filled the world with their renown.
See Marshal, Field.
MARIGNAN, Battle of, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engage-
ments of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened be-
tween the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First upwards of
twenty thousand men were slain ; the former, after losing all their bravest
troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 1515.
MARINER'S COMPASS The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to
their emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of Noah ; and some of
their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 b. o. See Corii-
jpa^s. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given
to Flavio de Gioja, or Giovia, a native of Amalfi, an ancient commercial city
of Naples, A. D. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by
Columbus in his voyage of discovery, 1492 ; and it was observed in Loudon
in 1580, The dipping-needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compass-
maker of Ratcliffe, in that year,
MARQUE, Letters of. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to
make reprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another
prince or country. Some such instruments are said to have been first used
414 THE world's peogress. [mak
by the Venetian government. The first letters of marque granted in Eng-
land were in the reign of Edward I., against the Portuguese, a. d. 1295. —
Bymer^s Feeder a.
MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the
Germans Markgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the
language of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was
to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next place of
honor to a duke, and was introduced several years after that title had been
established in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great
favorite of king Richard II., Robert de Yere, earl of Oxford, who was created
marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parliament between the dukes and
earls, a. d. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland,
was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480.
MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for
life, with certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to
Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 b. c. — Eusebius Pref. to Ohron. The prevail-
ing ceremony in most countries was that of a man leading home his bride,
after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the more
sacred, it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil
magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celeVation of mar-
riage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about a., d. 1199.
Marriage was forbidden in Lent, A. d. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in
692 and to priests in 1015 ; and these latter were obliged to take the vow
of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace
under an act of tlie Commons in Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1 653. A
tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the marriage of a duke 50Z., of a com-
mon person 2s. 6d, the 8th of "William III., 1695. Marriages were again
taxed in 1784.
MARRIAGES BY SALE. Among the Babylonians at a certain time every year,
the marriageable females were assembled, and disposed of to the best bid-
der, by the public crier. The richest citizens purchased such as pleased
them at a high price ; and the money thus obtained was used to portion off
those females to whom nature had been less liberal of personal charms.
"When the beauties were disposed of, the crier put up the more ordinary lots,
beginning with the most ill-favored among those that remained, announcing
a premium to the purchaser of each : the bidders were to name a sum below
the given premium, at which they would be wilHug to take the maid; and
•he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female
was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa, daughter of Belo-
chus, about 1433 b. 0.
MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans, about
600 B. c. — Univ. Hist. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was taken
by Julius Caesar after a long and terrible siege ; and it was sacked by the
Saracens, a. d. 473. Marseilles became a repubhc in 1214. It was subjected
to the counts of Provence in 1251 ; and was again united to the crown of
France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles,
and with still greater in 1720, when it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants.
MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British army. The rank is of modern date, and
was preceded by that of captain-general, and that also of commander-in-
chief The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil-
itary chiefs bearing the rank of marshal were those of France. George IL
first conferred the rank upon John, duke of Argyle, and George, earl of Ork-
ney in 1736. See MareschaL
MARSTON MOOR, Battle of. Tliis battle was the beginning of the misfor-
tunes and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles 1. of England. The Scots and
MAeJ DICnONART OF DATES. 415
parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging York, when prince Ru-
pert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege.
JBoth sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and
the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who command-
ed the riglit wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who
now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops whom lie had
taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious, he pushed hia
opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second en-
gagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artilery was
taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow ; fought July
3, 1644.
MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and
the G-renadines, were taken by the British from the French in February
1162. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year.
They were again taken March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of
Amiens in 1802 ; and were again captured February 23, 1809. A revolution
took place in this island in favor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed
by the British, June 1, 1815 ; and Alartinique reverted to its French masters
at the late general peace, 1815.
id!ARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in
martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to
their faith. The festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient
date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyr-
dom A.D. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs; and the accounts of
those who suffered for their adherence to the Protestant religion would fill
volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of Cranmer,
Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a
" Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and Supper, and the charge thereof for Cran-
mer, Latimer, and Eidley,^^ kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were
in the custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive : —
IST. OCTOBEK, 1554. — DINNER. Item, a post • - - £0 1 4
Bread and ale - - - £0 0 2 Item, 2 chains - - - 0 3 4
Oysters - - - - 0 0 1
Butter - - - - 0 0 2
Eggs 0 0 2
Lyng - - - - 0 0 8
A piece of fresh Salmon - - 0 0 10
Wine - - - - 0 0 3
Cheese and pears - - - 0 0 2
The three dinners- -£026
TO BTTBN LATIMER AND KIDLEY.
For three load of wood faggots to
burn Latimer and Ridley - 0 12 0
Item, 1 load of furze faggots - 0 3 4
Item, for the carriage of these 4
loads - - - - 0 2 6
Item, 2 staples - - - 0 0 6
Item, 4 laborers - - - 0 2 8
£15 8
[They were burnt on Oct the 16th, 1555.]
CHAKGE FOR THE BTTRNING OP THE BODY
OF CRANMER.
For 100 of wood faggots for the
fire - - - - 0 6 0
For 100 and J4 of furze - - 0 3 4
For the carriage of them - 0 0 8
For two laborers - - - 0 2 8
£0 12 8
[He was burnt on March the 2tst, in 1556.]
lARTYRS, Era of. This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used
by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced
in the sixth century ; and it still continued to be the era of some nations,
particularly the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, a.d. 284; and ihe
persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called.
lARYL AND, one of the middle United States, was originally included in the pa-
tent of Virginia, granted under charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632 ;
named in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. ; first colony were
Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634 ; free toleration
of all religions and creeds granted by lord Baltimore ; Constitution settled
416 THE world's PEOGEESS. [mAS
in 1650, and again in 1*776; the State bore an active part in the revolution;
adopted the Federal Constitution April 28, 1788, by 63 to 12. Population
in 1790 was 319,728; in 1810, 380,546; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,485
slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, March,
1847.
MASKS. Poppsea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard
her complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use among the
Greeks and Romans, Horace attributes them to ^schylus; yet Aristotle
says the real inventor and time of their introduction were unknown. Modern
masks aud muffs, fans, and false hair for tlie women, were devised by the
harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in 1572. — Stowe's Chron,
MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III., 1340;
and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the
citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representa-
tions as occasioned their suppression, 9 George I. 1723. [No less than six
masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were re-
vived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government,
and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masque-
rade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty-five
guineas each, 1776. — Mortimer.
MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the ofiQce or prayers used at the cele-
bration of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of
the passion of our Saviour. Hence every part of the service is supposed to
allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The ge-
neral division of masses consists in high and low : the first is that sung by
the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub-
deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed
without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin about a.d. 394. Ita
celebration was first introduced into England in the seventh century. Pros-
tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201.
MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by "x
colony of English Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This
was called the Plymouth colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and
Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692
The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this
State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston^
Bunker Hill, Lexington, &c. Present State Constitution formed in 1780 ;
revised and altered in 1820; slavery abolished in 1783 ; Shay's rebellion in
this State in 1786; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187
against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000 ; in 1790, 388,727 ; in 1810, 472,040;
in 1820, 523,287; in 1840, 737,699.
MASSACRES. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class
under this head ; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities
of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upozi
another, in vindication of the Christian religion ! The following are among
the most remarkable massacres recorded by vairious authors . —
BEFORE CHRIST.
Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, which
took place 897 B.C.
2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the
sword for not surrendering Tyre to
Alexander, 331 B.C.
The Jews of An tioch fall upon the other in-
habitants, and massacre 100,000 of them,
for refusing to surrender their arms to
Demetrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria,
154 B.O.
A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and
Ambrones, near Aix, by Marius, the Eo-
man general, 200,000 being left dead on
the spot, 102 B.C.
The Eomans, throughout Asia, women and
children not excepted, cruelly massacred
in one day, by order of Mithridates,
king of Pontus, 88 b.c.
A great number of Eoman senators maa*
Bacred hj CinBa, Marius, and Sertorloa
mas'!
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
417
MASSACRES, continued.
Many patricians clispatch th«nselves to
avoid their horrid butcheries, 86 b. c.
Again, under Sylla, and Catiline, his minis-
ter of vengeance, 82 and 79 b. c.
At Praeneste, Octavianus Csesar ordered
300 Eoman senators and other persons
of distinction, to be sacrificed to the
manes of Julius Caesar, 41 b. o.
AFTER CHRIST.
At the destruction of Jerusalem. 1,100,000
of Jews were put to the sword, a. d. 70.
The Jews, headed by one Andraj. put to
death 100,000 Greeks and Itomans, in
and near Cyrene, a. d. 115.
Cassius, a Roman general under the empe-
ror M. Aurelius, put to death 400.000 of
the inhabitants of Seleucia, a. d. 167.
At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens
are massacred, by an order of Antoninus,
A. D. 213.
The emporor Probus put to death 700,000
of the inhabitants upon his reduction of
Gaul, A D. 277.
Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the
emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; they
were put into a ship which was set on
fire, and then driven out to sea, a. u. 370.
Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons, invit-
ed into the circus, were put to the sword,
by order of Theodosius. a. d. 390.
Belisarius put to death about 30.000 citi-
zens of Constantinople for a revolt, to
which they were impelled by the tyran-
ny and exactions of two rapacious minis-
ters set over them, a. d. 552.
Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople,
by order of Andronicus, a. d. 1184.
Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, com-
menced at Toulouse, a. d. 1209. Tens
of thousands perished by means of the
sword and gibbet.
The Sicilians massacre the French through-
out the whole island of Sicily, without
distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day,
the first bell for vespers being the signal.
This horrid affair is known in history by
the name of Sicilian Vespers, a. d. 1282.
— Du Fresnoy.
A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun,
by the peasants, who, from a pretended
prophecy, conceived the Holy Land was
to be recovered from the infidels by them.
500 of these Jews took shelter in a castle,
and defended themselves to the last
extremity, when, for want of weapons,
they threw their children at the enemy,
and then killed each other, a. d. 1317.
At Paris, of several thousand persons, at
the instance of John, duke of Burgun-
dy, A. n. 1418.
Of "the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by or-
der of Christian XL, a. d. 1520.
Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants
throughout the kingdom of France, at-
tended with circumstances of the most
horrid treachery and cruelty. It began
at Paris, in the night of the festival of
St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24. 1572, by se-
cret orders from Charles IX., king of
France, at the Instigation of the queen
dowager, Catherine de Mediois, his mo-
18*
ther. It is styled in history, the Massa-
cre of St. Bartholomew.
Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks,
when 65,000 were slain, a. d. 1592.
Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death un-
der a i>retended legal sentence of the
chancellor of Poland, for being concerned
in a tumult occasioned by a Eoman
Catholic procession, a. d. 1724. All the
Protestant powers in Europe interceded
to have this unjust sentence revoked,
but unavailingly.
At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred
by the natives, Oct(jber 1740, under the
pretext of an intended insurrection.
At the taking of Ismael by the Eussians,
30,000 old and young were slain, Decem-
ber, 1790. — See Lsmael.
In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made
proclamation for the massacre of all the
whites, March 29, 1804, and many thou-
sands perished.
Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of
the French, May 2, 1808.
Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel
of Cairo, March 1, ISll.
Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the
Catholics, May 1815.
Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabi-
tants of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whose
ferocious disorders continue for sol ie
days, March 6, 1820.
MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY.
Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain,
May 1, A. ». 474.
Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of
1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumber-
land, A. D. 580.
Of the Danes in the southern counties of
England, in the night of November 18,
1002, and the 23d Ethelred II. At Lon-
don it was most bloody, the churches
being no sanctuary. Amongst the rest
was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of
Denmark, left in hostage for the per-
formance of a treaty but newly conclud-
ed.— Baker's Chronicle.
Of the Jews in England. Some few press-
ing into "Westminster Hall at liichard I.'s
coronation, were put to death by the peo-
ple ; and a false alarm being given that
the king had ordered a general massacre
of them, the people in many parts of
England, from an aversion to them, slew
all they met. In York, 500, who had
taken shelter in the castle, killed them-
selves, rather than fall into the hands of
the multitude, a. d. 1189.
Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's "Wood,
Ireland (see CuUen's Wood), a. d. 1209.
Of the English factory at Amboyna, in
order to "dispossess its members of the
Spice Islands, a. d. 1623.
Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland ]r*
O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Up-
wards of 80,000 British were killed in the
commencement of this rebellion. — Sir
William Petty. In the first two or three
days of It, forty or fifty thousand of the
Protestants were de8troyed.~iior(^(7icw.
endon. Before the rebellion was entiraly
'S THE world's progress. [m.
jj£ASSACRES, continned.
suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were
massacred. — Sir W. Temple.
Of the unoffending Macdonalds of Glencoe,
May 9, 1691. — iieeGlencoe.
Of 184 men, \yomen. and children, chiefly
Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to
death by pik^s, perpetrated by the insur-
gent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue,
Ireland, in 1798.— ^ir Btch. JUu. gram.
Massacre of 64 American prisonei'S at
Dartmoor, England, (disowned by Brit-
ish Government,) April 6, 1815.
MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES. An officer in several of the principal
courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of
the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception
of the ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James L 1603.—
Baker.
MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christopher
Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in a cause was made
to a master, a. d. 1588 ; and the masters have since been chosen from among
the most learned equity members of the bar,
MASTER OF THE ROLLS in ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from
his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and
recognizances, which being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for
that name.
MATHEMATICS, With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and disci-
pline; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathematics
were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to numbers and
quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to the Egyptians,
so early as 1950 b. c. — Josephus de Aniiq. Jud.
MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning
of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the French Matitis imply
the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscow,
the massacre of prince Demetrius, and aU the Poles his adherents, at six
o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600.
MAURITIUS. The isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, a. d.
1500; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after
prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of
Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the Erench
landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This
island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty
ofParisin 1814.
MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro-
ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that
at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned,
and erected to his memory a monument, which for its grandeur and magnifi-
cence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monument
she called Mausoleum, a name which has been given to all monuments of
unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and proposed
rewards to him who composed the best elegiac. panegyric upon her husband.
The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 b. c.
MAT. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer,
received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in
respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated majores;
though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury,
to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa Pompiiius by
adding January and February to the year, made this month the fifth, which
before was the third, 713 b. c.
KAY-DAT. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of
Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been immemorially observed in
MEC]
DICTIONAKT OF DATES.
419
England as a rural festival ; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in
many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the day.
The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May-day, an
ente^'tainraent at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate class the
chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good English
fare of roast-beef and plum -pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon tlieir
departure, each guest received tiie donation of a shilling from the mistress of
the feast.
kf AYNOOTH COLLEGE, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and en-
dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of student*
who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church in Ireland,
35 Geo. III., 1V95. It contains 500 students. Permanent endowment of
this college, at the instance of the government, to which 30,000^. for the en-
largement of the buildings, and 26,000/. annually, were granted by parliament,
June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and controversy
in England,
tIAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free cities
by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. Mayor
of the palace was a high office in Prance. In this quality Charles Martel
ruled with despotic sway, a. d. 735, et seq., under the last kings of the Mero-
vingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this office, and had it mad©
hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of corporate towns,
before whose institution in England, towns were generally governed by port-
reeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date from the reign ol
Richard I.
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869
B. c. — Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after-
wards ; they were very early known in England. Standards of weights and
measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London.
8 Richard I., a. d. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257.
They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825.
iECOA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, A. D. 571.
The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one
of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually
retired to perform his devotions ; and where the greatest part of the Koran
was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, a. d. 604. Two miles from
the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac,
1871 B. c.
MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first in-
troduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so httle known, that they have been
ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for
instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of
Dsedalus. We know nothing of the machineiy by which the immense masses
of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved and
elevated.
The first writing on mechanics, was by
Aristotle, about . . . b. o. 320
The Statera Eomana invented . . **
The fandamental property of the lever
and other instruments was demon-
strated by Archimedes . . . 205
The hand-mill, or quern,wa8 very early
in use; the Romans found one in
Yorkshire **
Cattle mills, molCBJumentaruB, were
also in use by the Eomans, and in
ports of Europe . . . . ♦♦
The water-mill was probably invente 1
in Asia ; the first that was described
was near one of the dwellings of
Mithridates . . . . b. c. 70
A water-mill is said to have been erect-
ed on the river Tiber, at Eome . 50
Floatinsc mills on the Tiber . A. D. 536
Tide-mills were, many of them, in use
in Venice about .... 1078
"Wind-mills were in very general use
in the twelfth century . . . *♦
420 THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. [mEI
MECHANICS, continued.
Saw-mills are said to have been in use
at Augsbmg . . . .a.d. 1832
Theory of the inclined plane inves-
tigated by Cardan, about . . 1540
Work on statics, by Stevinus . . 1586
Theory of falling bodies, Galileo . 1638
Theory of oscillation, Huygens . 1647
Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren . 1662
Epicycloidal form of the teeth of
wheels, Eoeiner .... 1675
Percussion and animal mechanics,
Borelli; he died .... 1679
Application of mecl^nics to astrono-
my, parallelogism of forces, laws of
motion, &c., Newton . a. d. 167!
Problem of the catenary with the
analysis, by Dr. Gregory . . 169'
Spirit level (and many other inven-
tions), by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to 170i
The Mechanics' Institute in London
was formed in .... 182{
Mechanics' Institute In New York
formed 183J
Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and ii
England.
MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. I
revolted from Arbaces 820 b. c, and afterwards became an independen
kingdom, and conquered Persia; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius th^
Mede, 536 b. c, Media was from that time united to the Persian empire, an(
shared its fate. — Blair ; Friestley.
Cyrus made king of Persia . b. c. 55
Eevoltofthe Medes.—Mair. b. o. 820
The country was subjected to the As-
syrians.— Idem. .... 766
Phraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia,
Armenia, and other countries . . 647
Battle of Pwiges ; the Assyrians defeat
the Medes^— Blair 625
War with the Lydians; the hostile ar-
mies meet; butaneclipseof the sun
so alarms them, they conclude peace
without striking a blow . . . 585
The reign of Astyages. — Blnir. . . 585i
Astyagcs deposed by Cyrus . . 55^
Croesus king of Lydia defeated, and his
throne seized by Cyrus . . .54?
Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar
to death ; and makes Astyages (or
Darius, the Mede) viceroy . . 53!
By the death of Astyages, Cyrus be-
comes master of all Persia; and this
era is properly the commencement
of the Persian empire. — Lenglet. . 35
The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced lux
ury into Persia. They admitted polygam}'-, and a man was deemed infamou
who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boas
of at least five husbands. — Aspin.
MEDICAL LITERATURE in the UNITED STATES. The Medical Reposi
tory, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It wai
conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill.
MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from th(
East, about a. d. 1150. In the early stages of the practice, the preparatioi
was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the clos(
of the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenili. The practice o
medicine is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in th(
hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes hav(
been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art.
MEDINA, IN Arabia Deserta, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained ii
a large mosque, closed witli rich curtains and lighted by a vast number of
rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Maho
met was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, A. D. 622. This flighi
gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Hegira, a wort
that, in Arabic, denotes, to fiee, or quit one's country ov friends.
MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre^
sented to us as if they were present. — Cardon. Simonides, grandson of
Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia
for teachmg artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 b. c. —
Arundelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Ger-
many in 1807. See Mnemonics.
MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religiom
MES] DIOTIOXAEY OF DATES. 421
who commenced their alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the ponti
ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general council, held by
Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders — DominicanSi
Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders
subsequently branched from them.
if ENSU RATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is
of very early date. The various properties of cor/ic sections were dis-
covered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration
may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c.,
about 218 B. c.
ME R GATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have
been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca-
tor published the charts in his own name, 1556. — Pardon. They are, how-
ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these
charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an-
gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of
latitude as they recede from the equator.
MERCHANT — from mercans. The name given to high commercial citizens who
trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted
the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by
queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of
Commons, in 1711; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurers' society (see
Adventurers Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296; it
extended to England in Edward III.'s reign; and was formed into an
English corporation in 1564. — Haydn.
MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found
in vast quantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany
are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200
tons ; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues
of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, a. d. 1512.--
Nouv. Diet. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crol-
lius early in tlie seventeenth century; the first direchons for its preparation
were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation
for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in
1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Oberlin, of Vienna, 1785.
MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy-
sician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry
YIII., and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and
good-humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs,
and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The
name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. — LEstrange.
Johnson.
MESSALIANS. A sect whose rehgious error consisted in adhering to the letter
of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro-
pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting
this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth;" about a. d. 310 — ■
Baronius, Annal.
MESSENIA, now Maura- Matra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom
was commenced by Policaon, 1499 b. c. It is celebrated for its long and san-
guinary wars against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundi^ed
cities, most of whose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the
Achaean league 21 C b. c.
MESSENIAN WARS The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia.
The first began 743 b. c, and was occasioned by violence having been ofiered
422 THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS. [mET
to some Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of devotion commoii
to both nations ; tlie king of Sparta being killed in his eflbrts to defend the
females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period made
so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the un-
married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the
end Ithome was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to the conquerors.
The second war was commenced 685 b. c. to throw off the galling Spartan
yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending m the defeat of the Messenians who
fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 B. C, it endured ten years, when
the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus.
MESSIiSTA, IN Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city, then
called Zancle, 671 B. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire,
but fell to the Saracens A. D. 829. — Priestley. — In the eleventh century Roger
the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op-
pression. Great Messinian conspiracy, 1282. The memorable revolt took
place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693 ; and nearly depopulated
by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and
in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same calamity; since
which it has been handsomely rebuilt.
METALLURG-Y. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned
as "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metala
are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel
in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working me-
tals.
METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated
with Aristotle. "What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be
traced farther back than the fifteenth century — the period when an extraor-
dinary impulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly
called the revival of learning,
METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from
one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who
would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which
the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea., that so
long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans-
migrate; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in em-
balming the dead ; a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 B. e.
METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis-
cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented.
" Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, "is not to form a sect, or to
bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or
form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians — Christians
in heart and life, in temper, word, and work — such as lived in the early days
of Christianity, and such as we may conceive may still live." The metihodistg
may be said to have appeared formally, if not originally at Oxford a. d.
1729 ; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me-
thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their
career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward
in the days of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative Mttho-,
distce, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence oT
the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist
missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke
in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these
missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organiz*
ed for their support, until ISlt.
mid] dictionaey of dates. 422
MEXrCO. Discovered in a. d. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under
Cortes, whose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished,
A. D. 1521. Tlie mint of Mexico, the richest in the world, was begun in
1535. This country, hke other states in the new world, has recovered its in'-
dependence. Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822. Mexican constitution
proclaimed by the president Yitioria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19,
1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles
suppressed, May 1826. Tiie expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March,
1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year.
Mexican revolution ; tlie president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year.
The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European
powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June, 1830. Civil war
between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president,
March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of
San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war termmated,
March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa
Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa-
redes against Santa Anna, Nov. 6, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and
Herrera made president, Dec. 1844, Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845,
"War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto,
May 8, 1846 ; and subsequently, at Matamoras. Santa Pe captured, Aug. 23,
and Monterey, Sept, 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern-
ment to raise $15,000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the
mortgage or sale of church property, Jan, 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Yista,
Peb. 22, 1847. Yera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847.
Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Yera Cruz in
disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20,
1847 ; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American
general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States rati-
fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato,
June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be-
comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Yera Cruz
surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1. See War of the United States and
Mexico. Signer de la Rosa, first Mexican minister to the United States after
the war, presented his credentials, Dee. 2, 1848.
MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving, representing figures on cop-
per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it
is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, a. d. 1648 ; but baron Heinikin states
that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Eliza-
beth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Engraving,
MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit
in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted
to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territory ceded to England by the
peace of 1763 ; made a separate territory of the United States in 1805 ;
admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the
territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered by gen-
eral Harrison. Population in 1810, was 4,528; in 1820, 9,048; in 1830
31,639; in 1840, 212,267.
MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a. d.
1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re-
fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded
to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In
England, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker,
F.R.S., who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763, — Biog. Did.
MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the He-
424 THE world's peogeess. [mil
brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460
B. c, is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It ad-
vanced under Celsus, who flourished a. d. 37, and under Galen, who lived ad.
131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti-
tution of the College of Physicians, 10 Henry VII., 1518. The celebrated
Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603; and after
his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc
affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farther
back than the flrst lying-in of Madame de la Valliere, mistress of Louis XIV.,
166B. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted
with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the
subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives
after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to ihem.
MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re-
puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 b. c. It submitted to the
Romans 222 B. c. ; was formed into a repubhc A. D. 1221 ; and lastly waa
governed by dukes from a. d. 1395 until 1505, when it was conquered by
Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan,
about 1390. The Erencli were expelled from Milan by Charles V. of Ger-
many, about 1525 ; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II, Milan
was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748.
Seized by the Erench, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ;
but regained by the French May 31, the next year. This city was made the
capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned
with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree
of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring
England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807.
Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept 8, 1847.
Collision of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848 ; followed
by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848 ; the gov-
ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt-
ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered
Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on
proposed union with Piedmont. — 561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing
it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri-
ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians
at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848.
MILITARY OR MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle,
but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, rather
than allowed, as law. — Sir IlaUhew Hale. Martial law was several times
proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through-
out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun-
try, July 26, 1803. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the
insurrection of June, 1848.
MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most
historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub-
jects soldiers, a. d. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involved
in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England
was in 1422, In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the
* Agnodiee, an Athenian virgin, rtisguisecT her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by
Hieropholus. her father, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex
CO her patients. This brought her int i so much practice, that the males of her profession, Avho
were now out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. 8he confessed
her sex to the judges, aiid a law was made to empower all free-born women to leai-n midwifery.
—Syg./a. 2T4.
minJ dictionary of dates. 425
appointment of officers are different in the different States See Encych>
pedia Americana. The aggregate militia force of the United States, as re-
ported in 1848, was 1,888,538, but as the returns in some instances were
for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to 2,100,000.
As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace about 8000)
the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war.
MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as tha
road by which- heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno ac-
cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules,
who, while she slept, was laid by her side; but perceiving who he was, she
threv/ him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk.
Democritus was the first who taught that the via lactea was occasioned by a
confused multitude of stars, about 428 b. c.
MILLENNIUM, This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the ex-
piration of the seven thousandth j^ear from the creation ; and that during
the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon eartii. It
was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was
propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many otliers. The Millennium
was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to. the etFect that our
blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec-
tion, before the final completion of beatitude. — Burnet.
MILLINER. Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and
dresses for woman, a very ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be
derived from Milan. There are men-milliners in England, and the adoption
of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justly censured. In
1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very
strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at
all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex-
posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while
the perfumed coxcomb ['-He was perfumed hke a milliner." — S/iaksjjeare.l
measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady
phrases to females of distinction.* — Butler.
MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar.
Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be
like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the
Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced
the water-mill. See article Mechanics.
MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds.
Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng-
land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced,
occurs 47 Henry IIL, 1262. — Ending. It related to mines containing gold,
together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime,
and salt exist in great abundance, in various States : lead mines in Mis-
souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North
Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Copper,
Tin, Gold, &c.
MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40» 30' nort'-
lat . and between 91* 10' and 102" west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux
Indians. First explored by the French; began to be settled by emigranta
from the United States about 1845-6.
* I look upon a man-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but
as one of the most injurious. When I hear one of these persons haraneuinff upon the merita
of muslin or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the feeling of enn-
tempt; for ihe employment that degrades this man might have preserved a woman from pros
titution. — Dr. SoxUhey.
426 THE world's peogeess. [mis
MINORCA, This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides.
Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in
August 1708, and was confirmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in
1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral
Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety
of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the
enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763.
Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured
by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up
at the peace of 1802,
MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to
divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee-
men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about a. d. 1560. John of
Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign
of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at
the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk
into neglect.
MINT OF THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at
New Orleans, 1838 ; at Charlotte, N. C, 1837 ; at Dahlonega, 1838. See Coining.
MIRRORS, In ancient times mirrors were made of metal; and from a passage
in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women
were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328
B. c. See Looking Glasses.
MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was
considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in
Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a bottle, about 1782, was the first
actress announced as Miss. — GaWs Lives of the Flayers.
MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St.
Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America.
The Jesuits had missions to China {which see), and to most other parts of
the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was
a Danish mission, planned by Frederick lY., in 1706. But the Moravian
Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions,
about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov.
4,1794; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions.
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810;
first mission at Bombay, 1813; at Cej-lon. 1816; to Choctaws, 1817; Che-
rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu-
tions of about $200,000 The statistics of its operations in various parts
of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this
Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical
science, to say nothing of re>igion and civilization, have been very important.
The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, &c., are also nu-
merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814, Board of
Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission-
ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See BenevO'
lent Societies.
MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nat-
chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the
Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part
of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida The territory,
together with Alabama, constituted the "Mississippi Territory" until 1817,
when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929 j
in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375,651, including 195,211 slaves.
mog] dictionary of dates. 42^
MISSOURI, one of the Uni ed States. "Was included with Louisiana in the
purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French
in 1764, but was httle more than a trading- post until 1804. when the terri-
torial governmeut was formed Missouri admitted into the Union as a State
in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri ComproTnise,
which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis-
souri. Population in 1810, 19,833; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840, 383,702, in-
cluding 58,240 slaves.
MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716 The cele-
brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced
about that period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time the nominal capital m
said to have amounted to 100,000,000/. See Law's Bubble.
MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed
to be the oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented
by Mithridates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 b. c. It was formerly
thought to be a great antidote against poison ; but though it is now out
of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the
capital medicines of our shops.
MITHRIDATIO WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, 86 B. c,
and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, tlie devastation of human
life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having
taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of
Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He
ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his
throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 b. c. — Lengld.
MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by
the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young
women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto,
wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according
to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is w^orn on, is more or less
magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of
Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day.
MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world.
The art of assisting memorj^, by getting by heart, was introduced by Siinon-
ides the younger, 477 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics
have been elaborately treated ; and the Memoria Ttchnica of Dr. Grey is an
esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have
it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no
ticed in the London monthly periodicals.
MODEN A. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the
French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions
were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran-
cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The
archduke escaped; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and
restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke,
March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24; Provi-
sional government appointed, April 9, 1848.
MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah, His son,
Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards
known as Turks, Tartars and Moguls The first conqueror of the Mogul
empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died a. d. 1236. Timour
Beg became great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous
Bophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried
away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the
nabobs have made themselves independent. See India.
428 THE world's peogeess. [mon
MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assyrians, founded soon
after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or almost
universal monarchies, — the Assyrian, Persian, G-recian, and Roman. See
them respectively.
MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in
A. D. 270 ; and according to others, in a. d. 305. The suppression of monastic
houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religious
communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re-
ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantine IV., among
other persecutors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear
atEphesus: he there ordered them to change their black habits for white,
and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the
vows they had taken, was impossible; whereupon he directed vhat their
eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their
various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of tlie state. AVhen St.
Austin arrived in England A. d. 596, Ethelbert of Kent gave him an idol
temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and his
successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic
houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; iand a vast number in
1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIII.
1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers,
whose descendants enjoy them to this day.
MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Ge-
nesis, wlien Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year
of the world 2139. In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed to
the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it
having been coined in the temple of Juno Moneta, 269 B. c. Money wa3
made of diflerent ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an-
cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so
late as 1514. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since
the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity
that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commo-
dity. See articles, Coin ; Gold ; Silver ; Copper ; Mint, &c.
MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de-
serts to avoid the Decian persecution about a. d. 250. St. Anthony is sup-
posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular
monastic life, A. d. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate.
St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys,
MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son
of Charles II., was banished England for a conspiracy in ] 683. He invaded
England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on
the 20th of the same month. Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and
was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth,
from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIII.
about 1535.
MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England,
that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence
mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were
further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622; and were
totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created^
as was previously tlie custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1640. — Ander
son's Histoi-y of Commerce,
MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra-
moeJ dictioxaey of dates. 429
ordinary enthusiast, about a. d. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of
prophec}^ and proclaimed himself" the comforter promised by Christ, con-
demned second marriages as fornication, permitted tlie dissolution of mar-
riage, forbade to avoid martjTdom, and ordered a severe fast of three
lents; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be-
fore the close of the second century. — C'ave'.s Hist. Lit.
MONTREAL. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was
taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November
12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Je-
suits' cohcge, prison, and many buildings bui-nt down, June 6, 18u3. Great
mihtary afi'ray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the "Rebellion Losses" Act;
the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1849.
MOON. The full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spar-
tans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of
conjunction of the sun and moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage.
Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by
Thales, 640 b. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the
moon, 79 B. c. — Diog. Laert. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant-
zic, A. D, 1647. The strength of moon-light at full moon is 90,000 times
less than the light of the sun. — Dr. Smith. It is 300,000 times lesa —
Bouguer.
MOORS. They first invaded Spain, a. d. VIZ.— Univ. Hist. The Saracens in
Spain, beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who
seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, a. d.
1091. Alphonsus I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq.
The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge from the
power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XL of Leon and Castile, slew
200,000 Moors in one battle; three leagues round the country was covered
with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi-
nand Y., who conquered Granada, 1492. Philip III. banished them to the
number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610. — JRriestley.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science
of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re-
garded as the father of moral philosophy, about 430 B. C. And Grotius is
esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern times,
about A. J). 1623. — Bate, &c.
MORAYIANS. United Brethren. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in,
it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt; while the Brethren say
that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They
appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who died
at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn , 1741. In order
to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed
settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and
other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now
so general
MORGARTEN, Battle of, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and
glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20.000 Austrians,
commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They
seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through
which the enemy was to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achieved
their victory, Nov. 15, 1315.
MORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to "Joe
Smith" is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835.
- Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Joe
430 THE world's peogress. [mm
Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri militia, under Gen Atchinson, Oct. 28,
1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844.
The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Soci? .lists,
and the JMormons emigrated to Deseret and California, 1848-9.
MOROCCO. Anciently Mo.uritania. From its early possession by the Romans
it underwent various revolutions. About a. d. 1116, Abdallah, a leader
of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last
sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces
shook otf their dependence: but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650,
subdued them, and foruied the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with Franco
provoked by Abd-el-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers,
commenced May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded,
and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16, 1844. Abd-el-Kader taken
prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846.
MORTARS. A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber,
used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated
mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816.
MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156; was
taken by Tamerlane, 1382; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the
Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This
city was entered by the French, Sept. 14, 1812, and the Russian governor,
Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at
once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the
ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar-
ters, evacuated Moscow Oct 1 9. and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct.
22, following. This city has been since rebuilt.
MOSKWA, Battle of, between the French and Russians See Borodino.
MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting
themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and
perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa-
ted A. D. 1609.
MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XL by pope Paul II.,
1469. It has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of
Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved.
MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dieu et mon Droit was first used by Richard L, A. D. 1193.
The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dien, " I
serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy,
the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Honi soit qui mal y
pense, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je maintiendraiy "■! will
maintain'' was adopted by William III., 1688. And Semper eadem was or-
dered by queen Anne to be used as her motto.
MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to
wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition
of grief for a friend lasted for seven days; and upon extraordinary occasions
it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for
the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in
Europe is black; in China it is white; in Tiu"key, violet; in Ethiopia, brown;
and it was white in Spain, until a. d. 1498. — Herrera.
MUNSTER, Treaty of, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden ; Spain
continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle
of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Signed at Munster,
Oct. 24, 1648.
MUSJ DICTIONARY OF DATE'^'. 431
MURDER. The highest offence against the hiw of nature. A court of Ephetae
was eetablished by Demophoon for the trial of murder. 1179 B. C. The Per-
sians did not punish tlie tirst otfence. In England, during a period of the
Heptarch}'-, murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry Vlll.'a
time, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed
l^enetit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, ov petit treason, may happer.
in. three ways; by a servant killing his master; a wife her husband; and
an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward III,, 1350, The
enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful com-
mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instanr.o.
The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one
after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IV., July 1836. — Haydn.
MUSEUM Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexander, like the Pryta-
neum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained
by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth.
The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus
who here placed his library, about 284 B.C. See British Museum, &c.
MUSIC, Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in
hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers
of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And
Zarlino to the sound of water. It isj^tiowever, agreed that music was first
reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 b c. The flute and harmony or concord in
music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506. — Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of
men are first mentioned 556 b. c. — Du Fremoy. Pythagoras maintained that
the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible
\/o mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a
Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel
was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her
melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient author-
ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third
century.
MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guido Aretin,
a Benedictine monk of Arezzo, a, d. 1025. — Blair. The notes at present
used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by
Palestrina about 1515. Gaflfurius of Lodi read lectures on musical composi-
tion in the sixteenth century, and they effected great improvement in the
science. The Italian style of composition was introduced into these countries
about 1616.
MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS. England. The Ancient Academy of Music was in-
stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen-
tlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was
established in 1741. and other musical societies followed The Royal Society
of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the
performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785, Royal Academy of Mu-
sic established 1822.
MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish
historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier
with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. In-
troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside,
12 Henry VIII \b2\— Carte. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the
musket into use in the Low Countries, 1569. — Brandone.
MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so
called as not being bare but having a downy nap on its surface resembling
rioss, which the French call mousse. According to others it was first brought
432 THE world's progress. [myi
from Mouso], in India, whence the name. Muslins were first woi*n in ]i]ng.
land in 1670. — Anderson. They were manufactured in gi-eat perfection in
England in 1778.
MUTES. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or
felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An-
cientl}^ a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked,
on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon
his body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one
day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately
until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in a. d.
1605, see article Finessing to Death. By statute 12 George III judgment is
awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or
confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the
Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778 Another on a charge of burglary,
at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding,
Aug. 21, 1801.— Philli2}S.
MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. Brig SOMERS, commander A. S, Mackenzie; m"d-
shipraan Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842.
MUTINY OF THE BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bounty.
MYCALE, Battle of, fought September 22, 479 b c, between the Greeks and
Persians; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and
slain at Platea, The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just
returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were
completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt,
and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa-
mos with an immense booty.
MYCEN^. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty
stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidse Perseus
removes from Argos to Mycense, and reigns, 1.313 B. c. Mycenaj destroyed
by the Argives, 568 b. c.
MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an in-
stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max-
ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt
up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis
and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks The
Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 B. c.
The laws were — 1. To honor parents ; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits
of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civJ-
ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries
They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, a. d. 389.
MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the
authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated :
and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in
this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding
of men hving in a state of nature, were supposed to be more than mortikl,
and therefore after death the multitude wore easily taught to reverence them
with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in-
visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon ; and
then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions
of their own minds, which they embodied under symbolical representations,
and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed 'o
have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 b. c. ; and Cadmua
the worship of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities, among the Greeks, 1493
B. 0.
nap]
DICTIONARY OF DATES,
431
N.
NABOISrASSER, Era of. This era received its name from the celebrated prince
of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, Y47 B. c. To find the Julian year on which
the year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747 ;
if after Christ, add to it 748.
NAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it
to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans
taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their
names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names at their exaltation
to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name till
then was Swine-snout, a. d. 687." — Flaiina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII.
956 : and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter and
Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In Prance it was usual to
change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of
Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules ; but
at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It
is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new
names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the
world, their family, and themselves. See Surnames.
NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was
garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715.
Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781,
the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again
taken by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ;
but they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered
it up to the Allies, in 1814.
NANTES, Edict of. See Edict
NAPLES. The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples
was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen-
tury it became a prey to the G-oths, and afterwards to tlie Lombards; and
the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this
country.
The Goths having become masters of
Naples and of Sicily, are expelled
by Belisarius, general of the Eastern
empire - - - A, D. 537
The Lombards next get possession of
Naples, and are dispossessed by
Charlemagne - . - 800
Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis,
king of France, obtains the crown
from the pope, to the exclusion of
the rightful heir, Conradin, who is
beheaded, aged sixteen years - 1266
The French becoming hated by the Si-
cilians, a general massacre of the in-
vaders takes place, one Frenchman
only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers
March 30, 1282
Peter of Arragon reigns - - 1282
The two crowns disjoined - 13u3
Charles Durazzo, becoming king of
Hungary,ismurderod there by order
of the queen regent, in her presence 1386
For this murder she is taken out of her
carriage, and drowned in the river
Boseth - - - - 1386
Sicily again united to Naples, and the .
kings ever since called king of the
Two Sicilies - - - 1442
Taken from the French and annexed
to Spain - - - - 1504
The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to
an insurrection, excited by Massa-
niello, a fisherman, who in fltteen
days raises an army of 200,000 men 1647
This insurrection subsides, andMassa-
niello is murdered - - 164T
Attempt of the duke of Guise to pos-
sess the crown - - 1647
The kingdom completely conquered
by prince Eugene - - 1707
Discovery of the ruins of Hercula-
neum. See Herculanetim, - 1711
Naples ceded to the emperor by the
treaty of Radstadt, 1714 ; Sicily 1720
Both kingdoms are recovered by the
crown of Spain ... 1734
And Charles, the son of Philip of
Spain, reigns - - ' - 1735
Reign ot Fei'dinand IV. - - 1759
His flight on the approach of the
French republicans - Jan. 14, 1799
Nelson ai)pears, Naples is retaken,and
the king restored - July 18, 1799
It is again taken by the French, Ap''17,lSU1
Dreadfu-l earthquake felt throughout
434
THE WORLD'S PEOGKESS.
[NAT
Demonstration in favor of Pius IX.
and reform, fired upon at Naples,
and arrests made - Dec. 15, 1847
Sanguinary disorders at MessinaJan.4,lS48
Rebellion at Palermo, &c. Jan. 12, 1848
Palermo bombarded Jan. 18-19, 1848
The king signed a constitution Jan.2S, 1848
Messina expelled the Neapolitan gar-
rison - - - Feb. 22, 184S
The parliament of Sicily declares that
island independent ;' Messina bom-
barded by theNeapolitan fleet Ap.3, 184S
The national guard raises barricadesat
Naples - - May 14, 1848
The people put down by the king's
troops ; 1440 killed - May 15, 1848
TheSicilian parliament elects the duke
of Genoa as king of Sicily Jaly 10, 1848
Messina bombarded and taken by the
Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1848
Ifew constitution conceded to Sicily
March 6, 1849
Catania bombarded and redacedAp. 5.1849
N"APLES, continued,
the kingdom, and thousands perish
July 26, 1805
Treaty offensive and defensive be-
tween France and Naples Oct. 8, 1805
Ferdinand is again driven from Na-
ples, and Joseph Bonaparte is
crowned king - Feb. 6. 1806
Joseph abdicates for the crown of
Spain- - - June 1, 1808
The crown is transferred to Joachim
Murat - - -July 1,1808
Naples is surrendered to aBritishtleet,
and Ferdinand re-enters June 17, 1815
Execution of Joachim Murat Oct. 15,1815
Kevolutionary movement, headed by
general Pepe - - July 15, 1820
Suppression of the Carbonari Sept.l6, 1820
Eeign of Francis I. - - - 1826
Andof Ferdinand II. - Nov. 8, 1830
Commencement of the dispute rela-
tive to the sulphur monopoly,(which
is afterwards amicably adj usted)
March 15, 1840
NARY A, Battle of, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated
by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The
army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish
army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700.
NASEBY, Battle of, between Charles I. and the parliament array under Fair-
fax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by
lord Astley; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale
the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory
was with the parliamentary forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfor-
tunate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing
all his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June
14, 1645.
NATIONAL DEBT of ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu-
rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry YI. The present
national debt commenced in the reign of "William III. It had amounted in
tlie j^ear 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought
to be of alarming magnitude
In 1702, On the accession of queen
Anne, the debt amounted
to- - - - £14,900,000
In 1714, On the accession of Geo. I.
it amounted to . 54,000,000
In 1749, Geo. 11. ; after the Spa-
nish war,it amounted to 78,000,000
In 1763, George III.: end of the 7
years' war, it amounted
to ... . 139,000,000
In 1786,Threeyears afterthe Ame-
ricanwar,itamount'd to 268,000,000
In 1798, The civil and foreign war,
it amounted to - 462,000,009
NATIONAL DEBT of the UNITED STATES, at different times.
In 1791 the debt was - $75,463,476
In 1800 « " . - 82,976,294
In 1810 " " - - - 53.173,217
In 1815 " " - - - 99.83.3.661)
In 1816 " " - - 121,334,934
In 1820 " " - • - 91,015,566
NATURALIZATION. It is defined U> be "the making a foreigner or alien
a denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it wer^
In 1802, Clor.e of the French Ee-
volutionary war, it a-
mounted to - £571,000,000
In 1814, Close of the war against
Bonaparte •• - 865,000,000
In 1817, When the Irish and Eng-
lish exchequers were
consolidated - 848,282,477
In 1830, Total amount of the
funded and unfunded
debt - - - 840,184,022
In 1840, Total amount of ditto 789,578,000
In 1845, Funded debt
In 1830 the debt was
In 1835 " "
In 1839 " " -
[n 1845
In 1848 " " -
768,789,241
- $48,565,406
37,733
- ll,98-i,738
- 16,801,647
- 65,804,450
NAVJ
DICTIONAEY OF DATES. 435
both a subject and a native of a king or country, that by nature he did no\
belong to." The first act of naturaUzation in England passed in 1437 ; and
various similar enactments were made m most of the reigns from that time,
several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the natural-
ization of the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year,
on the petition of all the cities in England. See United States.
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY of FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe
Sieyes, the states of Erance constituted themselves into the National Assem-
bly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by
order of the king ; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Mai repaired to
the Je^i de Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had
digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of St.
Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792, See next article.
NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the
Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire,
at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that
that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, " That the
citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being
met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that
the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a
new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed
at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory.
NATIONAL GALLERY, London. The foundation of this great institution
was the purchase, by the British government, for the public service, of the
Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty.
They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the
first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May, 1824. Sir G. Beau-
mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British
Institution, contributed many fine pictures; and the collection has been
augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi-
fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkuis, and was completed
and opened in 1837.
N AVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the
first upon record, 1263 b. C. — Bu Fresnoy. The first sea-fight on record is
that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 B. c. — Blair. The fol-
lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the
page of history.
at Cnidos : Pisander, the Athenian
admiral, is killed; and the mari-
time power of the Lacedemonians
destroyed — TJiucydides - - 894
The Roman fleet employed in the
siege of Lilybaeum, burned by the
Carthaginians - - - 249
The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by
the consul Lutatius - ' - - 242
The Eoman fleets vanquished by
Hannibal, the Carthaginian gene-
ral ; 800 galleys taken, and 16,000
prisoners; second Punic war - 209
At A ctium,'between the fleets of Octa-
vianusCaisar andMarcAntony. This
battle decides the fiite of the latter,
800 of his galleys going over to Cae-
sar, by which he is totally defeated 81
BEFOKE CHEI3T.
First sea-fight on record, in which the
Corinthians conquer theCorcyreans 664
The Athenian fleet under Themistoc-
les, with 380 sail, defeat the Per-
sian, consisting of 2000, at the
straits of Salamis - - - - 480
Again, at the mouth of the river Eu-
rymedon ; Cymon, the Athenian ad-
miral, vanquishes the Persian fleet
and army, in one day. — Iferodotus 470
The Lacedemonian fleet taken by Al-
cibiades, the Athenian - - - 410
The Spartan general, Lysander, total-
ly defeats the Athenian fleet under
Conon; bythis victoryhe puts an end
to the maritime power of Athens - 40T
The Persians engage Conon to com-
mand their fleet, with which he en-
tirely vanquishes theLacedemonian
fleet, and takes 50 sail out of 90 - 400
The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan
ANNO DOMINI.
The emperor, Claudius II. defeats
the Goths, and sinks 2000 of their
ships.— i)^* Fresnoy - - S69
436
THE world's progress.
[nav
NAYAL BATTLES, continued.
The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice,
and Pius V. defeat the Turkish
fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto. The
Christian fleet consisted of 206 gal-
leys, and 30,000 men. The Turks,
out of 250 galleys, saved only 100;
and lost 3u,000 men in killed and
prisoners. — Voltaire - - - 1571
Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spani-
ards. This was a bloody conflict and
decisivevictoryandsettledfor a time
thesuperiorityof theDutch,Apr. 25, 1607
NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BKITISH HISTORY.
Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300
sail of Danish pirates on the Dorset
and Hampshire oouit.— Asserts Life
of Alfred SOT
Near bluys; Edward III. defeated
the French fleet of 400 sail, which
were all sunk. 30,000 French were
killed in this engagement - - 1340
The English and Flemings; the latter
signally defeated - - - - 1371
English and French, in which the
latter power loses SO ships - - 1389
Near Milford Haven; the English take
]4, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405
Off Barfleur ; the Duke of Bedford
takes 500 French ships - - 1416
In the Downs: the French fleet cap-
tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459
BayofBiscav; English and French,
the latter defeated - - - 1512
Sir Edward Howard defeats the
French under Prejeant - - 1513
In the Channel; the British defeat
the French fleet with great loss - 1545
TheSpani-shArmadadriweTi from the
EuglishChannel tothe roadof Calais,
bya running fight the Spaniards los-
ing 15 shii)S and 6000 men ; they are
lurain defeated, and obliged to bear
awayior Scotland and Ireland,whcn
theirfleet isdispersed in astorm,and
they lose 17 more ships, and 5000
more men. See Armada, July 19, 1588
Dover Straits; between the Dutch
admiral, Van Tromp, and admiral
Blake. TheDutch surprise the Eng-
lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging
40 English, six of which are taken
or destroyed ; and the Dutch admi-
ral sails in triumph through the
channel, with a broom at his mast-
head, to denote that he had swept
the English from the seas. June 29, 1652
In the Downs; same admirals, and
nearly same loss
Sept. 28, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652
The English gain a victory over the
Dutch fleet ott' Portsmouth, taking
and destroying 11 men-of-war and
30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was
the Dutch, and Blake the English
admiral - - - - Feb. 10, 1653
Again, near Portland, between the
English and Dutch ; the latter de-
feated - - - - Feb. 18, 1653
Again, off the North Foreland The
Dutch and English fleets consisted
of near 100 men-of-war each. Van
Tromp commai'ied the Dutch;
Blake, Monk, and Deane, the Eng-
lish. Six Dutch ships were taken ;
11 were sunk, and the rest ran into
Calais road . . . June 2, 1653
Again, on the coast of Holland; the
Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and ad-
miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1663
At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth
2,000,000 pieces of eight, were taken
by the English - - - Sept. 1656
The Spanish fleet vnnquished. and
then burnt in the harbor of Santa
Cruz, by Blake - - - Ai)ril, 1637
English and French ; 130 of the Bor-
deaux fleet destroyed by the duke
of York ... - Dec. 4, 1664
The duke of York (afterwards ,James
II.), defeats the Dutch fleet off Har-
wich ; the Dutch admiral blown up
with all his crew ; 18 capital ;hips
taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665
The earl of Sandwich took 12 men of
war and 2 India ships - Sept. 4, 1665
A contest between the Dutch and
English fleets for victory ,maintain-
ed for four days. The English lose
9,and theDutch 15 ships, June 1—4, 1666
Decisive engagement at the mouth of
the Thames, when the English
gain a glorious victory, the Dutch
lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals kill-
ed, and 4,000 oflicers and seamen.
Fought - - - - July 26, 1666
The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the
J^rench of 30, near Martinico - - 1667
Coast of Holland ; by Prince liupert,
May28.June 4,and Aug. ll,D'Etrees
and Kuyter defeated - - - 1673
Several actions to the disadvantage of
the Dutch. They agree to strike to
the English colors in the British
seas. 25 Charles II. - - - 1673
Off Tangiers, battle between the En-
glish and Moors, which lasted 11
days 1679
Off Beachy-head; the English and
Dutch aie defeated by the French,
June 30, 1690
The English and Dutch combined
fleets gain a signal victory over the
French fleet,uear CapeLallogue ; 21
of their largest men-of-warwere de-
stroyed.—See La Bogue, May 19, 1692
Off St. Vincent; theEnglithandDutch
squadrons,un(ler admiral Iiooke,de-
feated by the French - June 16, 1693
Off Carthagena.between admiral Ben-
bow and theFreuch fleet,command-
ed by admiral Du Casse, fought
Aug. 19, i708
The English and Dutch fleets, under
sir George Kooke,defeat the French
fleet (h.avingtheSpanish galleonsia
convoy) in the port of Vigo. They
take 9 out of 13 galleons,laden chief-
ly \ ith silver, and six men-of-war;
the other 4 galleons, and 14 men-of-
war, destroyed, fought - Oct. 12, 1702
Off the Lizard, when the English fleet
was defeated - - - Oct. 9, 1707
NAV]
DtfTIONARY OF DATES.
437
NAVAL BATTLES, continued.
In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake
took sixty French vessels laden with
provisions - - May 22, 1708
The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de-
feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro
of Messina ■ - Aug. 11, 1718
Bloody battle off" Toulon ; Matthews
and Lesiock against the fleets of
France and Spain. Here the brave
captain Cornwall fell ; and the vic-
tory was lost by a misunderstanding
between the English admirals. — Na-
. val. Hist. .... 1744
Off" Cape Finistere, the French fleet
taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747
In the East Indies ; the French retired
to Pondicherry - - - 1747
Off Ushant, when admiral Hawke took
seven men-of-war of the French
Oct. 14, 1747
Admiral Hawke defeats the French
fleet commanded by Conflans, in
Quiberon Bay ; and thus prevents a
projected invasion of England, fought
Nov. 20, 1759
Keppel took 3 French frigates, and u
fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762
Near Cape St. Vmcent, between admi-
ral Rodney and admiral Don Lan-
gara, the latter defeated and taken
prisoner, losmg 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780
At St. Jago ; Mons. SuffVein defeated by
commodore Johnston April l6, 1781
Admiral Rodney defeaietl the French
going to attack Jamaica, took 10 ships
of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up)
and sent the French admiral, count
de Grasse, prisoner to England
April 12, 1782
The British totally defeated the fleets
of France and Spain, in the bay of
Gibraltar.— See Gibraltar Sept. 13, 1782
Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet de-
feated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of
battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797
Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ;
admiral Nelson loses his right arm ;
July 24, 1797
Camperdown; the Dutch signally de-
feated by admiral Duncan, and 15
ships of war, with the admiral (De
Wmter), taken - Oct. 11, 1797
Nile ; Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho-
ratio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of
the line taken , 2 burnt, 2 escaped,
Aug. 1. 1798
Gibraltar bay ; engagement between
the French and British fleets ; the
Hannibal of 74 guns lost July 6, 1801
Off'Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains
a victory over the French and Span-
ish fleets; 1 ship captu-ed, fbu^h'
July "12, 1 SOI
Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail, takes 2
ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of
the I'rench and Spanish combined
fleets. ofl'Ferroi - July 22, 1805
Off' Trafalgar; memorable battle, m
which lord Nelson defeated the fleetiS
of France and Spain, and in which
he received his mortal wound. — fSee-
Trafalgar) ■ ■ Oct. 21, 1806
Sir R. S;rachan, with 4 sail of British,
captures 4 French ships of the line,
off" Cape Ortegal - Nov. 4, 1805
In the West Indies ; the French defeat-
ed by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of
the line taken, 2 driven on shore
Feb. 6, 1806
Sir John Borlase Warren captures the
French fleet under conimand of ad-
miral Liiiois ■ - March 13. 1806
Admiral Duckworth effects the passage
of the Dardanelles. See Dardanelles,
Feb. 19, 1807
Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line,
15 I'riga'tes, and 31 other vessels, sur-
renders to lord Cathcart and admiral
Gambler. (See Copenhagen) Sepi 7, 1807
The Russian fleet of several sail, in the
Targus, surrenders to the British,
Sept. 3, 1808
Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth.
See Algiers - - Aug. 27. 1816
Navarino ; the British, French, and
Russian squadrons, defeat and anni-
hilate the Turkish navy. See Nava-
rino - - - Oct. 20, 1827
Action between the British ships Vol-
age and Hyacinth, and 29 Chinese
war junks, wliich were defeated
Nov. 3, 1839
Bombardment and fall of Acre. The
British squadron under admiral Stop-
ford arhieved this triumph with tri-
fling loss, while the Egyptians lost
2000 killed and wounded, and 3000
prisoners. See Syria - Nov. 3, 1840
NAVAL BATTLES of thk UNITED STATES.
Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- ]
teer, takes 16 prizes - - - 17'6
His descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 '
He captures the British frigate Serapis j
Sept. 23. 1779
Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tri-
politans .... 1803
—recaptured by Decatur - - Feb. 1, 1804
Tripoli bombard id by -.ommodore Pre-
ble - . - . Aug. 1804
Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the
British ship Leopard, for refusing to
be searched .... 1807
Frigate President, vs. British sloop
latUeBelt ■ . May 16, 1811
Constitution captures British frigate
Guerrriere - - Aug. 13, 1812
Captain Elliott captures two British
frigates on lake Eric - - Oct. 8. 1812
Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro
lie, Oct. 18 ; both vessels captured by
British 74, Poictiers - Oct 20. 1812
Frigate United States, captain Decatur,
captures British frigate Msc-'i'oniaii 1312
Constitution, captain Bainbridge, cap-
tures British frigate Java Oct. 29, 1812
Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures
British ship Peacock, captain Peake,
Feb. 23, 18lt
438
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[na-v
NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued.
[Delaware and Chesapeake bays block-
aded by British.]
Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the
Brilifh frigate Shannon June 1, 1813
Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop
Pelican - - - Aug. 14, 1813
B.u-i ELiterprise captures the British
brig Boxer - - - Aug. 1313
Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry,
captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813
Fl.'^tilia, commodore Chauncey, cap-
tuies British flotilla on lake Ontario,
Oct. 5, 1S13
Frigate Essex, commodore Pi./ter, cap-
tured by frigate Phoebe and sloop
Cherub- • - March 28, 1814
Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge,
surrendered to British frigate Or-
pheus ■ - - April 21, 1814
Sloop Peacock, captain Warrington,
captures British brig Epervier
April 29, ldl4
Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap-
tures British brig Reindeer, June 28, 1814
Flotilla, commodore Macdonough, vic-
torious over the British on lake Cham-
plain - - - Sept. II, 1814
Frigate President, surrendered to the
British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1816
Frigate Constitution captures British
brigs Cyane and Levant, ofT Maderia
Feb. 1815
Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap-
tures British brig Penguin, off Brazil,
Feb. 23, 18 e
U. S. naval force under commodore
Conner bombards Vera Cruz (ji'intly
with the land force under general
Scott) 1847
NAVARINO, Battle of, between the combined fleets of England. France, and
Russia, under command of admiral Codrington. and the Turkish navy, in
which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships,
many of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks
themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20,
1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Turkey, was that
of Mr. Canning's administration. This destruction of the Turkish naval
power was characterized, by the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an
"untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day.
NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 b. c. The
first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 b. c. The first
account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing
round Africa 604 b. c. — Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander
the Great, 335 b. c, its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently
the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively
from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span-
iards ; and from these to the English and Dutch.
Plane charts and mariner's compass
used about - - - a. d. 1420
Variation of the compass discovered
by Columbus - - - - 1492
That the oblique rhumb lines are spi-
rals, discovered by Nonius - - 1.537
First treatise on navigation - • - 1545
The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577
Mercator's chart - - - - 1599
Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for
measuring angles, about - - 1600
Logarithmic tables applied to naviga-
tion by Gunter - - a. D. 1620
Middle latitude sailing introduced - - 1623
Mensuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631
Hadley's quadrant - - - 1731
Harrison's time-keeper used - - 1764
Nautical almanac first published - 1767
Barlow's theory of the deviation of the
compass - • - - - 1820
See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, Sfc.
NAVIGATION, INLAND, of thb TJnitrd States. An official report of U. S.
Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle-
ghanies, navigable for steamboats, 16 674 miles ; entire length of lake coast,
of which 2000 belong to British possessions. 5000 miles. The steamboat
tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249.055 tons. Aggregate value of
commerce on the western rivers, S183,609,725. Estimated amount of lake
tonnage, S61, 914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at different perioda,
see ShLpping.]
NAVIGATION, INLAND, of Great Britain. Mr. Nimmo. in his evidence be-
fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have more
inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together."
The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well the
NAV]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
439
navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals, — Haydn. This state-
ment scarcely agrees with the preceding.
NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194.
See Oleron. The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more
extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relating to the trade of the colonies
passed in 1646; and several acts followed relating to navigation. The act
regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga-
tion Act, for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil-
liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 1849.
NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States
was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at
Portsmouth, N. H., 1781 ; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of
Congress, authorizing the building of .six frigates, March 30, 1794, The
Constitution launched at Boston. Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See
Naval Battles.]
NAVIES OF EUROPE and AMERICA.
COMPARATIVE
VIEW OF THE NAVAL FORCES OP THE POWERS OP EUROPB
AND
AMERICA, 1846.
Relative naval
power of each nation.
In commission.
Building, ordina-
ry, &c.
Total.
i
1
62
Vessels.
Guns.
Vessels.
Guns.
Vessels.
Guns.
•^
Z «"
Great Britain,
332
4,583
304
13,098
§636
17,681
40,000
141
France,
215
4,293
131
4,635
346
8,928
27,554
68
Russia, -
179
5,896
179
5,896
59,000
;«
Turkey, -
62
2,636
4
24
66
2,660
26,820
9
United States,
47
1,1.55
30
1,190
77
2,345
8,724
5
Egypt, -
35
1,148
3
312
38
1,760
1
Holland,
48
302
86
1,344
134
1,646
4
Sweden, -
330
660
50
1,196
aso
1,856
2
. Denmark,
96
344
12
732
108
1,076
Austria, -
74
686
74
686
Brazil, - - -
31
450
11
325
42
775
8
Sardinia, - - -
11
226
4
220
15
446
2
'Spain, -
21
348
21
348
.-
4
Two Sicilies,
17
338
17
338
Portusal,
59
Mexico
23
42
1 --
23
42
--
COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OP DIFFERENT NATIONS.
Nations, in the order of their commercial
importance.
United Kingdom of Great Britain,
United Stales . . . .
France,
Norway and Sweden -
Holland,
Russia,
Two Sicilies, ....
Austria, . . . . .
Turkey,
Sardinia,
Denmark, - -
Portugal,
Spain,
Brazil,
Mexico.
No. of vessels
m commerce
Tonnage.
and fisheries.
23,898
3,007,581
19,666
2,416,999
13.782
839,608
5.450
471,772
1,523
241.676
Not known.
2.39,000
9,174
213,193
6,199
208,-551
2,220
182.000
3,.502
167.360
3.036
1.53,408
798
80,.525
2,700
80,000
Unknown.
Unknown.
Unknown.
Unknown.
No. of guns 3
each 100,000
tons of com-
merce.
97
1,063
'224
683
2,466
153
321
1461
265
709
410
THE world's progress.
[ NEM
NAVY OF ENGLAND. Tlie first fleet of galleys, like those of \he Danes,
was built by Alfred, a. d. 897. The number of galleys had increased under
Edgar to 350, about a. d. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub-
lic contribution of every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II., 1007,
et seq., when it rendezvoused at Sandwich to be ready to oppose the Danes.
From this period fleets were occasionally furnished by the maritime towns,
and the Cinque ports, and w^ere usually commanded by the king, or an ad-
miral under him: such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in
1347 ; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regu-
lations. The date of the commencement of the Royal or British navy, may
therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-office was ap-
pointed, with commissioners to manage naval affairs, and a number of stouT
ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown. — Gibson's
Camden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200
tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller ; the largest was called the
Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588,
consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10
ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever bui ^. — Gibson's
Continuation of Camden.
ACCOUNT OP THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OF THE ROYAL NAVY OF ENGLAND, PROM HENRY
VlirS REIGN TO THE CLOSE OF THE LAST WAR, 1814.
Yr.
Ships.
Tons.
Me7i voted
1521
16
7,260
ir)78
24
10,506
6.700
160.S
42
17.055
8.:^6
16.18
157
57.000
21.910
I63S
173
101,692
42,000
17U2
272
159.020
40,000
Navi/ eslini.
no account,
no account,
no account,
no account,
no account.
i:i,0.".6.915
Yr.
S/n'ps.
1760
412
I 1793
493
1 1800
767
180S
869
1814
901
Tons. Men voted
321.134 I 70,0(X»
433,226 45,000
663,744 •: 135,000
892.8001 143:8(X)
966.000 146,ai0
Navy estim.
je3,227.143
5.525;33l
12:422.837
17:496,047
18,766,509
In 1814, Great Britaii. had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in
1830 she had 621 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying ves-
sels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home
service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all size's in commis-
sion was 183.
NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a. d. 7.28, when, like that
of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys; in this year the
French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under
Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French
navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781 ; but it became gr^wtly
educed in the late wars "against England.
NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, oc-
cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and
White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th
parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south.
First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805. and partly ex-
plored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842.
NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home
trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee-
dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapsido,
London, in the time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain', but,
as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered
again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Ehas Growse, a German,
taught the art to the English, Avho have since brought it to the highest
degree of perfection. — Stoioe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of
lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this
time. — Anderson.
NEMEAN GAMES. So called from Nemaea, where they were celebrated.
NEW j DICTIONAP^Y OF DATES. 441
Tliey were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorua,
who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed
them. They were one of the four great and solemn games which were
observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cle-
onae, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhilited
foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of every
kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a
crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure
of Archemorus. whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They
were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or
more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c-
Hcrodotus.
NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Grall«;
of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846.
NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time
bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians,
is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary wan
the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, for
that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not.
herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as
distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ;
that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was
subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., as
othtfr men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly
applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant
go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread,
and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirma-
tion nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died a. d. 439. — Du Pin.
NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name
of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun-
try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was
governed by its own counts and earls ; and afterwards fell to the dukes of
Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were
united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see
Holland and Belgium.
VEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island
was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the English at
the general peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the
Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies.
NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America
under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go-
vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Se*
these respectively.
NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi-
nando Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1823, It
came vohmtarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was
made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several
times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it
has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended,
1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858 ; in 1830, 269,328-
in 1840, 284.574.
SEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a
continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the
beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were traced
19*
442 THE world's progress. \ revv
by tlie Dutch ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was
dis.covered by Tasman, in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east
and north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its sepaiation from New
Guinea; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discove-
ric; with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extnuuity,
which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, -was found,
in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty
leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Difiterent parts of
the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The east-
ern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in the name of
George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the Bri-
tish dominions. See New Suui/i Wales.
NEW .JERSEY. One of the United States ; first settled by the Dutch from
New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finnt, on the De-
laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by
Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664 ; granted by the duke to lord Berkley
and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued
by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered by them, 1674 ; purchased by a
company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at
Salem, 1674; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of diffi-
culty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne, 1702 ; continued under
royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered
much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal
Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47,000; in
1790, 184.189 ; in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840, 373,306.
NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from
about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash-
ington— an area of about 200.000 square miles. The country taken posses-
sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of
Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or
fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa F6, and
founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconquered by the Spaniards
after a war of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between
the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with
Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is
yet (July 1850) undecided.
NEW SOUTH WALES. See New Holland. The eastern coast of New Hol-
land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England,
in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that
the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the
first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts. January 20, 1788 :
but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the
head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital.
NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next ear
eleven daj's were left out of the calendar — the third of September. IY52,
being reckoned as the fourteenth — so as to make it agree with the Grego-
rian Calendar, which see, and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200,
there was no difference of styles ; but there had arisen a difference of ele-
ren days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much be-
forehand with the former; so that when a person using the old style dates
the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this
variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the differ-
ence of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices.
KEW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is th«
oldest on authentic record transmitted down to our times, and still observed
NEW 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443
The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who pre-
sided over the new year), January 1, 713 b. c. On this day, the Roniana
sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ;
and all the mechanics began something of thtyr art or trade ; the men of
letteis did the same as to books, poems, &c. ; and the consuls, though cho-
sen beff re, took the chair and entered upon their ohice this day. After the
government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on
New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a ci owd, all in new clothes, when
two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great
deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple ; the flamens,
together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity offered their vows
for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an
oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding
year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor,
and took care not to speak so much as one ominous or untoward word.
The first of January is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is
in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York,
this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from
the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch , but is also observed
in Paris.
«EW-YEAR^S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New-Year's gifts
among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines. who having consi-
dered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of
the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the
name of Strenas, 747 b. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry,
and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not in town,
they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to
the Greeks, and from the heathens to the Christians, who very early came
into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fa-
thers wrote very strenuously against the practice, upon account of the immo-
ralities committed under that cover and protection ; but since the govern-
ments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the custom is
still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed
in the United States.
NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of
Manhattan, where New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry
Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently
settled on Manliattan island by the Dutch in 1621 ; surrendered to the En-
glish, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664 ; confirmed to
England by the peace of Breda, 1667 ; retaken by a Dutch expedition in
1673 ; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674 ; first legisla-
tive assembly, 1683 ; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689 ; episcopacy esta-
blished by law. 1693 ; negro conspiracy, 1741 ; colony took an active part in
French war, 1756, and the war of Independence ; city captured byEnghsh,
1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783 ; State adopted the Federal Constitution
by 30 to 35. 1788 ; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population ia
1732 65,000 ; in 1790, 340,820 ; in 1810, 959,049 ; in 1820, 1,372.812 : in 1840,
2,428 921.
NEW YORK. City of. Founded by the Dutch, 1614 ; fort built by them at
S. point of the island, 1623; surrendered to the English, 1664; assessed
value of all the property in the town in 1668, was .£78.231 ; city taken by
the British, 1776 ; evacuated, Nov. 25, 1783 ; meeting of first United States
Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United
States, at the City Hall in Wall-street, April 30, 1789 ; yellow fever pre-
vailed here in 1795 and 1806 ; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire in
444 THE world's progress. [ NE\f
the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property
vaUied at about §20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835 ; another in same neighborhood,
1845 ; the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly after ; celebratioD
of the completion of Croton Aqueduct. Oct. 14, 1812. Population in 1790,
33,131 ; in 1810, 96,373; in 1830, 202,589 ; in 1840, 312,710.
NEW ORLEANS. City of. Founded by the French in 1717 ; conveyed to
the Spanish, 1762; recovered by the French, 1800; purchased by the
United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between
the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in
which the latter were defeated with loss of 3,000 killed and wounded, the
Americans losing onlv 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population
in 1810, was 17,242 ; 'in 1830, 46,310 ; in 1840, 102,198, including 23,448
slaves.
NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines
were discovered here about a. d. 1234. The first charter which was granted
to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry IlL in 1239 ; but in 1306,
the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation,
chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which
were then growing about that city ; but this interdiction did not long conti-
nue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this
place for more than 500 years.
NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima Vista.
June 24, a. d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert,
1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the
English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from
Portugal, 150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in
1577. — Hackluyt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had in-
creased so much that the ports of Devonshire alo«e employed 150 ships, and
sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English fa-
milies reside here all the year ; and in the fishing season, beginning in May
and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland,
which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. New-
foundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A
bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's ; a great
portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at Xl,000,000 sterling,
June 9, 1846.
NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh
account of any thing. — Sidney. It is something not heard before. — L' Es-
trange. News is an account of the transactions of the present times. — Addi-
son. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective
new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent
practice to put over the periodical publications of the day the initial letters
of the cardinal points of the compass, thus ; —
N
E W
importing that these papers contained intelligence from the four quarters
of the globe ; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper.
NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be consi-
dered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roger
L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued
nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of '.he Gazette. A
publication, with few claims however to tlie character of a newspaper, bad
HEW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 445
previously ai)peared; it was called the English Mercury* and came out un»
der the authority of queen ]iilizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of tha
Spanish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated July 23, in that year.
In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant, and
in the year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of pub-
lications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of whictj
the following were the titles : —
En -land's Memorable Accidents.
The Kingdovi's Intelligencer.
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par-
liament.
The Mercurius Aulicus.
The Scotch Intelligencer.
The Parliament's Scout.
The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or
Certain Information.
The Mercurius Civicus, or London's Itv-
telligencer.
The Cou7itri/s Complaint, Sfc.
The Weekly Account.
Mercurius Britannicus.
A paper called the London Gazette was published August 22, 1642. The
London Gazette of the existing series, was published tirst at Oxford, the
coart being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7. 1665, and afterwards at
London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of newspapers and
pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., 1680. — ;<c2mon's Chron. Newsjm-
pers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued : —
In 1753 -
- 7,411,757
In 1810 -
- -20,172,837
InlS35 .
• -32,874,652
In 1760 -
- - 9,404,790
In 1820 -
-24,862,186
In 1840 .
- 49,033,:i84
In 1774 -
. 12,-300,000
In 1825 -
. -26,950,693
In 1843 .
- -56.443,977
In 1790 ■
- -14,035,639
In 1830 -
- 30,158,741
In 1849 -
- 76,569,235
In 1800 -
• 16,084,905
The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849
was 603, viz : 160 in London, 232 in the English provinces, 117 in Ireland,
and 94 in Scotland. The number of advertisements inserted in the London
newspapers in 1849 was 886,108, paying a gross duty of ^66,458 2s. ; in the
English provincial newspapers, 834.729, vielding to the crown a revenue of
£62 604 135. M. ; in the Irish papers, 220^524, paying £11,026 45., and in the
Scotch papers, 2,40911, paying in duty £18,075 16s. Qd.
NEWSPAPERS, &c. in the United States. The first was the " Boston News
Letter" in 1704, which was continued till 1774 ; the second was the Boston
Gazette, 1719 ; the third the American Weekly Mercury, at Philadelphia,
started one day after the last. First New York Gazette, in 1725 ; first
newspaper in the Carolinas at Charleston, 1731-2 ; first Rhode Island Ga-
zette, at Newport, 1732 ; first Virginia Gazette, at Williamsburgh, in 1736.
In 1775. there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers; in 1810, in the United
States, 358 ; in 1828, 802 ; in 1839, 1555. See Periodical Lit.
NEWSPAPERS IN France. The first was the Gazette de France, established
by Reuaudot, in 1631, and continued with few interruptions till 1827.. when
it ceased and another paper assumed its name. The Moniteur, commenced
1789, has been since 1800 the official journal of the Government. The Con-
slitutionelle and the Journal des Debats have long had the largest circula-
tion. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Peri"
odical Lit.
NEWSPAPERS, Irish. The first Irish newspaper was Pue''s Occurrences, pub-
lished in 1700: Faulkner's Journal was established by George Faulkner, " a
man celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his head,"
1728. — Supplement to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers,
* The full title is, " No. 50, The English Mercurie, published by authoritie, for the preveB*ica
of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describci
ihe armament called the Spanish Armada, givinsr " A journall of what passed since the 21st of thif
month, between her Majestie's fleet and tliat of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admirallio
the Lordes of council."
I It is said by Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this papei was a forgeiy, and thai
the first English paper was the Weekley Newes, p blished by Nathaniel Butler in 1622.J
446 THE vVORLC's PROGRESS [ NH
is the Ereema7is Jour,-^,al, founded by the patriot, Dr. Lucas, about the year
1755. — Westminster Review, Jan. 1830. The Livierick Chronick, the ofdest
of the provincial prints, was estabUshed in 1768. — Idevi.
KEY, MARSHAL, his Execution. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince
of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals of
France. After the abdication of Napoleon. 5th April 1814, he took the oath
of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIIL On Napoleon's return to France
from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded
the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invaders M'ay to Paris.
March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he
fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five
horses having been shot under him, uni.l night and defeat obliged him to
fly. But though he was included in the decree of July 24. 1815, which guar-
anteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken
in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to
trial before the Chamber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of
Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced
to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly
fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815.
NICENE CREED. A summary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by
the first general council held there in the palace of Constantine the Great.
In this celebrated council, which assembled a. d. 325, the Arians were con-
demned. It was attended by 318 bishops from divers parts, who both set-
tled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the time for observing Easter.
NILE, B.4TTLE OF THE. Ouc of the greatest in British naval history, between
the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord, then sir Hora-
tio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the
celebrated river Nile; nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken,
two were burnt, and two escaped. August 1, 1798. This is sometimes called
the battle of Aboukir ; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of
baron Nelson of the Nile ; his exclamation upon commencing the battle was,
" Victory or Westminster-abbey !"
NILE, SOURCE op the. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon,
in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives
no tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the
source of the Nile ; he set out from England in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of
Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in
1773. This river o^'erflows regularly every year, from the 15th of June to
the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to
the land ; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the
inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were
drowned, and immense property lost,
NIMEGUEN, Treaty of. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between
France and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in his-
tory for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the
British under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 : but v.'ere
defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov= 8, following.
NirRIC ACID, formerly called aquo^fortis, first obtained in a separate state by
Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about a. d. 1287 ; but we are indebted to Cav-
endish. Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties,
Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785, Nitrous acid,
nearly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gas
was accidentally discovered by Dr, Hales. Nitrous Oxide Ga? was discov-
ered by Dr, Priestley, in 1776.
NOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 44?
NOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they
had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to
distinguish them from the common "people. The right of peerage seems to
have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were first
granted to Philip the Fair of France, a. d. 1095. George Neville, duke of
Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was de-
graded from the peerage by parliament, on account of his utter want cf
property. 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in
June 1773. See the various orders of nobility through the volume; see also
Peerage
NOBILITY OF FRANCE The French nobility preceded that of England, and
continued through a long line, and various races of kings, until the period
of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hered-
itary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts,
marquisses. knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished;
that all citizens take their family names; liveries, and armorial bearings,
shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 vol-
umes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV.. June 25 1792. A
new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon 1808. The hereditary
peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1831. See France
NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conforiA-
ists and non-conformists ; or. as they aye commonly denominated, churchmen
and dissenters. The former are those who conform to that mode of worship
and form of church-government which are established and supported by the
state ; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their
own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England. Avas established
at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-con-
formists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity had passed,
August 24, A. D. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion re-
signed, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles.
NON-JURORS, IN ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James 11. was un-
justly deposed, and who. upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to
the family that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several
of the bishops, who were deprived iu 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a
double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates. May 1723.
NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by
the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed
a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards, in
1789. captured two English vessels, and took j^ossession of the settlement.
The British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the affair was
amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to
England in 1790.
NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774,
by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settle-
ment was made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 1788, in Sydney bay.
on the south side of the island. This has latterly been made the severest
penal colony of Great Britain.
PfORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth cen-
tury this country was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called
Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles
the Simple of France ceded the duchy to their leader RoUo. a. d. 905 to 912,
and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo was the first
duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several of his suc-
cessors after him, till William, the seventh duke, conquered England, ir
448
LtiE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[no*
lOQQ, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost iu
the reign of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. The
English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which
Jersey and Guernsey are the principal.
NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northAvest passage wag
made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a. d. 1500. It was attempted
by the English in 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen
Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and
was called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage."
The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British
navigators, in the years respectively stated : —
Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to
find a north-west passage to China,
sailed from the Thames* May 20, 1553
Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find
a north-west passage to China - 1576
Captain Davis's expedition to find a
north-west passage • - - 1585
Barentz's expedition - - • 1594
Weymouth and Knight's - - 1602
Hudson's voyages ; the last undertaken
(See Hudson's Bay.) - - - 1610
Sir Thomas Button's - - -1612
Baffin's. — See Baffin's Bay - - 1616
Foxe's expedition - - - - 1631
[A number of enterprises undertaken '
by various countries, followed.]
Middleton's expedition - - - 1742
Moore's and Smith's - - - - 1746
Hearne's land expedition - - 1769
Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul-
grave, his expedition - - - 1773
Captain Cook in the Resolution and
Discovery - - - July 1776
Mackenzie's expedition - - - 1789
Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790
The Discovery., captain Vancouver, re-
turned from a voyage of survey and
discovery on the north-west coast of
America - - Sept. 24, 1795
Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition • Oct. 1815
Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's
expedition in the Dorothea and Trent 1818
Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the
Isabella and Alexander - - 1818
Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla
and Griper - ■ May 4, 1819
They return to Leith • Nov. 3, 1820
Capts. Parry and Lyon, m the Fury
and Hecla - - - May 8, 1821
Capt. Parry's third expedition with the
Hecla - - - May 8, 1824
Capts. Fianklin and Lyon, after having
attempted a land expedition, again
sail from Liverpool - Feb. 16, 1825
Captain Parry, again in the Hecku
sails from Deptford • March 2o, 1827
And returns - - , • Oct. 6, 1827
Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on his re-
turn from his arctic expedit ■'n, after
an absence of ^our years, ai^d when
all hope of hu return had been near-
ly abandoned • - Oct. 18, 1833
Capt. Back and his companions arrived
at Liverpool from their perilous Arc-
tic Land Expedition, after having
visited the Great Fish River, and ex-
amined its course to the Polar Seas
Sept. 8, 1835
Captain Back sailed from Chatham in
command of His Majesty's ship 7'er-
ror, on an exploring adventure to
Wager River. [Captain Back, in
the month of Dec. 1835, was award-
ed, by the Geographical Society, the
king's annual premium for his polar
discoveries and enterprise .June 21, 1836
Dease and Simpson traverse the inter-
vening space between the discover-
ies of Ross and Parry, and establish
that there is a north-west passage
Oct. 1839
Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in
the Erebus and Terror leave Eng-
land - - - May 24, 1845
Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccess-
ful expedition in search of Franklin 1849
Another expedition (one sent out by
lady Franklin) in seaixh of sir John
Franklin, consisting of two vessels,
sailed from England, April-May 185C
Still another, consisting of two vessels,
the Advance and Rescue., liberally
purchased for the purpose by Henry
Grinnell, a New York merchant, and
manned at Government cost from the
U. S. navy, under command of lieut.
de Haven, sailed from New York
May 1850
NORTH CAROLINA, one of the UNITED STATES. First permanent settle-
ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious per-
* The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from Radcliffe, on his fatal voyage for
discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the
court then resided. Mutual honors wei-e paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared
at the windows, and the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost tha
noble and novel sight, lor he then lay on his death-bed ; so that the principal object of the parade
was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen t»
ieath, on the coaot of Lapland.— iifacA:/^?/^
MUL ] ' DRJTIONARY OF DATES. 449
seculion, about 16G0. The district granted to lord Clarendon, who induced
the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it. 1663. The chi(Ji
magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility.
This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas-
ed by the crown for ^£17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720.
NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali-
ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex-
cui'sions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d. 1000. The
city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark
in 1378 ; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden >verQ
united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex-
change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was
proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two
countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandi-
navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of
Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden.
NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notabks of France was con-
vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI. , in 1788. The deranged state
of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled
Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much
against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any
good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England : and Louis, having
lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons.
de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General
were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, v)hich
see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish
notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by
- him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain.
NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the
Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs,
in the first century. — Die Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a
commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their
authenticity in any other country.
NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alex-
ander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name
of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed
rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of
Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745. and 1758 ; but was again confirmed
to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces, in 1784;
and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets.
NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its
name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713
B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators
(for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished
to call this month in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius
Caesar, and Augustus ; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying,
'What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Csesars 7 "
NOVI, Battle of. in which the French army commanded by Joubert was de-
feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799.
Among 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several
other distinguished officers. A second battle fought here between the Aus-
trian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated, January 8,
1800.
NITLLIFICATION of the LAWS of the UNITED STATES. The right
450 THE world's progress. [ OAT
claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature
of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against tho
Nullitiers, Dec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S. C.
same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United
States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Carolina convention in
consequence of Mv. Clay's compromise tariff, March 11, 1834.
NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numantia with the
Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge
to Ihe Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by tlie Romans.
141 B. c.—Livy. It continued for fourteen years ; and though Numantia
was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The
inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af-
ricanus was empowered to finish the war. and to see the destruction of Nu-
mantia. He began the siege with an army of 60.000 men, and was bravely
opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear
arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the
Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be-
gan to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on
that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill
and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all
destroyed themselves, b. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the
triumph of the conqueror.
NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In
early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of
Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the
Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio and his admission
to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu-
tion.
NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of
St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in
France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a. d. 360. — Dio
Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Eardbald,
king of Kent, 630. — Diigdale's Monas^icon Anglicanum. See articles Abbeys
and Monasteries.' The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany,
in July, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan.,
1790,
O.
GATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Oates was a wicked man. at one time chap-
lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct,
he becam'e a lecturer in London ; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in-
vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles 11. , of which several persons,
Catholics, were accused, and upon ialse testimony, convicted and executed,
A. D. 1678. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James
II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whi![>-
ped from Newgate to Tyburn and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685 ;
but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689.
OATHS, The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced
by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rapin. That administered to a
judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub-
jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first
framed and administered 3 James I., 1605. — Stnwe's Chron. Of abjuration,
being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com-
mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and
OGT "] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 45
abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William Jll. 1701,
Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528; and the words " So
help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550.
OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of
an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths
to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a
decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables,
the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths
less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has
left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients
swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear ; as,
for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by those pei ■
sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far abov(
any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair.—
Ovid, <^c.
OBELISK. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of
Egypt, about 1485 b. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and
the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun ; they ditfered very much as to
their co.stliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ;
one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the
pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about
14 B. c.
OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the
temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was
another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at
Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was
at Alexandria, about 300 b. c. The first in modern times was at Cassel,
■1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles 11. a. d.
1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers mak«»
their calculations.
First moilern meridional instrument,
by Copernicus - - - a. d. 1540
First observatory at Cassel - • - 1561
Tycho Brahe's, at Uranibourg - - 1576
Astronomical tower at Copenhagen • 1657
Royal (French) .... 1667
Royal Observatory at Greenwich - - 167y
Observatory at Nuremberg • • 1678
At Utrecht 1690
OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports,
and the tentL in the year of Numa, 713 b. c. From this time October has
still retained its first name, in spite of all the different appellations which
the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered
it to be called Faustmus, in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the
emperor; Commodus would have had it called Invictus ; and Domitian
DomUianus. October was sacred to Mars.
ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions
accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps
the most beautiful and sublime odes ever'written, as well as the oldest, are
those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about
757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ;
and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odes
were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing
is that of our court poets at this day.
OGYGES DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste
200 years, occurred 1764 b. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no othei
Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direc
tion
171'
At Bologna .
.
1714
At Petersburg .
1725
Oxford, Br. Raddiffe
.
1772
Dublin, Dr. Andrews •
im-i
Cambridge, England
.
1824
Cambridge, Mass.
New Plaven .
.
Cincinnati
452 THE world's progress. [omjn
than the uni/ersal del ige; but according to some writers, if it at all oc-
curred, it arose in the overflovvijg of one of the great rivers of the country.
See Deluge.
OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta,
April 1788 ; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincin-
nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at Gallipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New
Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature
met at Cincinnati. 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con-
necticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund '■' in
1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union,
1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in
1830, 937,637 ; in 1840, 1,519,467.
OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham,
about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and ajar full was
the prize at the PanathentcaB games. It was the custom of the Jews to
anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings.
Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid
seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress.
Ruth iii, 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be
resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after the
process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar-
tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale.
OliBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802.
OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym-
piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Coroebus
was successful cj.. \he Olympic games. This era differed from all others in
being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe-
riod of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year
and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in
772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764 ; the fifth, in 760 ; the 10th in
740, &c.
OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were insti-
tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every
fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus,
now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those
who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their coun-
trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of
wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops,
1807 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules; and were revived
by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. c. — Dufresnoy.
OMENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having
drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said
to have had these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, cele-
brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty-
four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were
seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed
that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a Space as the fourth pait of
the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri-
dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature
to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin.
OMNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the Londou
circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach proprietor named
Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro-
bably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous. Jn Ne-vr
6PT J
JJICTIONARY OF DATEJs.
4r4
York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830. There were 466
licensed in New York in 1849.
OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of
the custom of giving- musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and othej
dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with
him, A. D. 1590. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the
cliief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin ob-
tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672,
was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in
London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-build-
ings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of H&nlel
were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres
a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's
Bcggar^s Opera,, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive
nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain
refused to license for performance a second pavt of it, entitled " Polly."
This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication
with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200^.,
whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400Z. — Life of Gay.
OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great
mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port." A chartered company for the
regulation of the Port- wine trade was established here in a. d. 1756. See
article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by
• lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi-
guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside-
rable loss, Sept. 19, 1832! See Portugal.
OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of
Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen-
tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley, and is now one of
our most flourishing as well as useful sciences.
X.Iansen and Galileo have also been
stated to be the inventors.]
Cassegrainian reflector - - - 1621
Law of refraction discovei'ed by Snell-
ius, about - - - a. d. 1624
Reflecting telescope, .Tames Gregory - 1663
Newton - - 1666
Motion and velocity of light discovered
by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667
[Its velocity demonstrated to be 190
millions of miles in sixteen minutes.]
Double refraction explained by Bartho-
linus - - - • - 1669
Newton's discoveries - - - 1674
Telescopes with a single lens, by
Tschirnhausen, about - - - 1690
Polarization of light, Huygens, about - 1692
Structure of the eye explained by Petit,
about ----- 1700
Achromatic telescope constructed by
Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - 1733
Constructed by Dollond, most likely
without any knowledge of Hall's - 1757
Herschel's great reflecting telescope,
erected at Slough - - - - 1789
Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaslon) - 1807
Ramage's reflecting lelesccpe erected
at Greenwich • ■ - - 1820
424
300
280
Burning lenses known at Athens at
least - - - - B. c.
Two of the leading principles known
to the Platonists - - - -
First treatise on, by Euclid, about
The magnifying power of convex glass-
es and concave mirrors, and the pris-
matic colors produced by angular
glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D. 50
Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy - - 120
Greatly improved by Alhazen - - 1108
Hints for spectacles and telescopes giv-
en by Roger Bacon about - - 1280
Spectacles (said to have been) mvented
by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300
Camera obscura said to have been in-
vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560
Telescopes invented byLeonard Digges,
about - - - - - 1.571
Telescope made by Jansen (who is said
also to have invented the micro-
scope), about - - . . 1609
[The same instrument constructed by
Galileo, without using the produc-
tion of .lansen]
Asti-onomical telescope suggested by
Kepler 1611
Microscope, according to Huygens, in-
vented by Drebbel, about - - 1621
OPTIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been
N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about a. d. 1538. — Nowv
CHct.
454 THE world's progress. [ ORH
ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa-
mous was the oracle of Delphi. 1263 b. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracle?
were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what
would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to
mean the event that came to pass. Among the Jews there were several
sorts of oracles ; as first, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God
si)oke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly,
visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep nor
awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when the}^ were accompanied
with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued
with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ;
fiftlily, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be-
ginnmg of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but
it immediately afterwards ceased. — Lempricre ; Pardon.
ORANGE, House op. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe,
and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas-
sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his tvvoAvives,
and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of
Nassau Dilembourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories
in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey
count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter
and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other
domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau
family by tlie marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of NassaiT
in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England,
landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his
queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689.
ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio
in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in
1732.
ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear
to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century,
although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages pre-
viously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. — Loudon.
ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term
signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences
by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions
taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the
upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence
the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women
accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their in-
nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would
put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this
day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre-
suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare-
footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry
burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were
judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal Avas used
from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol-
' The water ordeal was performed in eithei- hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected
were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course oJ
lature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or less into scalding water, which if they
brought ou( without iiurt, they were taken to be innocent of the crime.
ORR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 455
ishod by a royal proclamation, 45 Henrj^ III., 1261. — Law Diet. Rijmer'i
Fader a.
ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such thing as a vague and
absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was
to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and
ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ;
and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina-
tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its pe-
culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination.
OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America.
First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca. 1592 ; by sir Francis
Drake, 1578 ; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en-
tered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia of Boston, United States,
May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson,
1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis. 1808 ; Pacific Fur
Company (J, J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth of
the Columbia, by Astor's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W, Company, 181 3 :
occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of
the Hudson's Bay Company (Enghsh) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi-
ded at the 49th parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole
of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr.
McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18,
1846. Population at that time about 20.000. Territorial government esta-
blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848.
ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about
220 B. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also at-
tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The
organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied
to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bellarmine. Organs were
used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Ammonius. It
is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815,
when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an
organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile
oft'; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount
of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe; it has 60
stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100- stops, and 5300 pipes.
The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human
voices.
ORGANS IN England. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the
Music-hall, Birmingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem.
ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark
to Scotland in a. d. 839, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of
money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and united with
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of
Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm
by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about
1689.
ORLEANS, Siege of, by the Enghsh, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury,
Oct. 12. 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so as
its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI.. king of France ; and it
was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepiditj^ and heroism of Joan
of Arc, aftcirwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans. April 29, 1429. Siege
of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563.
ORRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explain
45G THE world's progress. [ ov>
the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the
construction of the clepsydrae and other horological automata. Ptolemy
devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130.
The planetary clock of Fin^e, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of
De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, was invented by
Charles, earl of Orrerj'"; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr.
Eowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery has
been greatly improved of late years.
DSTEND. This town is famous for the lang siege it sustained against the Spa-
niards, from July 1601 to September 1604, when it surrendered by an honor-
able capitulation. On the death of Charles II. of Spain the French seized
Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the
allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In
the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen
Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend. which they
evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794.
OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip-
tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years'
banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for
fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without
any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been
first introduced by the tyrant Hippias; by others it is ascribed to Clys-
thenes, about 510 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they
most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and
presented it to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest
written was sentenced by the council to be banished, ab aris etfocis. But
this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common-
wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice,
Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribing
Hyperbolus. a mean person.
OTAHEITE, OR Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the
Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of
Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it
was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai,
a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and
carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the
district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com-
pelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1848. She
retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by
admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Sei-
zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844.
TTTERBURN, Battle of, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl
of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir Wilham Dou-
glas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob-
tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle
the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. — Walsingham.
OITOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman [.
on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkey.
OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of
their army whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re-
warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being
consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the
honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to bo
allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called
ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the capitol.
PAl j
DICTIONARY OF DAIBS.
467
whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumiua
Tubertus \\as the tirst who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c.
OWHYHEE OR HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered bj
captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden
resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the island-
ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage
till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub-
mit to this insult; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Ccok
and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have been
a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re-
vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though
the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving
the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest.
COLLEGES. bishop of Winchester ; first called St.
All Souls' College, founded by Henry Mary of Winchester - - - 1375
... ^^g^ ... ...
Chichely, abp. of Canterbury A. d.
Baliol. .lohn Baliol, knt., and Deborah
his wife ; he was father to Baliol king
of the Scots .... 1263
Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop
of Lmcoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509
Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ;
and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532
Corpus Chrisci. Richard Fox, bishop
of Winchester ... - 1516
Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex-
eter 1314
Hertford College .... 1312
Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen
Elizabeth 1571
Lincoln College. Richard Fleming,
1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop
of Lincoln .... 1475
Magdalen. Waynflete, bishop of Win-
chester - - - - - 1458
Merton (Jollege. Walter de Merton,
bishop of Rochester - - -1274
New College. William of Wykeham,
Oriel College. King Edward II. ;
Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334
Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R.
Whitwick, clerk - - - 1620
Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield,
clerk, confessor to queen Philippa,
consort of Edward III
St. John's. Sir Thomas White
Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope
University. Said to have been founded
by king Alfred, 872 ; founded by Wil
liam of Durham
Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and
Dorothy his wife
Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent-
ley in Worcestershire ; it was orig
inally called Gloucester College
HALLS.
St. Albans ...
St. Edmund's - - -
St. Mary's
St. Mary Magdalen - - -
New Inn Hall -
1340
1557
15ft
IIT/
1612
1714
1547
1269
1616
1602
1.392
OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical
phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley,
Aug. 1774.
PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in
A. D. 1540.
PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen-
tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be-
lief except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure
us th<>y concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be-
lief Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout
the Roman empire, a. d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in the
reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tillemont.
PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt.
Osyraandyas (See Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting
2100 B. c. — Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a
method of burning the colors into wood or ivory. 335 b. c. The ancients
considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said
io have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 b. c. — Pliny. The art was
20
458 THE world's progress. [ FAl
introduced at Rome from Etruria. by Quintus Fabius, rvho on tiiat acconnt
was styled Pictor, 291 b. c. — Livy* The first excellent pictures were
brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 b. c. After the death of Aiigastus,
not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages; Ludius, who
W8S very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint,
ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in a. d. 66. Bode, the
Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived
about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is
awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen-
erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother
Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of painting in
oil, 1415. — Du Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspec-
tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which
time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court.
FAINTING IN THK UNI FED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity
was John Watson (born in Scotland. 1685), who commenced painting por-
traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Suiybert, of Edinburgh, began in
Boston. 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist; born in
Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708 : painted his first portrait in Lancaster,
Pa.. 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738; first painted in
1760: he was the father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain.
Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode
Island, 1754). John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756). William Dunlap (New
Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists
in succession in the United States. See Dxuila'p's Arts of Design, &c.
PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew,
Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070.
Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Ducky
of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines.
PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from
the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived
in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a
brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the
protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick,
wbere parliament granted them 24 OOOZ. for their sufjport. 3000 were sent
to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the
inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged
by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss
Proteetants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7
Anne, 1709. — Andeison.
PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa-
gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus, as he was build-
ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the
oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium
was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks,
they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b. c, though
some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that
the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by ^neas, 1183 e.g.,
* Parrhasius af Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once cont«'<nde(l
for pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, (he bii-da
came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and
Zeuxis said, " Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itsoU' was thf,
painting, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, '■ Zeuxis has docjived
the birds; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis !" Panhasius dressed in a puiple robe, uud wore
ft crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 b. c. — Plutarch.
TAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 459
and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of
Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome.
PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem,
multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, toot
branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations
and hosaunas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish
countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter ; hence called Pains
Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in theii
hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga
falviata, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven.
PALMYRA, Ruins of, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English
travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly
of white marble, prove it to have been more t^j^tensive and splendid than
even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder-
ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman
power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the
place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the
city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in
1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce,
on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent
sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were
so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed
to touch one another.
PALO- ALTO, Battle of. See Battles.
PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d.
504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, a. d. 1137;
they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library
of Medici at Florence, as the Paiidecta: PlorentiiKZ.
PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention
of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper
round the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality.
In 1788. Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the
first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon-
don, having adopted the name of ' Panorama,' to attract notice, and was
ultimate!}^ enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for
that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banv^ard,
a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent
in dimensions, completed about 1816 ; since which numerous similar works
have been achieved.
PANTHEON AT ROME. A temple built by Augustus Caesar, some say by
Agrippa his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in
the wall, w^ere the particular image or representation of a particular god
was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and
the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the
Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de la Rotunda.
PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among
the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and
Bathyllus. 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of
stage performances. — Usher. Pantomime dances were introduced about the
same time. — Idem. Representation by gesture and action only, is contem-
poraneous with our stage.
PAPER. See Papyrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China, 170
B.C. It was first made of cotton, about a. d. 1000; and of rags in 1319.
White coarse paper was made by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford,
460 THE world's progress. ( tAlk
in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were erected.—
Stowe. Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and an
act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690; before this time we paid
for these articles to France and Holland 100 000/. annually. The French
refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost ex-
clusively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us in
1690. — Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis
Robsrt, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer.
The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier,
he perfected the machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac-
turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made
tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made 13.800 feet long, and
four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830.
PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose M'as first made in Spain
' and Holland, about a. d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart-
ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved
in this countr\' from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been
brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve sh?!-
lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling.
PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and
India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 b. c.
Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per-
gamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript
of the Antiquities of Josepkus on papyrus of inestimable value was among
the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library
at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815.
PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say hj Attains),
of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on
the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b. c. Parchment-books from this
time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the
world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the
Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long
before Eumenes's time.
PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward
III., in 1327.. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege
suae dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies,
stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning;
hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan-
tages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king
cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri-
vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach-
ment of the House of Commons. — Haydm. In the United States, the par-
doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a fractice
which upsets Blackstone's tlieory.
PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed
204 B. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, a.d.
1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university
of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the
Arundelian Marbles, which see.
PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town-
ship. It began to be called the city of the Parisii, a. d. 380. Clovis fixed
upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra-
vaged by the Normans ; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held it
fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438.
when the hungry wolves entered the city and committf.d, we are told, great
i^AR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 461
devastation. The events in connection with this great city will be found
under their respective heads.
St. Denis founded • - A. D. 613
Rebuilt 1231
Church of Notre Danne built - - 1270
The Louvre built (see Louvre) - - 1522
Hotel de Ville .... 153r
The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis - 1594
Hospital of Invalids - - - 1595
The Hotel Dieu Ibunded - - - 16(Xi
The Palais-Royal built - - - 1610
The Val-de-Grace - . - - 1645
The Boulevards commenced - - 1536 ) Arch of St. Denis erected - • 1673
Fountain of the Innocents - • 1551 The Palace of the Deputies • - 1722
The Tuileries built (see 7'Mz7enes) -1564 The Military School - - -1751
The Pont Neuf begun - - -1578 1 The Pantheon ; St. GenevieTe • -1761
Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine,
and detached forts, with an enceinte of lb\ leagues, were commenced in Dec,
1840. and completed March^ 1846, at an expense exceeding ^5,000,000 ster-
ling. See France.
PARK, MUNGO, H.'s Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first
voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the
source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after
having encountered great dangers, without his journey through intertroDi-
cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition.
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap-
pointed to a new expedition by government; but never returned. The ac-
counts of his murder on th« Niger were a long time discredited ; unhappily
however, they were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence.
It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa,
and all killed, with the exception of one slave.
PARKS. The Remans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pom-
pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first
ffreat park of which particular mention is made, w^as that ^of Woodstock,
formed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essen-
tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained
by Henry VIIL, 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare
for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by
Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River,
although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733,
by order of queen Carohne, consort of George II. This queen once inquired
of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would
cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns,
your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter-
tained.
PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin
from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots ; but their constitu-
tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken
from parler la merit, which in the Norman law-style signifies to ipeak one's
Tnind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name
was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France,
about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared
in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward L, a. d.
1272; and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect,
when speaker (a. d. 1592). that this name was used even in the time of
Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record Avas di-
rected to the bishop of Sahsbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account we
have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was
in the 43rd Henry III., 1258. when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford,
that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three
parliaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's
Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took
462 THE world's progress. frKH
place 49 Henry III., 1265. — Dugdale's Summonses to Parliament, edit, 1685.
The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute,
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds.
It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing
laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown as was done
in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the
religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edwarrj
VI.. Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Ednmrd Coke.
PARMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It Avas made a duchy (with Pla-
centia) a. d. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth
Farnesc, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany,
with the title of king of Etrnria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards uni-
ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon
was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine-
bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma: the confederates. England, France,
and Spain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory,
June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Macdon-
ald, were defeated by Suvvarrow, with the loss of 10 000 men, and four
generals. July 12 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke of
Lucca succeeds by previous compact. The new duke refuses petitions for
reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people
revolt; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency;
flees ; is brought back; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont,
March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and
is then liberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed. April 9.
PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not
being supposed possible. About 500 years after Numa's reign, L. Ostius
having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed
him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and
an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp
reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides; and after having thus
wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In
France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off.
PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being
exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania.
Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over
all Asia, 250 b. c. ; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the
world with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that nation,
who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arms. The
last king Avas Artabanus V., who being killed a. d. 229, his territories were
annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes.
PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland,
for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698 ; and tho
second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke
Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav-
ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the
first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772 ; the
second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same year; the third
was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. There were other
similai treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name.
PASQUINADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in
this way: — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of
idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin, and
to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at
the expense of *iie passers-by. After the cobbler'gi death in. the sixteenth
Pi V J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 463
cen tury, the statue of a g-ladiator was found near his stall, to which the peo-
ple gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons
upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at
night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the
name of Pasquinades, about a. d. 1533.
PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 b. c, in commem-
oration of their coming out of Egypt ; because the night before their de-
parture, the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyp-
tians, passer/ oi;e?- the houses of the Hebrews without entering them: they
being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before,
and which for this reason is called the Paschal Lamb. It was celebrated in
the new Temple, April 18, 515 b. c. — Usher.
PATAY, Battle of, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of Arc (the
Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was
taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence
of this victory. Charles of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was
crowned July 17. same year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full
armor, and holding the sword of state. See Juan of Arc.
PATENTS. Licenses and authoi«ties granted by the king. Patents granted
for titles of nobility, were first made a. d. 1344, by Edward III. They were
first granted for the exclusive privilege of printing books, in 1591, about
which time the property and right of inventors in arts and manufactures
were secured by letters patent.
PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity
among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, a. d. 97. In the Christian
church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti-
nople, Alexandria. Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no pa-
triarchs till the 7th century.
PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, London. The noblest Protestant church in the
worid. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church
is its great restorer, sir Christopher Wren. His opinion, that there had been
a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of the Romans,
was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. He
explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church
is supposed to ha*ve been destroyed during the Dioclesian persecution, and
to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantino. This was demolished by
the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It was destroyed by the
great conflagration in 1086, after which Mauritius, then bishop of London,
commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present
cathedral. St. Paul's \vas totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666 ;
and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the
whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christo-
pher Wren.
Length of St. Paul's, within - 500 feet. | Length of St. Peter's, Rome - 669 feet.
Its greatest breadth - - 223 Its greatest breadth within - - 442
Height from the ground - - 340 I Height from the ground - - 432
PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved
their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pave-
ment in many of their streets; but the Appian Way was a paved road, and
was (Constructed 312 b. c. In England there were few paved streets before
Henry Vll.'s reign. London was first paved about the year 1533. Wood
pavement commenced in 1839; but was generally disused in 1847.
PAVIA. Battle of, between the French and Imperialists, when the formei
were defeated, and their king, Francis L, after fighting with he role ^alor,
464 THE world's progress. f PET.
and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender
himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of
the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived
in these dignified and expressive terms: — Tout est perdn, madaiiLe, fori
Vhonneur ; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian
soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848.
PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges de-
posited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about
A. D. 1458 ; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers
was regulated 30 George XL, 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III.,
1783. in London there are 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively
of London, 1127.
PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and mo-
dern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and
absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed
like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at
80.000Z. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size
of a pigeon's e^g, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13.996^. A pearl
spoken of \)y Boetius, named the Incomparable, weighed thirty carats, equal
to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The
pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of
Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to
110,400Z.
PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was William Fitz
Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first
peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by
Richard II.. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by
Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of
Kinsale, &c., in 1181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by
Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz : —
At the death of George III. - 339 peers.
At the death of George IV. - 396
At the death of William IV. - 456
In 10th Victoria, 1847 - - 454
At the death of Charless II. - 176 peers.
At the death of William III. - 192
At the death of Anne - - 209
At the death of Georse I. - 216
At the death of George II. . 229
PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect
maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had
sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of
Adam's sin w^ere confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are
in the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified
men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with
the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in
virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared a. d. 400 at
Rome, and in Carthage about 412.
PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century.
The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wil-
son, 1783. The king. Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince
Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after
of the small-pox ; and the East India Company erected a monument over
his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard.
PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twenty-
seven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus,
with their respective allies. It is the most famous and the most interesting
of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It
began 481 b. c, and ended 404 b. c.
PER J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 46f
PENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS. 1 he laws enacted against
Rt)man Catholics in Great Britain were very severe ; and even up to the
period of passing the Emancipation Bill many of them remained unre-
pealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the
Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829.
PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted
in the love of God attended with good works. They made a confession
upon the day of expiation, or some time before ; and had stated degrees of
penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance Avas introduced
into the Romish church a. d. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly ad-
judged to the sin of fornication.
PENDULUMS FOR Clocks. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the
younger, about a. d. 1641. Christian Huj^gens contested the priority of this
discovery: the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656.-
Diifresnoy.
PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalen-
ettes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdale>n was founded at Mar-
seilles, about A. D. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con-
gregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about
1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about
1662.
PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William
Penn. of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes
and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acref
sold by Penn for i;400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia,
The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the
legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors £130,000 in lieu of quit-
rents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important ac-
tions in this State in the war of independence. See Philadelphia. Federal
Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental
Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800,
when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,000 ;
1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1,724,033.
PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up-
holsterer. A. D. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the
undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's
Bench bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke
of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to
the revenue of the crown. — Deiamie, 1690. This institution was considera-
bly improved in and round London, July 1794, et seq., and was made a two-
penny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Post-
office.
PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and
in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty
days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast
of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the
PassOver.
PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to
the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses
and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763.
— Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng-
gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor-
ner of B'?aufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men-
tioned in the Spectator. — Leigh.
20*
466 THE world's progress. [ per
PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines.
PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle about
342 B. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris-
totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same
river, where there were trees and shades : this spot was denominated the
Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo-
sophy was called Peripatetic.
PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early
Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the
Tarpeian precipice ; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo-
sition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable
judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon
them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely
upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the
primitive- -church enjoined eleven years' penance; and in some states the
false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent.
In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563.
PERONNE, Treaty of. Louis XL of France having placed himself in the
power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne. con-
firming those of Arras and Conflans, with some other stipulations of a re-
strictive and humiliating character, a. d. 1468.
PERSECUTIONS, General, of the Christians. Historians usually reckon
ten. The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium
of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence,
massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn
and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive,
A. D. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, a. d. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Tra-
jan, a. d. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor
Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7tli, under Decius,
more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their
habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The
8th, under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under
Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with
Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with
ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres.
PERSECUTIONS of the JEWS. See articles Jews and Massacres.
PERSECUTION of the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a multitude
of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525.—
Du Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and La-
timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great
numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. Of the
Protestants in France, when numbers perished ; their assemblies were pro-
hibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys
proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pro-
testants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of
their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724.
See Massacres and Bartholomew.
PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire
was originally called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Per-
seus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps
established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject
to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian
monarchy ; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it
appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from
the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, whe»
PET
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
467
Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian
monarchy, a. d. 229.
331
330
AD. 250
229
238
273
273
The sea-fight near Cnidus - - 394
The Sidonians being besieged by the
Persians, set fire to their city, and ptrish
in the ilames - • - 35!
Alexander the Great enters Asia ; first
battle in Phrygia, near the river Gra-
nicus - - - - - 334
[For the exploits of Alexander Va Per-
sia, see the article Mocedon.]
Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is
torn in pieces - - - - 331
Alexander founds the third or Grecian
monarchy -
Alexander, in a moment of intoxication,
at the instance of his mistress Thais,
sets fire to the palace of Persepolis -
[The riches of this town, whose ruins,
even as they exist at this day, are of
indescribable magnificence, were so
immense that 20,000 mules and 5000
horses were laden with the spoils.]
Persia was partly reconquered Irom the
Greeks, and remained tributary to
Parthia for near five hundred years,
till about
Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a
common soldier, restores to Persia its
ancient title
Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant -
He is assassinated
Hormisdas reigns - - - -
Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel
and successful tyrant - - - 310
Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651
It fell under the dominion of Tamer-
lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402
Reign of Thamas Kouli Khan - - 1732
He carried the Persian arms into India,
which he ravaged. See India - 1738
In 1747, Ahmed Abdalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, com-
petitors for the throne of Persia sprung up and caused a period of slaughtei
and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch.
PERU. First visited in a. d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa-
niard '., whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest
of th. 3 country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1530, and others,
with I ne vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America,
which however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three
small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirty-six horses ; with these, and two re-
inforcements of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid
the foL idation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New
World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the
Spaniarris (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any
attempt being made to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782 ; but the in-
dependeiice of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The now
Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March
21, 1828.
PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina. king of the West Saxons, to the pope at
Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called,
because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on
all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they
paid one penny. It was confirmed by Ofla, 777,andwaa nfterwards claimed
Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of
the Magi.— Justin ■ b. c. 2115
Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge-
nerally confounded with the king of
Ba.ctna..—Zanthus • - - 1082
Cyrus, king of Persia - - - 560
Lydia conquered by the Persians - 548
Cyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536
Cambyses conquers Egypt (which see) 525
Darius made kmg of Persia - • 522
Revolt of the Babylonians - • - 512
Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed - 498
Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with
an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade
the Peloponnesus - - - 490
The troops advance towards Athens, but
are met in the plains of Marathon, by
Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe-
nians.— See Marathon - - 490
Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of
this year, at the head of an immense
force. The battle of Thermopylee - 480
Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost
200,000 of his troops, and is deleated
in a naval engagement otf Salamis - 480
Cymon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of
250 vessels, takes several cities from
the Persians, and destroys their navy,
consisting of 340 sail, near the island
of Cyprus - - - - 470
Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith-
ridates, the eunuch - b. c. 465
The assassin is put to death in a horrible
manner - - - - - 465
R.eign of Artaxerxes - - - 464
Cyprus taken from the Persians - 449
Hemorable retreat of the Greeks. See
article Retreat • • - - 401
463 THE world's progress, [ PBLA
by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till sup-
pressed by Henry VIII. — Caviden.
PETER, THE WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Herts-
wold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting.
He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel,
and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup-
posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the
dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred Avild plants, leaves, and the bark
, of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the
many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage
habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785,
at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hy-
pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal,"
PETER'S CHURCH, ST., at Rome. Originally erected by Constantino. About
the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag-
nificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes,
until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet,
and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of
324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious
hall ever constructed by human hands. See PauVs, St.
PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began
this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched
wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick;
and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the foundation of a
house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial
city of Petersburgh ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels
were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place.
Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses; and in 1780, another fire con-
sumed 11.000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in
June 1796, a large magazine of naval stoi-es and 100 vessels were destroyed.
The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec, 29, 1837, See Russia.
PETERSBURGH, Peace op, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring
all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of Petersburgh,
for the partition of Poland, (see article Partition Treaties,) Aug, 5, 1772.
Treaty of Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805,
Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince
royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join
in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive
Norway, March 24, 1812,
PETRARCH AND LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four-
teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for-
mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject
of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned
with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at
Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348.
PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied — Milton. The Greek phalanx
consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears
crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called
the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 b. g.
PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He-
brew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended
to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews, The
admirable parable of tlie Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri
tual pride, and to recommend the virtife of humility. — Luke xviii. 9.
PBJ ] DICTIONAHY OF DATES. 469
PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptoiemy Philadelphus, and
esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white
marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires
were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building- of this
.ovver <,ost 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,100Z. English, if
Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon
it — '• King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but
Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own
name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote
the above inscription. When the mortar had decaj'ed by time, Ptolemy's
name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible; —
" Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for
ihe benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c.
PHARSALIA, Battle of, between Julius Caesar and Pompey, in which the for-
mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Caesar in all its
consequences. Caesar lost about 200 men, or, according to others 1200.
Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25,000 according to others, and 24,000 of his
army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror. May 12, 48 b. c. After
this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by or-
der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on
the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that
way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip.
PHILADELPHIA, City of. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo.
ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay
in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view
to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre-
sent limits by the charter of 1701. First or "Continental" Congress at
Philadelphia, Sept. 5. 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July
4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken
by the British, Sept. 26, 1777; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven-
tion met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a
constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798.
Congress removed to Philadelphia. 1800. United States Bank established
here. 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846.
Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42,000; in 1810. 96.664; in 1830,
167.811; in 1840, 220,423.
PHILIPPI, Battle op, between Octavius Caesar and Marc Antony on one side,
and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former
obtained the victory. Two battles were fought: in the first, Brutus, who
commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care
of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him
through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus command-
ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself
surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He however made his escape, and
soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 b, g.
— Bossuet.
PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De-
mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the
second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which
latter cost Cicero his life, 43 b. c.
PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi-
pelngo the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri-
ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521.
PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to his-
tory, which is only the tnowledge of facts ; or U mathematics, which is the
470 THE avorld's progress. [pht
knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon which
natural etfects are explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of
philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 b. c.
See Moral Philosophy. Philosophers were expelled from Kome, and theii
schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy has
undergone four great changes: — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and
superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason
and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper-
nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary causa-
tion, taught by Newton, Lavoisier, &c. The world, at present, are divided
between the two last.
PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which
some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all
imperfect metals into silver and gold — all metals but these being so consid-
ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per-
petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have
cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a lou-g time,
without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in
relation to this subject, see Alchemy.
PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brant, Avho procured
it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from
bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist,
1670. and by the hon. Mr. Boyle, about the same time. — Nouv. Diet. Phos-
phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear-
lier ; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's
phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hy-
drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812.
PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal propensities, a mod-
ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Craniology. Dr. Spurzheim
improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre-
nological Society has been established in London,
PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer-
tain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed
to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let-
ting.—P/my. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen
a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which
he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucus in the same manner,
— Hygiiius. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; " and
the priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine,
and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands
of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it
from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the
formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medi-
cine, about 529 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine
and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d.
131, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery
of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new
system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628.
PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching
from an atom to God himself It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of
the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and
effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term.
The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans, magi ana Hebrew and
Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particu-
larly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595
PIG ' DICTIONARY OF DATES. 471
B. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic
schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe.
PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy-
sics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is in its healthy
or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason of
the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it
is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc-
ture and" constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases.
Its date is referred to the same time with physics, which see.
PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are
discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term is
referred to Aristotle ; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a
fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the
last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system.
Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck
with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at
which he and Zimmerman were standing ; pubhshed 1776.
PIANO-FORTE Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present-
ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after,
G. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to-manufacture piano- fortes
with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in-
strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by
Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes wert-
made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since
greatly improved by others here.
PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU'S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable
conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau
arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con-
fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the
6tli April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar-
ticle Georges, &c.
PICQUET, The Game of, the first known game upon the cards, invented by
Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI.
of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390. — Mezei'ai. See ar-
ticle Cards.
PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about
the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebudse, or Western Isles.
They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands
and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d
838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized
all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle; upon-Tyne.
PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the
Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was
purchase! by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740b, c,
See Painting.
PIGEON, The Carrier. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. Tho
ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when
they took a long journey, and were desirous of sending back any news with
uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought
proper to write to their friends, thej^ let one of these birds loose, with let-
ters fastened to its neck : the bird, once released, would never cease its
flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to
his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at x'Egina a
472 THE world's progress. f P11
pigeon stained with purple. — Ovid. Hirtiiis and Brutus corresponded b;;
means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern limes, the most noted
were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and
Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon-
don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them
arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the
remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — Phillips.
PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church,
but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many
licenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad,
7 Henry VI., 1428.
PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa-
mous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know,
that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or deahngs with
them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con-
victed of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put
through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded
with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It Avas in use in En-
^ gland in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory,
by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and
putrid offal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury,
in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June
1837.
PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the sta-
tutes A. r>. 1483. Those made of brass wire were brought from France
in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard,
queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri-
bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and
skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543. —
Stowe.
PISA, Leaning Tower op. This celebrated tower, likewise called Campanile,
on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells,
stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of
white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with
a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side
from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which is
188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have
been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the
architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another
cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that
side.
PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the
saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket,
«&c. — Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in
1544.
PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by
Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the
ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or
rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mutiny of the
Bounty.
PriT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious states-
man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry {which see), Dec.
27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right
honomMe William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died
LA ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
473
Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and still
loftier pretensions: and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a
large portion of his countrymen. A public funeral was decreed to his ho-
nor by parliament, and a grant of .£40,000 to pay his debts.
lUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called
Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This name
was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm-
ly to have his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also
been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in
A. D. 142.
LAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying
locusts." — Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the
world occurred 767 b. c. Petavius, At Carthage the plague was so terrible
that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b. c. — Ba-
ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred
thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b. c. At Athens, whence it
spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 b. c.
Another whicli raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed
2000 persons every day, 188 b. c. Pliny.
At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 per-
sons perish daily, a. d. 78.
The same fatal disease again ravaged the
Roman empire, a. d. 167.
In Britam, a plague raged so formidably,
and swept away such multitudes, that the
living were scarcely sufficient to bury the
dead, a. d. 430.
A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, ex-
tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is
said did not cease for many years. Univ.
Hist.
At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in-
habitants perished, a. d. 746.
[This plague raged for three years, and w:as
equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and
Greece.]
At Chichester in England, an epidemical
disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. —
Will. Malms.
In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a
pestilence, a. d. 954.
In London, a great mortality, a. d. 1094 ;
and in Ireland, 1095.
Again in London : it extended to cattle,
fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111.
— Holings.
In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry
II. was forced to quit the country, 1172.
Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number
perished, 1204.
A genera] plague raged throughout Europe,
causing a most extensive mortality. Bri-
tain and Ireland suflered grievously. In
London alone, 200 persons were buried
daily in the Charterhouse yard.
In Paris and Lj;)ndon a dreadful mortality
prevailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ire-
land, in 1370.
A great pestilence in Ireland, called the
fourth, destroyed a great number of the
'people, 1383.
30,000 persons peiished of a di-eadful pesti-
lence in London, 1407.
Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam-
ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; and Dub-
lin was wasted by a plague, 1470.
An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and
throughout England a plague which de-
stroyed more people than the continual
wars for the fifteen preceding years, 147S.
— Rapin ; Salmon.
The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating
sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. —
Delaune.
The pla-gue at London so dreadful that Hen-
ry VII. and his court removed to Calais,
1500.— Stowe.
Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in
three hours). In most of the capital
towns in England half the inhabitants
died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 II.
VIIL, 1517.— Stowe.
Limerick was visited by a plague, when
many thousands perished, 1522.
A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525 ; and
the English Sweat, 1528 ; and a pestilence
in Dublin, 1575.
30,-578 persons perished of the plague in
London alone, 1603-1604. It was also
fatal in Ireland.
200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan-
tinople, in 1611.
In London, a great mortality prevailed, and
35,417 persons perished, 1625.
In France, a general mortality; at Lyons
60,000 persons died, 1032.
The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na-
ples (being introduced by a transport with
soldiers on board), raged with such vio-
lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabit-
ants in six months, 1656.
Memorable plague which carried off 68,596
persons in London, 1665.
[Fires were kept up night and day to j urify
the air for three days ; and it is thought
the infection was not totally destroyed till
the great conflagration of 1666.]
60,000 persons persons perished of the
plague at Marseilles and neighborhood,
brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720.
One of the most awful plagues that evei
raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760. — Abbt
Mariti
474 THE world's trogress. [plji
PLAGUE, continued.
In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried
off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorah,
1773.
In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died
of plaiiue, 1792.
In Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez
ai7,000 perished, 1799.
In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num-
bers were carried off by a pestilent dia.
ease in 1804 and 1805.
Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, much
resembling the plague, caused great mor-
tality, 1823.
The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) 1832,
1834, 1849.
PLAGUES OF EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although
he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a d'lsplay
of wrath upon the land, in ten awful instances, which are denominated tho
plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c. In this year the king, named by some Amen-
ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red
Sea. — Usher, Blair, Lenglet.
PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry
n. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {which see), 1485. Anti-
quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation ; and the
best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of
that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil-
grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement; where being scourged with
broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or
Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity.
PLASTER OF PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak-
ing likenesses by its use was first discovered b}" Andrea Verrochio, about
A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris,
Avhence it obtained its name.
PLAT^A, Battle of, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of
Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedaemonian, and the Athenians. The Persian
army consisted of 300,000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their
lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few
men ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen
Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The
plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp A^•as immense. Pau-
sanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor
during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their
respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same
day as the battle of Mycale, 479 b. c; and by it Greece was totally deliver-
ed for ever from the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account
of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia
dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont.
PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely
traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in
public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act
passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty
upon plate passed in 1784.
PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and
gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, from
the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery
color. It was unknown in Europe until a.-d. 1748, when Don Antonio
Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. —
Greig.
PLATTSBURGH, on Lake Champlain, New York, Battle or; 14,000 British
troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet
on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time.
POE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 475
PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece
and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 b. c. ;
but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The
Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a
proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The
plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the
20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went
with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The
plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down.
The funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their
ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays
were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, a. d. 1397. The first company
of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage,
and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in
1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See
Drama.
PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were
made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman-
French from the period of the Conquest in 1066; and they so continued un-
til the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to
De taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the
courts of law till 1731.
POET LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office.
The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III,
1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil-
lings were his annual stipend. — Warton; Maddox, Hist. Ezch. Chaucer, on
his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth
year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of
wine. James I., in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100
marks; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles
I. to lOOZ. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary
Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly.
NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM THE REIGN OP Q.UEEN ELIZABETH.
Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser,
who died - - - A. d. 1.598
Samuel Daniel, diet] - - - 1619
Ben Jonson, died - - - 1637
Sir William Davenant, died - - 1668
John Dryden ; he was deposed at the
revolution .... 1688
Thomas Shadwell, died - ' - - 1692
Nahum Tate, died - - a. d. 1716
The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730
Colley Cibber, died - - - - 1757
William Whitehead, died - - 1785
Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790
Henry James Pye, died - - - 1813
Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843
William Wordsworth, died - - 1850
The present laureate is Tennyson.
POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest
species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and
the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody,
and before painting in description. — Hazlitt. The exact period of the in-
vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptu-ral history, the song of Moses on
the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea,
is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the Avorld, and is very sub-
lime.— Exodus XV. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed
the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249
B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, flourished
about 907 b. c. — Parian Marb. Iambic verse {which see) was introduced by
Archilochus, 700 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. For odes, see article Ode^. We are
told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to
England by Aldhelmt or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close or
the seventh century,
476
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
I ^Ol
POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning
their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave
denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be pub-
licly executed, 331 b. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge
they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng-
land, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some re-
markable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiling to Death.
POITIERS, Battle of, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John
king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of
France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were 'slain.
The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through
Avhich he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two kings,
prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo-
rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory,
Sept. 19, urn.— Carte.
POLAND, Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it tc
invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. a. d. 550 ;
and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the
emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz-
ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finallj^ partitioned, and its
political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king
formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and ^vas afterwards removed to Pe-
tersburgh, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in
1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland.
Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du-
cal dignity - - - a. d. 842
[Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his
I'eign was so prosperous that every
succeeding native sovereign was call-
ed a Piast.]
Introduction of Christianity - - 992
Red Russia added to Poland - • - 1059
Boleslaus II. murders the bishop of
Cracow with his own hands ; his
kingdom laid under an interdict by
the~pope, and his subjects absolved
of their allegiance - - -1080
He flies to Hungary for shelter; but is
refused it by order of Gregory VIL,
and he at, length kills himself - 1081
Uladislaus deposed - - - 1102
Premislaus assassinated- - - 1295
Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370
War against the Teutonic knights - 14.47
The Wallachians treacherously carry
off 100,000 Poles, and sell them to
the Turks as slaves ... 1498
Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548
Stephen forms a militia composed of
Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom
he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575
Abdication of .Tohn Casimir - - 1669
Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724
Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins • 1763
He abolishes torture - - - 1770
An awful pestilence sweeps away
250,000 of the people - - -1770
The evils of civil war so weaken the
kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the
royal plunderers, the empress of
Russia, emperor of Austria, and king
of Prussia - - - -1772
The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772
The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772
A new constitution is formed by the
virtuous Stanislaus - - May 3, 1791
[The royal and imperial spoliators, on
various pretexts, pour their armies
into Poland, 1792, et seq.]
The brave Poles, under Poniatowski
and Kosciusko, several times contenji
successfully against superior armies,
but in the end are defeated. Kosci-
usko, wounded and taken, is carried
prisoner to Russia - - - 1794
Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794
Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794
[Here Suwarrow subsequently butch-
* An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre- '
viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; butm per-
mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and
Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia ; yet they now conspired against a
country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexample'd profligacy became leagued in a
scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 500,000 lives! "Russia seized Lithuania,
and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of tha
province:^, lying contiguous to her own dominions; and Prussia secured the maritime .listricts.
The most extraordinary circumstance attending this affair was the total inaction of the two grtat
powers, England and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by policy
as well as justice, and depjored by the j^ood and.brave among mankind. — Haydn.
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
477
POLAND; contimted.
ersi 30,000 Poles of all ages and condi-
tions in cold blood.]
Courland is annexed to Russia • - 1795
Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par-
tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795
Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796
Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh,
Feb. 12, 1798
Treaty of Tilsit {which see) - July 7, 1807
FThe central provinces form the duchy
' of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.]
Genei-al Diet at WaiT:aw - June, 1812
New constitution - - Nov. 1815
Polish Diet opened • - Sept. 1820
Revolution commenced at Warsaw ;
the army declare in favor of the peo-
ple - - - Nov. 29. 1830
The Diet declares the throne of Poland
vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831
Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the
Russians lose 70lO men ; the Poles,
who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831
Battle of Ostrolenka; signal defeat of
the Russians - - May 26, 1831
The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 183]
Grand Duke Constantine dies. June 27, 1831
Battle of Winsk (see Winsk) July 14, 1831
Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 1831
[This last fatal event terminated the
nemorable and glorious, but unfor-
tunate struggle of the Poles.]
Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholasj.
decreeing that the kingdom of Poland
shall henceforth form an integral part
of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832
A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march
on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846
Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and
the treaty which had made it inde-
pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846
Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1843
DUKES AND KINGS OP POLAND.
/ 0. 550
700
750
760
804
810
815
830
842
861
892
913
964
999
1025
1041
1058
i082
1102
'u40
1145
1173
xl78
iI94
1200
1203
1206
1228
1279
Lechus I. His posterity held the
dukedom for about 150 years.
Cracus I.
Cracus II., assassinated by his brother.
Lechus II., deposed.
Venda, drowned herself.
Premislaus. who on being elected was
named Lescus or Less."
Lescus II., killed by the French.
Lescus III.
Popiel I.
Popiel II.
Piastus, a country peasant.
Zemovitus.
Lescus IV.
Zemomislaus.
Miecislaus, surnamed the Blind.
Boleslaus 1, surnamed the Intrepid.
Miecislaus II., went mad.
Cssimir the Pacific.
Boleslaus II., killed himself.
Uladislaus, surnamed Humanus.
Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-mouth.
Uladislaus II., fled.
Boleslaus IV., the Curled.
Miecislaus III., deposed.
Casimir II., surnamed the Just.
Lescus v., relinquished.
Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a
few months restored Lescus V. ; but
for bad conduct he was again forced
to relinquish the government.
Uladislaus III. ; he voluntarily retired.
Lescus v., a third time, being chosen
by the nobles, assassinated; suc-
ceeded by his son, an infant.
Boleslaus V., the Chaste.
Lescus VI., surnamed the Black, son
of Conrad, brother of Lescus V.,
died 1289. An interregnum of five
years, when the Poles chose
1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as-
sassinated.
1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus;
he refused the title of king ; deposed.
1-300 Winceslaus.
1-306 Uladislaus IV., again.
1333 Casimir the Great, kiHed by a fall
from his horse, while hunting.
1370 Lewis, kmg of Hungary, succeeded by
his daughter,
1383 Hedwigis, who married, in
1385 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em-
braced the Christian religion, and
took the name of
Uladislaus V. ; united Lithuania to
Poland.
1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle.
1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia.
1447 Casimir IV.
1492 John Albert.
1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia.
1507 SigismundL
1-548 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose
1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue
ceeding to the French throne.
1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl-
vania.
1587 Sigismund III., son to the king oJ
Sweden.
16-32 Uladislaus VII.
1648 John Casimir, abdicated.
1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown.
1674 Ji ihn Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter
regnum for a year.
1698 Frederick Augustus IL, forced to re-
sign.
1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re
tire in 1710,
1710 Frederick Augustus II., again.
17-33 Stanislaus I., again.
1733 Frederick Augustus III.
1764 StanislausAugustus resisns the crown
So late as the 13tli century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old men
when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect.
REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see North-west Pa»-
POLAR
sage.
478 THE world's progress. [ POM
POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con-
stellation called the Little Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it ne-
ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the
seaman's guide. The discover}'' of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese
to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned
and flourished 1970 b. c. — Univ. Hist.
POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe-
riods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I.
1640 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The
London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1263. The
London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by sfc&; ute,
June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in introducing a
suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but
we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the
world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and
useful police force; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but
preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner.
POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A
science justly viewed as the great high-road to public and private happiness.
Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth
of Nations, 1776.
POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or
the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun-
ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a, d. 1569. —
HenauU.
POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re-
bellion of Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler), 1381. It was
again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles 11. every subject was assessed
by the head, viz. — a duke 100^., a marquis 80^., a baronet 30^., a knight 20Z.,
an esquire lOZ., and every single private person VM., 1667. This grievous
impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution.
POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy.
It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and
Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven
wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who
took two wives ; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca-
dius A. D. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death.
In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with bene-
fit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See
Marriages. Polygamy forms an article of the Mormon Creed.
POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting " many lan-
guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so prhited. The Polyglot Bible
termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17 :
the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three eo-
pies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483Z.
for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printe^i
at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa-
ris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by
Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1657. — Brunei.
POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished
by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed
up by an awful eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the
night of the 24th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens ha^^pen-^
ed at the. time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles wei«
pop]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
479
exhibited The ashes buried the whole city, and covered the surrounding
country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning
up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract-
ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc-
tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun.
Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried
city ; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1750.
rONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled bv
the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and
was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces ii>
Januarv 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap-
tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803.
PONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a
portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon-
tus Euxinus) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus oy Darius
Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of
the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name.
Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b. c. Sf
Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes
himself master of many Roman pro-
vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to
death - - - - - 8t
301
266
Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da-
rius Hystaspes - - - B. c
Reign of Mithridates I.
Ariobarzanes invades Pontus -
Mithridates II. recovers it - - •
Mithridates III. reigns -
Ariobarzanes II. reigns
Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capi-
tal by the Gauls, <fec. - - - 252
Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at-
tack upon the free city of Sinope, and
is obliged to raise the siege by the
Rhodians - - - -.219
Reign of Pharnaces ; he takes Sinope,
and makes it the capital of his king-
dom 183
Reign of Mithridates V. - - - 157
He Is murdered in the midst of his court 123
Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or
Eupator, receives the diadein at 12
years of age . . . . 123
Marries Laodice, his own sister - - 115
She attempts to poison him ; he puts
her and her accomplices to death - 112
Mithridates makes a glorious campaign ;
conquers Scythia^ Bosphorus, Col-
chis, and other countries - - 111
He enters Cappadocia - • - 97
His war with Rome - - - 89
Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chaero-
nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain
Victories and conquests of Mithridates
up to this time - - . .
The fleet of Mithridates defeats that un-
der Lucullus, in two battles
Mithridates defeated by Lucullus
Mithridates defeats Fabius -
But is defeated by Pompey
Mithridates stabs himself, and dies
Reign of Pharnaces
Battle of Zela (see Zela); Pharnaces
defeated by Ceesar
Darius reigns - - - -
Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns -
Polemon II. succeeds his father - A. d.
Mithridates VII. reigns
Pontus afterwards became a Roman
province, under the emperors.
Alexis Comnenus founded anew empire
of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this
country, a. d. 1204, which continued
till the Turks destroyed it in 1459.
POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as
the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By
an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law. the poor were to
be sustained by " parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that
none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II.
impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor But no
compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of
the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, ;i600.
JE 188,811
665,562
819,000
1,556,804
2,184,950
4,952,421
POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Uy-
geuus, A. D. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Pho2as emperor of tii^
In 1580, the Poor Rates were
1680, they amounted to
1698, they amounted to -
1760, they amounted to
1785. they amounted to
1802, they amounted to
In 1815, the Poor Rates were
1820, they amounted to
1830, they amounted to
1835, they amounted to
1840, they amounted to
1845, they amoimted to
Jt5,4]8,845
7,329,594
8,111,422
6,356,345
5,468,':99
5,543.850
I PG?
East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Pho-
cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The
custom of kissing- the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign
act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined
with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name,
on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John
XII. or XIII. See Names. John XVIII., a layman, was made pope 1024. The
first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry
'IT., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare-
footed, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority
was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the
pope w^ere introduced 19 Stephen, 1154. — Vi/ier's StatiUes. Henry II. of Eng-
land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161 ; and
also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown
oif his head while kneeling, to sbow his prerogative of making and unmak-
ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom oi
England, 1226. The jiajial seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308,
for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by
parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533. —
Vhier. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of all English books, 1541.
The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe -and other
ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became des-
titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. was burnt in effigy
at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was
expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22, 1798, and died at Valence,
August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was
dethroned May 13, 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo-
leon's overthrow; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected
June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry,
May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov.
16, 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale; the pope yields and
grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner in his palace
for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov.
24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed
Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See
ItaJ'y ; Rome; Reformation, <^c.
POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION.
1.591 Innocent IX. ; died in 2 months.
1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulgences for
crime led to the reformation.
1522 Adrian VI.
1.523 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII.
of England.
1534 Paul III.
1550 .Tulius III.
1555 Marcel! us II. ; died in 21 days.
1555 Paul IV. ; fiery and haughty.
1559 Pius IV.
1566 Pius V.
1572 Gregory XIII. ; learned canon ; re-
formed the Calendar, {which see).
1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned.
1590 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after.
1590 Gregory XIV.
1592 Clement VIII. ; learned and just.
1605 Leo XL ; died same month.
1605 Paul V.
162! Gregory XV. ; beneficent.
1623 Urban VIII.
1644 Innocent X. ; violent and cruel.
1655 Alexander VII. ; liberal and learned.
1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief.
1670 Clement X.
1676 Innocent XL ; reformed abuses.
1689 Alexander VIII.
1691 Innocent XII. : abolished nepotism.
1700 Clement XL
1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth pontiff of
his family.
• '^ V^^hen Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle
0/ Torci, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and hofding each of them one of the
reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into
the castle." — Hume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. His
arrogance was such, that lie obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot,h<)ld
his stirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brekesjieare.
He was elected to the popedom in 1154.
POP I
DICTIONARY OF BATES.
481
1800 Cardinal Chiaramonte, elected at Ven
ice, as Pius VII., March 13.
1823 Annibal della Genga,Leo XII., Sept.28,
1831 Mauro C'apellari, Gregory XVI. .Feb. 2.
1846 Mastai Ferretti, Pius IX., icauguratei.*
June 21, aged 54. - -Junel(i.
Tabular Views, from page
IY)?ES, continued.
1724 Benedict XIH.
1730 Clement XII. ; reformed abuses.
1740 Benedict XIV. ; wise and pious.
1758 Clement XIII.
1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelli.
1775 Pius VI., February 14.
For Succession of Popes to the Reformation, see
50 to page 115.
POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female,
named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda.
and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit!
On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being
very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scan-
dalous particulars follow ; " yet until the Reformation the tale was .-epeated
and believed without offence." — Gibbon.
POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to
assassinate Charles II. ; concerning which, even modern historians have
affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and
others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three
particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir-
pate the Protestant religion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason
as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the
scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680. —
Rapin.
POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best
and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanac de Golha, &c., be
stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these. Em-ope is supposed to
contain 270 milhons ; Asia, 565 millions ; Africa^ 115 milUons ; America, 75
millions ; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in a. d.
1377 was 2 092,978 souls. • In a little more than a hundred years, 1483 it
had increased to 4.689,000. The following tables of the population of the
United Kingdom are from official returns : —
POPULATION OP ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS.
Tear 1700
Population 5.475,000
Year 1770
Population
7,428,000
1710 -
- - ditto 5,240,000
1780 - - . -ditto
7,9.53.000
1720 -
- - ditto 5,565,000
1790 - - - ditto
8.675,000
1730 -
ditto 5.796,000
1801 . . . ditto
10,942,646
1740 -
- - ditto 6,064.000
1821 - . - ditto
14,391,6.31
1750 -
ditto 6.467.000
1841 - . . ditto
18,844,4.34
1760 -
- - ditto 6,736,000
POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES.
Year 1790
Population 3,929.827
Year 1830 Population
12.866,920
1800 -
- ditto 5,305;925
1840 - - - ditto
17,063,353
1810 -
- - ditto 7,239,814
'See the several States.
1820 -
- ditto 9,638,131
PRESENT POPULATION OF THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OP THE WORLD.
Chinese empire
Pruss. monarchy 16,550,000
Holland - - -
5,100,000
(Balbi) -
180,000,000
United States of
Dutch monarchy
Russia - - -
58,500,000
America* - 17,063,000
(total) -
14,750,000
Russian empire -
72,000,000
Turkey - - - 12,000,000
Bavaria - - -
4,600,000
France
36,500,000
Ottoman empire
Sweden and Noi-
Austria - - -
3i,599,000
(total) ■ . 24,500,000
way •
4, .550,000
Great Britain and
Persia - - - 11.800,000
Belgium- - -
4.50'-,000
Ireland -
27,000,000
Mexico - - 9,500,000
Poland
4,250,000
British empire -
158,000,000
Kingdom of the
Portugal - -
3,050,000
Japan - - -
27,000,000
two Sicilies- - 8,750,000
Republic of Co-
Spain -
17,1)0,000
Brazil- . . 6,250.000
lumbia -
3.350,000
Spanish empire
Sardinia- - - 5,800,000
Eccle.s. States- -
2.970.000
itotal) - - -
19,500,000
Morocco - - 5,200,000
British America -
2,950,fi00
• In 1810.
In 18.'i0, estima
21
ted at 22,000,0C
K).
482
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
( FOB
POPULATION, continued.
Switzerland
2,450,00(1
St. Petersburgh -
405,000
Hamburgh
172,031
Denmark - -
2,400,000
Vienna - - -
395,000
Lyons
168,000
Hanover •
1,780,000
New York (1845)
371.000
Palermo
147,OOC
Wirtemberg - -
1.680,000
Moscow
355;000
Marseilles -
146,000
Saxony
1,650,000
Grand Cairo - -
335,000
Copenhagen - •
145,000
Tuscany- - -
1,550,000
Lisbon
298.CK)0
Turin -
143,000
Baden
1,400,000
Aleppo -
280,000
Seville - - -.
142,00(1
CITIES.
Berlin -
280,000
Warsaw -
141,001
Cities.
Inhab.
Amsterdam - -
274,000
Tunis - - -
138,000
London iParlia-
Madrid
270,000
Baltimore (1848)
134,00C
mentary Ret.)
1,776,556
Philadelphia (1848)
258,000
Prague
133,000
Jeddo ireputed) ■
1,680,000
Bordeaux - -
247,000
Smyrna - - -
l32,a»G
Pekin ireputed)
1,600,000
Bagdad
245,000
Brussels
'30,000
Paris -
1,000,000
JNtexico • - -
225,000
Florence - -
1;>2,00(1
Nankin - - •
850,000
Rome -
224,000
Stockholm -
lkl,000
Constantinople -
800,000
Rio Janeiro - -
200,000
Munich - - -
il3,00G
Calcutta -
710,000
Milan -
193,00U
Dresden
1M.00O
Madras - - -
435,000
Barcelona - -
183,000
Boston (1845)- -
114:000
Naples
410,000
Frankfort -
110,000
PORCELAIN. Porcelaine. Said to be derived from Pour cent annies, it being
formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under
ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making
porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried
on in China at King-te-ching, at least since a. d. 442, and here still the finest
porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after
which time it was knovm in England. See China Porcelain.^ and Dresden
China.
PORTLAND, the largest town in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth ; burnt by
the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3,677 ; in 1820, 8,581 : in 1840
15,082.
PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taker,
from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22,
1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica-
tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748,
and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the
rich commerce of Peru and Chili.
PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke
of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when
Cosmo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by
the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residsnce of
Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bonaparte., Elba, and France.
PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most
strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses
were established in the reign of Henry VIII.
PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo,
the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman
arms about 250 b. c, and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall
of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors a. d. 713. They kept
possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile,
assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone
most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of
R,obert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na-
tural daughter, and. as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal,
which he was to hold of him, a. d. 1093.
Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths
here - - - - a. D. 472
Invasion by the Saracens - - 713
The kings of Asturias subdue some
Saracen chiefs, and Alphousos III.
establishes episcopal sees - - 900
Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish
kings, and is proclaimed king by his
army - - - - - 1J43J
Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their
way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis-
bon from the Moors - - - II4I
POR ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
483
rORTfJGAL. continued.
The kingdom of Algarve taken from the
Moors by Sancho I. - - - 1189
Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father
of his country, who builds 44 cities
or towns in Portugal - - - 1279
Military orders of Christ and St. James
instituted, - - - 1279 to 1325
John I., surnamed the Great, carries
his arms into Africa - - - 1415
Madeira and the Canaries seized - 1420
Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape
of Good Hope, discovered - - 149S
Discovery of the Brazils - - 150(J
The Inquisition established • - 1526
The kingdom seized by Philip II. of
Spain 1580
The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and
place John, duke of Braganza, on the
throne. His posterity still possess
the crown .... 1640
The great earthquake which destroys
Lisbon. See Earthquake - - 1755
Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and
narrowly escapes death - - 1758
[This affair causes some of the first
families of the kingdom to be tortured
to death, their very names being for-
bidden to be mentioned; yet many
were unjustly condemned, and their
mnocence was soon afterwards made
manifest. The Jesuits were also ex-
pelled on this occasion.]
Joseph, having no son, obtams a dis-
Eensation from the pope to enable
is daughter and brother to intermar-
ry. See Incest. - . - 1760
The Spaniards and French invade Port-
ugal, which is saved by the valor of i
the English - - 1762 and 1763 1
Regency of John (afterwards king) {
ovTiug to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 i
The Court, on the French invasion, |
emigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 i
Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 \
Convention of Cintra (see article under
that name) - - Aug. 30, 1808 |
Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814
Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 !
Constitutional Junta - - Oct. 1, 1820
Return of the Court - -July 4, 1821
Independence of Brazil, the prince re-
gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822
The king of Portugal suppresses the
constitution - - June 5, 1823
Disturbances at Lisbon ; Don Miguel
departs, &c. - - May 1-9, 1824
Treaty with Brazil - Aug. 29, 1825
Death of John VL - Feb. 18, 82g
Don Pedro grants a charter, and con-
firms the regency - April 26, 1826
He relinquishes the throne in favor of
his daughter Donna Maria May 2, 1826
Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at
Lisbon .... Oct. 6, 1626
Don Miguel and Donna Maria betroth-
ed - - - Oct. 29, 1826
Portugal solicits the assistance of Great
Britain - - - Dec. 3, 1826
Departure of the first British auxiliary
troops for Portugal - Dec. 17, 1826
Don Miguel formally assumes the title
of king - - - -July 4, 1828
He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828
Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831
Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831
Insurrection in favor of the queen, in
which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831
Don Pedro's expedition sails from
Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832
At Terceira Don Pedro proclaims him-
self regent of Portugal, on behalf of
his daughter - - April 2, lfeJ2
He takes Oporto - - - July 8, 1832
After various conflicts, Don Miguel ca-
pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834
Don Miguel is permitted to leave the
country unmolested - May 31, 1834
Massacres at Lisbon - June 9, 1834
The queen declared by the Cortes to be
ofase - - - Sept. 15, ia34
Don Pedro dies - - Sept. 21, 1834
Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of
Leuchtenberg), just married to the
queen, dies - - March 28, 1835
The queen marries prince Ferdinand of
Saxe Coburg - - - Jan. 1, 1836
A sudden change of ministry leads to a
formidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846
Action atEvora; the insurgents defeat-
ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846
[Oporto, where a revolutionary junta
is established, and other large towns,
are seized by the insurgent army ]
Actions are fought at Viana, Valpassofi,
Braga, Torres-Vedras, &c., favorable
to the queen. Battle of St. Ubes; the
Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men
in killed and wounded -May 1, 1847
Intervention of England, France, and
Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847
Claim of the United States on Portugal
for damages in the war of 1812, re-
sisted, and U. S. minister leaves Lis-
bon - - - - July, 1850
KINGS OP PORTUGAL
ii.D. 1093 King of Lorraine, count or earl of Port
ugal.
1112 Alphonso I. ; proclaimed king - 1139
1185 Sancho L
1212 Alphonso II., surnamed Crassus, or
the Fat.
1224 Sancho II., the Idle, deposed.
1247 Alphonsus III.
1279 Den-nis.
1325 Alphonsus IV
1357 Peter the Severe.
1367 Ferdinand I, died 1383; an interreg-
num for 18 months
1385 John I., the Bastard, natural son to
Peter the Severe.
1433 Edward.
1438 Alphonsus V.
1481 John II.
1495 Emanuel.
1.521 John III.
1557 Sebastian, killed in Africa.
1578 Henry, the Cardinal.
1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Enian
uel, deposed by Philp II. of Spain,
who united Portugal to his other do
minions, ill 1640.
484
PORTUGA]>, continued.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
FOt
1640 John IV., duke of Braganza, dispos-
sessed the Spaniards, "and was pro-
claimed king, Dec. 1.
16.56 Alphonsus VI,
1668 Peter II.
m John V.
1750 Joseph.
1777 Mary Frances Isabella.
1799 John VI.
1826 Don Pedro; he abdicates May 2,
favor of his daughter.
1826 Maria de Gloria.
POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who
erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was tho
first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed
])ost-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about a. d. 800.--
Ashc. Louis XI. first estabhshed post-houses in France owing to his eager-
ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europe,
1470. — HenauU. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edward
IV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty
miles from each other in order to procure the king the earhest intelligence
of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen w.th the
Scots. — Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In
1543 similar arrangements existed in England. — Sadler's Letters. Postcom-
mimications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and
Ireland, existed in 1635.— Strype.
POST-OFFICE, The General, of England. . See preceding article. The first
chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed bj'
queen Elizabeth in 1581.*
THE REVENUE OP THE POST-OFFICE OP ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ.
In 1643 It yielded -
£5,000
1653 Farmed to John Manley,
Esq., for - - -
10,000
1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale,
Esq., for -
21,500
1674 Farmed for - - -
43.000
16S5 It yielded -
65,000
1707 Ditto .
111,461
1764 Ditto
432.048
1800 Ditto .
745,313
In 1805 Great Britain
1015 Ditto -
1820 United Kingdom -
1825 Ditto -
1835 Ditto
. 1,424,994
- - 1,755,898
- 2,402,697
- 2,255,239.
• 2,353,340
1839 Last year of the heavy
postage - - -2,522,495
1840 First year of the low rate,
1 penny for all distances 471,000
POST-OFFICE IN THE imiTED STATES. The first post-office in the colo-
nies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general
post-office for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this de-
partment was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of
the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control — the
Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of
the cabinet. For successive Postmaster- Generals see Ad7)iinistrations. The
following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United States
Mt different times since 1790.
Year.
No. of Post
Offices.
1790 -
- - 75 -
1800 -
- 903 -
1810 .
- 2,300 -
1820 -
- 4,500 -
1830 -
- 8,000 -
1840 -
- 13.468 ■
1845 -
-14,183 ^
1846 .
- 14,601 .
1847 -
- 1.5,146 -
1848 -
- 16,159 -
Amount of
Postage
■ $.37,93t
- 280.804
- 551,684
-1,111,927
- 1,850,583
- 4,539,265
- 4,289,842
-3,487, 199 J
-3,955,893 J
-4,371,077 J
Net Revenue.
- $5,795 -
- 66,810 -
- 55,715 •
44,227
Extent in miles
of PoH Roads
. 1,875
- 20,817
- 36,406
- 72,492
- 115,000
- 155,739
- 143,940
• 152,865
• 153,818
- 163.208
The number of dead letters returned quarterly is estimated at 450,000.
' Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted three days a week be-
tw ;oii Edinburgh and London ; and the metropolis, on one occasion, only stnt a single letter, which
was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay.
1 In all these years the receipts fell short of the expenditures.
t The returns for 1S46, 7, and 8, are for the first three years of the new law passed ^^larch 3, 1843,
reducing the letter postage to 5 cents under 300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances.
pba] dictionary of dates. 485
POTATOES. Tie potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were ori«
ginall} carried to England from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Haw-
kins, A. D. 1563. Others ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in
1586 ; while their general introduction is mentioned by many writers aa
occurring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter
Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, about Youghal, in the
county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders until
1G20. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that
" patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Carding -
ton, near Bedford. 1765 ; and its culture became general soon after. It ia
affirmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine.
— Butler. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c., causing great
*'larm and distress, Oct. 1845.
POTOSI, Mines of. These mines were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545,
and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the
form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in
Europe ; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in
comparison of what was formerly obtained.
POUND. From the Latin Pondus. The pound sterling was in Saxon times,
about A. D. 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part,
consequently the latter Avas three times as large as it is at present. — Peachavi.
The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some sup-
pose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or Zl. 4s. ^d. Our avoirdupois
weight {avoir du poids) came from the French, and contains sixteen ounces 5
it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. — Chambers.
POWDERING THE HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the ballad-
singers at the fair of St. Germain whitening their heads to make them-
selves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it was adopted from the low by the
high, and became very general about a. d. 1614. In England the powdered-
hair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice
of using powder was at its height ; this tax was one guinea for each person.
The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under
7000Z. per year, and in Scotland about 250Z. It was abolished in Ireland.
PRiETORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 b. c, when
one praetor only was appointed ; but a second was appointed in 252 b. c.
One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges
in all causes which related to foreigners. In the year of Rome 520,
two more praetors were created to assist the consul in the government
of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered,
and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman province,
A. u. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Caesar increas-
ed the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to
64. After this their numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till,
in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers
were reduced to three.
PRAGA, Baitle of, in which 30,000 Poles were butchered by the merciless
Russian general Suwarrow, fought Oct. 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which
the Poles commanded by Skrznecki defeated the Russian army commanded
by general Giesmar, who loses 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and
12 pieces of cannon; fought between Grothoff and Wawer, March 31, 1831.
PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and some-
times state affairs ; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings
of France, wherein the rights of the Galilean church were asserted against
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's
letter by advice of his council, in answer to high personages in particular
4^6 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ PKB
ct^ntingencics. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany
in the house of Austria, a. d. 1439. The emperor Charles VI. pubhshed the
Pi-agmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters should
succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713,
aiid he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa in conformity
thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740 ; but it gave rise to a war, ia
which most of the powers of Europe were engaged.
PRAGUE, Battle of, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter,
who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) fof
their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to flea
with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and money
behind him. He was afterwards deprived of his hereditary dominions, and
the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia ; all owing to the pusilla-
nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by th^
Saxons in 1631 ; and by the Swedes in 1648. It was taken by storm by th'j
French, in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was
taken by the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it the same
year. The great and memorable battle of Prague was fought May 6, 1757.
In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Henry of Prussia,
and their whole camp taken ; their illustrious commander, general Brown ;,
was mortally wounded ; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was
killed. After this victory, Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but
he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege.
PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, so
called from one of the members (who had thus fantastically styled hin ..self
according to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This parliarr.cnt
consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell ; they mre
to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to chose a fresh parliar ijnt
themselves.
PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressr^i by
the Southern nations to the ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and
signified that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy
state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious disease.
The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same intend
and import. — Ashe.
PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD, &c. They were first introduced into the Chris-
tian church about a, d. 190. — Eusebius. Prayers addressed to the V^^rgio
iVIary and to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, a. d. 593, The
mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface
IL, A. D. 532.
PRECEDENCE. Precedence was established in very early ages ; and in most
of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws oC
Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed amonj^- cour-
tiers respecting priority of rank and office, the order of precedency wai
regulated chiefly by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VHI,,. 1539 ;
and the other, 1 (reorge I., 1714.
TABLE OF PRECEDENCY.
THE QUEEN.
Prince of Wales.
Prince Albert.
Queen Dowager.
Queen's other sons.
Princess royal.
Princess Alice ; and other I Archbishop of Cariti ifisry.
princesses.
Duchess of Kent.
Queen's uncles.
Queen's aunts.
Queen's cousins.
Lord Chancellor.
Archbishop of York.
*Lord high treasure^
*Lord president.
*Lord privy seal.
* If of the rank of barons.
pre]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
4S7
PRECEDENCE, contiiAted.
'Lord high constable.
TLord great chamberlain of
England.
*Earl marshal.
*Lord high admiral.
Lord steward of the house-
hold.
Lord Chamberlain.
Dukes, according to patent.
Marquesses, according to
their patents.
Dukes' eldest sons.
Earls, according to their pa-
tents.
Marquesses' eldest sons.
Dukes' younger sons.
Viscounts, according to their
patents.
Earls' eldest sons.
Marquesses' younger sons.
Bishop of London.
Bishop of Durham.
Bishop of Winchester.
All other bishops, according
to their seniority of conse-
cration.
Secretary of State, being a
baron.
Commissioners of the great
seal.
to their
COMMONERS.
The Speaker.
Treasurer, comptroller, and
vice-chamberlain of the
household.
Secretaries of State, if they be
under the degree of baron.
Viscounts' eldest sons.
Earls' younger sons.
Barons' eldest sons.
Knights of the Garter.
Privy councillors.
Chancellor of the Exchequer.
Chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster.
Lord chief justice of the
queen's bench.
Master of the rolls.
Vice-chancellor.
Lord chief justice of the com-
mon pleas.
Lord chief baron.
Judges and barons, according
to seniority.
Hereditary bannerets.
Viscounts' younger sons.
Barons' younger sons.
Baronets.
Bannerets for life only.
Knights of the bath.
Grand Crosses.
Knights commanders.
Knights bachelors.
Eldest sons of the younger
sons of peers.
Baronets' eldest sons.
Knights of thi Ganer's eldea
sons.
Bannerets' eldest sons.
Knights of the bath's eldest
sons.
Knights' eldest sons.
Baronets' younger sons.
Flag and field officers.
Sergeants-at-law.
Doctors, Deans, and cSaa.n.
cellors.
Masters in chancery.
Companions of the' bath.
Gentlemen of the pr'vy
chamber.
Esquires of i\/i knights of the
Bath.
Esquires by creation.
Esquires by office or con>-
mission.
Younger so b of knights oi
the garter.
Sons of bannerets.
Younger sons of knights of
the bath.
Younger sons of knights ba-
chelors.
Gentlemen entitled to bear
arms.
Clergymen, not dignitaries.
Barristers at law.
Officers of the army and
navy, not esquires by com-
mission.
Citizens, burgesses, &c.
Barons, according
patents.
[All the above, except the
royal family, hold their
precedence of rank by act
31 Henry VIIL]
PREDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeably
appointed whatever comes to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of
the most perplexing controversies that have occurred among mankind. It
was taught by the ancient Stoics and early Christians ; and Mahomet intro-
duced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the
strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose
in the fifth century, when it was maintained by St. Augustin ; and Lucidus.
a priest of Gaul, taught it a . d. 470.
PRESBURG, Peace of, between France and Austria, by which the ancient
states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstett, part of
the bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions
of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau. and Ortenau, were transferred to the elec-
tor of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who, as well as the duke of
Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon ; the independence of the Hel-
vetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805.
PRESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called
from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the
New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling
elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyterian meeting-
house in England was established by the Puritans at Wandsworth, Surrey
Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguish-
ing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attri-
* Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIII.
t When in actual office only, by I George I.
N. B. TJ.s priority of signing any treaty or public instrument by ministers of state is fAk«n 'bi
rank of office, and net title.
488 THE world's progress [^ pas
buted to John Knox, and compiled by that reformei in 1560. Tt was
approved by the parhament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act
of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with
England in 1707.
PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. Washington, unanimously e)ecied
president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 25
to Sept. 17, 1787 ; and was unanimously elected first president of the United
States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administrations.
PRESS, THE PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from
the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of the
eighteenth century, when many improvements were made. William Caxton,
a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471. — Siowe'i
Chron. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 1806.
The printing-machine was invented by Koenig in . 811. and Applegath's fol-
lowed. The Columbian press of Clymer was produced in 1814 ; and the
Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after.
Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in England at
Tlie Times office, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Covvper's and
Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought in\o
use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States within
a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated manufac-
turers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New- York. Their largest presses
for newspapers are capable of throwing oft' 10.000 sheets per hour, which is
so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders
from Paris. The pressi^s of Seth Adams & Co., of Boston, are perhaps the
best in the world for book printing. See article Printing.
PRESS, Liberty of the. The iviprimatur, "let it be printed," was much used
on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The
liberty of the press was restrained, and the number of master printers in
London and Westminster limited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638.
And again by act of parliament, 6 William III., 1693. The celebrated toast,
"The liberty of the press — it is like the air we breathe — if we have it not
we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, London, at a Whig
dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required
to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France
and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but
again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it
was fully guaranteed by the constitution.
PRESSING TO DEATH. A punishment in England, referred to the reign of
Henry III. or of Edward I., and on the statute book until the latter part of
the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, i? the
following: — Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered
two of his children, and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraign-
ed for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to
death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James
I. 1605 — Stowe's Ch7'on.
PRESTONPANS, Battle of, between the Young Pretender, prince Charles
Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John
Cope. The latter was defeated Avith the loss of 500 men, and was forced to
fiy at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the
field of battle ta Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce
his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish
ballad, called, from the doughty hero, " Johnie Cope." .Fought Sept. 21,
1745.
PRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title of ^A^ r>retender,
FRiJ D1CTI0NAB.Y OF DATES. 4SS
or Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James 11. , born in 1688, and ac«
Knowiedged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro-
claimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland,
Sept. 6, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France,
to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had
promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed,
the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines),
Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765.
PRETENDER, the Young. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles,
born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June
1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk,
January 18, 1746 ; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and
sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilds
of Scotland for nearly six months, and as SO.OOOZ. was offered for taking him,
he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by
his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length es-
caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur-
al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died m 1789, His
brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX, of Fngland, born
March 1725, died at Rome in August 1807.
PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the
Lead of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing
in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low
room, then called heil. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none
admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion
of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem-
bers were named the Ruvip, to whom nothing remained to complete their
wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. — Goldsmitk.
PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only.
In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among
the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa-
mily, 1491 B. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and
the crown were superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar
privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but
that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arcli-flamen or
high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular
sects.
PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for-
merly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should
publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the
Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. —
Ashe.
PRIMOGENITURE, Right of, an usage brought down from the earliest times.
The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren,
and in the absence of his father was priest t/i the family. In England, by
the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It
came in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068.
PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention haa
been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence,
Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to
attention. Adrian Jimius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes
John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and
letters, Speculum Humance Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous
and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about a. d. 1438." The
leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afl'3rwards pasted to
21*
490
THE world's progress.
[PIL»
getlier. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the
Tractatus Petri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal
types, and used them in printing the eariiest edition of the Bible, which was
commenced in 1444, and finished in 1460. See Book. ^ Peter Schseffer cast
the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of complete
I'RiNTiNG, 1452. — Adrian Junius ; Du Fresnoy.
Book of Psalms pimted -1 a. D. 1457
The Durandi Hationale, first work
pinnied with cast metal types 1 ■ 1459
[Printing was introduced into Oxford,
about this time. — Collier. But this
statement is discredited by Dibdin.]
A Livy printed.— Dufresnoy • 1 - 1460
The first Bible completed.— /cfemi - 1460
[Mentz taken and plundered, and the art
of printing, in the general ruin, is
spread to other towns] - - 1462
The types were unitbrmly Gothic, or
old German (whence our English, or
Bluck Letter) until - - - 1465
Greek characters (quotations only) first
used, same year - - - - 1465
Cicero de Officiis printed {Blair) - 1466
Roman characters, first at Rome - 1467
A Chro7iicle, said to have been found
in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa-
lace (the fact disputed), bearing the
date Oxford, anno - - - 1468
William Caxton, a mercer of London,
set up the first press at Westminster" 1471
He printed Willyam Caxton' s Recuyel
of the Historyes of Troy, by Raoul
le Feure. — Phillips - - - 1471
His first pieces were, A Treatise on the
Game of Chess, and Tally's Offices
(see below). — Dibdin - - - 1474
^sop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is
supposed to be the first book with its
leaves numbered - - - 1484
Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a
Greek book printed (ap Aldi) • - 1476
He introduces the Italic - - - 1496
The Pentateuch, in Hebrew - ▲. d. 1482
Homer, infolio, beautifully done at Flo-
rence, eclipsing all former printing,
by Demetrius ; 498
Printing used in Scotland - - - ^609
The first edition of the whole Bible was,
strictly speaking, the Complutensian
Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see
Polyglot 1517
The Liturgy, the first book printed in
Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - - 1550
The first Newspaper pi'inted in England
(see Newspapers) .... i.58a
First patent granted for printing - 1591
First printing-press improved by Wil-
liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam - - 1601
First printing in America at Cambridge,
Mass., when the Freeman's Oath and
an Almanac were printed - - ^633
First Bible printed in Ireland was at
Belfast.— i/ardi/'s Tour. - - - 1704
First types cast in England by Caslon. —
Phillips. 1720
Stereotype printing suggested by Wil-
liam Ged, of Edinburgh.— iVzcAo/s. 1735
The present mode of ste'reotype inven-
ted by Mr. Colden, of New York - 1779
Stereotype printing was in use in Hol-
land in the last century. — Phillips.]
See Stereotype.
The printing-machine was first suggest-
ed by Nicholson .... 1790
The Stanhope press was in general use
in 1806
Machine printing (see Press) - - 1811
Steam machinery (see Press) • - 1814
TITLES OP THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDE.
The Game and Playeofthe Chesse. Trans-
lated out of the Frenche and emprynted
by me Willia m Caxton Fynysshia tJie last
day of MarclLC the yer of our Lord God a
thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij.
TULLY.
The Boke of Tulle of Olde age Em,prxjnted
by me simple per sone William Caxton in
to Englysshe as the p.'aysir solace and re-
verence of ?}ien growynir in to old age the
xij day of August the yere of our lord
M..cccc.Lrxxj. — Herbert.
THE POLYCRONYCON.
The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges
and Dedes of many Tym.es in eyghtBokes.
Imprinted by William Caxton after hav-
ing somewliat chaunged the rude and
olde Englysshe, that is to wete (to wit) cer- |
tayn Words which in these Days be ney-
ther vsyd ne understanden. Ended the
second day of Juyil at Westmestre the
xxij yere of the Regne ofKynge Edward
thefourth, and oftlie Incarnacion of oure
Lord a Thousand four Hondred four
Score and tweyne [1482.] — Dibdin's Typ.
Antiq,.
THE CHRONICLES.
The Cronicles of Engiond Enpnted by me
Wyllyam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre
by London the v day of Juyn the yere
of thincurnacion of our lord god
M CCCC.LXXX.
POLYCRONICON.
Polycronycon. Elided the thyrtenth days
of Apryll the tenth yere of the regne cf
kinge Harry the seuenth and of the J,^
• To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry,
where the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by Wirlliarn Caxton, encouraged b/
the learned Thomas Milling, then abbot. He produced " The Game and Play of the Chesse," ll a
first book ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difl'erence about the place in which il
was printed, tut all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house. — Leigh.
pr:]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
491
PRINTING, continued.
carnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv
Emprynted by Wynkyn Theworde at
Westviestre.
HILL OF PERFECTION.
The HyLle uf Perfection emprynted at the
instance of the reverend reiygyous fader
The. Pi-ior of the hous of St. Ann. the or-
der of the charterouse Accompjiyshe[d]
andfynyssheld] att Westmynster the uiii
day ofjuneur the yere of our lord Thou-
sunde cccc.lxxxxvii. And inlhe xii yere
qfkynge Henry the vii by ine wynkyn de
worde. — Ames, Herbert, Dibdin.
ENGLAND.
The Descrypcyon of Englonde Walys Scot-
land and Ireland speaking of the Noblesse
» and Worlhynesse of the same hynnysshed
and enprynted in Flete strete in the syne
of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde
the yere of our lord a u.ccccc and ij. men-
sis Mayiis [mense Mali], — Dibdin's Typ.
Ant.
the festival.
The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and
holidais taken out of the golden. legend en-
prynted at london in F letestrete at ye syni
of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the
yere of our lordM.ccccc.vm. And ended
the si daye of 3Iu ye. —Ames.
THE lord's PRAYER.
As printed by Caxion in 1483.
father our that art in heavens Jiulloiced bi
thy name : thy kyngduine come io us ; thy
will be done in earl it as is in heaven : cure
every days bred give us to day ; and for-
give us oure tresspasses, as we forgivt
them that /ressjiass against us ; and lead
us not into temptation, but deliver us from
all evil sin, amtn. — Lewis's Life op
Caxton.
a placard.
As printed by William Caxton.
If it plese ony man spirituel or temporel to
bye ony pies of two or thre comemoracios of
Salisburi use' enpryntid after the forme
of this prestt lettre whiclie ben wel and
truly correct, late him come to westmon-
esle'r in to the ahnonestye at the reed pale
[red pale] and he shall have them good
there. — Dibdin's Typ. Antiq,.
Among the early printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis,
interrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the
semicolon ; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of
abbreviations and contractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered
leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced
with the art of printing.
PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity,
and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed b)^ figured blocks many
hundred years old. A similar process has been resorted to even in th€»
Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block.
See article Cotton. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic-
toria, 1839.
PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in a. d. 722 m
England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were first
seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between
England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on
the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace.
These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3
Henry V. 1414. — Rymer's Faedera.
PPISONERS OF WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when
spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less
continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead
of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French,
and American prisoners of war in England were 12 000 in number, Sept. 30,
1779. The number exchanged by cartel with France from the commence-
ment of the then war. was 44,000, June 1781. — PhiUips. The English pri-
soners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000,
Sept. 1798. — Idem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the
'- French, &c., in England to 47,600, in 1811. — Idem. This was the greatest
• Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies {Pica, Latin), as is sup
posed from the different color ol the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign print
tT».— Wheatiey.
492 THE world's progress. [pro
number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period of the
last war.
PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philan-
thropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. It was instituted in 1815, and held
its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of jails, by
the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management,
the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of
crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal,
on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits.—
Haydn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object
was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active
promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for
the amelioration and improvement of prisoners ; and the various systems
adOjpted and practised at Wethersfleld, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadel-
phia, &c., have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from
Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady
— Miss Dix, of New York — who has accomplished more than any other per-
son, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a
higher name than the American Mrs. Fry,
PRIVY COUNCIL, England. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted
by Alfred, a. d. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was
afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and
despatch, and Charles II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the
principal officers of state (councillors ex ojficio), and ten lords and five com-
moners of the king's choice, a. d. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To
attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his oflfice made
capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was
examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711.
PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures
made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distri-
buted by order of government : — Captain to have three-eighths, unless
under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the
said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants,
&c., one-eighth : lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c.
one-eighth ; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c., one-eighth ; ordinary and
able seamen, marines, &c., two-eighths
PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who
having but one eye, his likeness w^as so taken, 330 b. c. — Ashe. " Until the
end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ;
they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of
a head in a very majestic manner." — Addison.
PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assign-
able in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in
1801:, and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchange.
PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish
Church, CnngregaMo de Propaganda F\de, was constituted at Rome by pope
Gregory XV. in 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the suc--
ceeding pontiffs.
PROPERTY TAX in England. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy
of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid
the king in a war with France. 1512. — Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey pro-
posed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy
to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed thi.i
tax : they were required to declare on oath the real value of their effects •,
but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to giv«
PRU J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 493
an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of corres-
pondents in foreign countries. At length, by agreement, the king was
pi :ased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves,
— Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount
in the last years of the late war. The assessments on i ^al property, under
the property- tax of 1815, were 51,898,423^.
PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred
writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testa-
ment the writings of sixteen prophets ; i. e. of four greater, and twelve
lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; the latter
are Hosea. Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze-
phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in tJie
earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed
by Cyrus, 538 b. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem {Isaiah, xxix. 1 — 8)
executed by Titus, a.d. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in
Scripture.
PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to
request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means
for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's op-
position to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to
support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with
the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly iprotested,
April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of
Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated
from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George,
the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two
dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ;
these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con-
stance, Hailbron and seven other cities. See Lutheranism, Calvinism, c^c.
PROVISIONS — Remarkable facts concerning them. Wheat for food for 100
men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry
I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red. and
eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John,
1200. — Biirtoii's Annals. When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing
loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of the whole
grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at Is. Qd. per quarter,
the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain
(the same as standard now) ninety'six, by the first assize, a. d. 1202. — Mat.
Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. Wheat Is.
per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286. — Stowe. The price of provisions fixed by
the common-council of London as follows : two pullets, three-halfpence ;
a partridge, or two woodcocks, three-half-pence ; a fat lamb sixpence from
Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edward I. 1299.
Stowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of
our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn 3/. 12s. ; a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two
dozen of eggs, 3r/. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the common-
council above recited. 7 Edward 11. 1313. — Rot. Pari. Wine, the best sold
for 20s. per tun. 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in
1390. this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by
the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound,
and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533. — A7h'
derson's Origin of Covimerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, foi
one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. — Stowe's Chronicle.
PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 32C
B. c. The Venedi weie conquered by a people called the Borussi, who in-
494
THE world's progress.
[PRI!
habited the Riph?ean mountains ; and from these the country was called
Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig-
nifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The
Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights,
and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known
imtil about a. d. 1007.
1163
1225
St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach
Christianity, but is murdered by the
pagans - - - A. D. 1010
Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death
by dreadful ravages - - - * * *
Berlin built by a colony from the Nether-
lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear -
The Teutonic knights, returning from
the holy wars, undertake the conquest
of Prussia, and the conversion of the
people -----
Konigsbersr, lately built, made the capi-
tal of Prussia - - - - 1286
The Teutonic knights, by their barba-
rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It
is repeopled by German colonists in
the 13th century - - - * * *
Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by
purchase from Sigismond, emperor
of Germany, the margraviate of IBran-
denburg .... 1415
[This Frederick is the head of the pre-
sent reigning family.]
Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na-
tives against the oppression of the
Teutonic knights - - - 1446
Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master
ot the Teutonic order, renounces the
Roman Catholic religion, embi'aces
Lutheranism, and is acknowledged
duke of East Prussia, to be held as a
fief of Poland - - - - 1525
University of Konigsberg founded by
duke Albert - - - . 1544
The dukedomofPrussiais joined to the
electorate of Brandenburg, and so
continues to this day - - - 1594
John Sigismund created elector of Bran-
denburg and duke of Prussia - 1608
The principality of Halberstadtand the
bishopric of Minden transferred to the
house of Brandenburg - -1648
Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia
as an independent state, under Frede-
rick William - - - - 1657
Order of Concord instituted by Christian
Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish
the part he had taken in restoring
peace to Europe - - - 1660
The foundation of the Prussian monar-
chy was established between the years
1640 and .... 1680
Frederic III., in an assembly of the
states, puts a crown upon his own
head, and upon the head of his con-
sort, and is proclaimed king of Prus-
sia, by the title of Frederick I. - 1701
Guelders taken from the Dutch - - 1702.
Frederick I. seizes NeufchatelorNeun-
burgh. and Valengia, and purchases
the principality of Tecklenburgh - 1707
Reign of Frederick the Great, durins
which the Prussian monarchy is
made to rank among the fii'st powers
in Europe - - - A. D. 1740
Breslau ceded to Prussia - - - 1741
Silesia, Glatz, <fec., ceded - - 1742
Frederick the Great visits England - 1744
General I.acy with 15,000 Austrians,
and a Russian army, march to Berlin.
The city laid under contribution ; and
pays 800,000 guilders, and 1,900,000
crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and
foundries destroyed - - - 1760
Frederick the Great dies - Aug. 17, 1786
The Prussians take possession of Hano-
ver - - - .Tan. 30, 1806
Prussia i.ms the allies of England
against France - - Oct. 6, 1'506
Fatal battle of .Jena - Oct. 14, 18j6
[Here followed the loss of almost every
corps in succession of the Prussian
army, the loss of Berlin, ami of every
province of the monarchy except
Prussia proper.]
Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806
Peace of Tilsit (which see) - July 7, 1807
Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1803
Prussia joins the allies - March 17, 1813
Treaty of Paris - - April 11, 1814
The king promised liberty of the press
March, 1847
Outbreak at Berlin: the king resists
urgent demands for liberal measures,
March 14, 1847
Barricades nnd fights between troops
and students - - March 15, 1847
The king goes to Potsdam - March 18, 1847
~ issues decree demanding a federal
union of Germany, and granting li-
berty of the press - " March 18, 1847
Another bloody collision, 274 killed
March 18, 1847
New ministry formed - March 18, 1847
The king grants general amnesty
March 20, 1847
Agitations general throughout Prussia
A free constitution granted, in a solemn
convocation, by the king - April 11, 1347
The duchy of Posen reorganized by the
king - - - March 26, 1843
Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848
Constitutional assembly of Prussia
meets - - - May 22, 1848
The arsenal at Berlin captured by the
mob - - - June 16, 1849
The king prorogues the assembly at
Berlin, and appoints its meeting at
Brandenburg - _ - Nov. 9, 1848
The Burgher Guard refuses to obey the
order of the king to disband. Berlin
in a state of siege - Nov. 12, 1848
The assembly dissolved, and a new con-
stitution promulgated - Dec. 6, 1848
MARGRAVES AND ELECTORS OP BRANDENBURG, ETC.
A..D. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. I
* * Geron, margrave of Lusatia. which, in |
succession of time, passed into th«
families of Staden. Aacanie, Bellen
PUR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 495
PRUSSIA, continued.
stadt, and that of Bavaria ; till the
emperor Sigismond, with the consent
of the states of the empire, gave per-
petual investiture to
1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made
elector of Brandenburgh, 1417.
1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or
Ironside ; resigned.
1470 Albert I., surnamed the German Achil-
les. He confirmed the deed made by
his predecessor, of mutual succession
with the families of Saxony and
Hesse; resigned.
1476 John, surnamed the Cicero of Germany,
his son.
1499 Joachim I., his son.
1535 Joachim II. ; he was poisoned by a Jew
1571 John George.
1598 Joachim Frederick.
1608 John Sisrismund.
1619 George William.
1640 Frederick William the Great.
1688 Frederick, who, in 1701, was made king
of Prussia.
KINGS OF PRUSSIA.
1701 Frederick I.
1713 Frederick William I.
1740 Frederick 11.. surnamed the Grtit
1786 Frederick William II.-
1797 Frederick William III.
1840 Frederick William IV., June 7.
PUBLICHOUSES in England. A power of licensing them was first granted
to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument,
A. D. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was
about 13,000. In 1700 the number was 32 600 ; and in 1790^ the number in
Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed that there were about 50,000
public houses, and 30,000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The
number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820.
PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instru-
ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple
of Pythagoras, about 516 b. c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in
a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued com-
bination the power is twice the number of pullies, less 1. — PJiiUips.
PULTOWA, Battle of. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to
take refuge at Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarch
would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had he
not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a
Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized.
This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to
the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before,
which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able
to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709.
PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have in-
vented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 b. c. although
the invention is ascribed to l)anaus, at Lindus, 1485 b. c. They were in
general use in England, a. d. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto
Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on
the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well
beneath was first sunk in a. d. 1282.
PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against
Carthage 264 b. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it
lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 b. c. The second Punic war be-
gan 218 B. c, in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000
foot and 12,000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the
gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with
uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his
progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and
of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and
ended in 201 b. c. The third Punic war began 149 b. c, and was terminated
.by the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c. See Carthage.
PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell
496 THE world's progress. I TYl
where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the
fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of
purgatory was known about a. d. 250 ; and was introduced into the Roman
church in 593. — Platina. It was introduced early in the sixth century. —
Dupin.
PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to
the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the
Jewish law that a Avoman should keep within her house forty days after the
birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was
to go to the temple and ofier a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, a. d. 214. Among
the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, a. d. 542, in honor of
the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she
presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Ser-
gius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called
Candlemas-day.
PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Eliza*
beth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of
living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were
members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon
account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times se-
verely insisted upon. — Bishop Sanderson.
PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Son-
nini, " so celebrated from remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monu-
ments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be found
but in Egypt ; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and
diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate mag-
nificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of some high
mountains which bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced,
it is supposed, about 1500 b. c. They were formerly accounted one of the
seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpen-
dicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of
the base is 746 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed
of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of hu-
man labor has not been found on the earth.
" Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids,
" Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall," — Young.
PYRENEES, Battle of the, between the British army, commanded by lord
Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The
latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the
battle of Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour-
dan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which
his abilities were inferior ; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of
more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from
July 25 to August 2.
PYRENEES, Peace of the. A peace concluded between France and Spain ;
by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her
rights to Alsace ; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c.,
and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659.
PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head
of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or
tran3migration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his dis-
ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been
produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the
world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported
that the universe was created from a shapeless heap of passive mattei bv
QUA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497
the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the
world. He was the inventor of the multiplication-table, and a great im-
prover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at
this day, 539 b. c.
PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple
of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received
opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had
obtained over the serpent Python, from which they received their name ;
though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon,
or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphio-
tyons, B. c. 1263. — Arundelian Marbles.
Q.
QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a
French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a
shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers ;" to which the doctor
added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true." — Addison. Qv-.acks
sprung up with the art of medicine ; and several couniiies, particularly
England and France, abound with them. In London, some of their esta-
blishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in
1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady. Miss
Cashin, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for man-
slaughter ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 250Z., Oct.
30, 1830.
QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle.
The solar quadrant was introduced about 290 b. c. The Arabian astrono-
nomers under the Caliphs, in a. d. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feej 8 inches
radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for mea-
suring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See
Navigation.
QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance between Great
Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the
accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple
Alliance, and was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the
reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of
the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718.
QU-iESTOR, in Roman antiquity, was an officer who had the management of
the public treasure, instituted 484 b. c. The questorship was the first oflBce
any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the
senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was
greatly increased.
^iUAKERS OR FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the
truth ; and afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic
of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear
towards man. — Clarkson. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the
name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and
those present with him. to tremble at the word of the Lord. This respect-
able sect, excelling in morals prudence, and industry, was commenced m
England about a. d. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a num-
ber of learned, ingenious, and pious men — among others, by George Keith,
Wm, Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The ihee and thou used by the
* The Quakers eariy suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where
the first Friends who arrived weie females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and theii
498 THE world's progress. [ QU5
Quakers originated with their founder, who published a book of inslrac-
tions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was
enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re-
quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1696.
QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a. d. 1127, whereby all
merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in
the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad-
mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of
Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other
nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qua-
rantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged
most safe.
QUATRE-BRAS, Battle of, between the British and alhed army under the
duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the
French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo.
In this engagement the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815.
QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English,
with all Canada, in 1626. but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged
by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them,
after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of
victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham.
Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, who was
slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The
public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in
1815 ; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,000Z. Awful fire, 1650
houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28,
1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards ; 1365 houses burnt, June
28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846.
QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was
Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 b. c. She embellished the
city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most
magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval with
that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name af qiieen,
that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned a\ ith the title of
king. See note to article Hungary.
QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng-
land, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate
Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commeniied Aug. 19, 1820. Illumi-
nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her
funeral, Aug. 14.
QUEENS OP ENGLAND There have been, since the conquest, besides the
present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own
right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady
Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirty-
four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who
~ *•
ears cut off, yet they wei'e unshaken in their ronstancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament thai
2,'JOO Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered them-
eplves at this time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger
(from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by afl
order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an em-
bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service.
iiut^the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol-
diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; butit was immediately captured
by the Dutch, who liberated 28 of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in thai
fear. See PZa^ue. Of the 120 few reached America.
que]
DICTIONAP^Y OF DATES.
499
died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty- five ac-
tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen
The following list includes all these royal personages : —
was married September 12, 1299. Survived
the king.
Of Edwakd II.
Isabella, daughter of the king of France;
she was married in 1308. On the death, by
the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she wae
conlined for the rest of her Jife in her own
house at Risings, near London — Hume.
Of Edward III.
Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland
and Hainault ; she was married January 24
1328 ; and died August 16, 1365*.
Of Richard II.
Anne, .of Bohemia, sister of the emperoi
Winceslaus of Germany ; she was married
in .Januaiy 1382 ; and died August 3, 1395.
Isabella, daughter of Charles Vl.of France;
she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the mi.i-
der of her husband she returned to her fa-
ther.
Of Henry IV.
Mary, daughter of the earl of He eford ;
she died, before Henry obtained the crown,
in 1394.
Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of
Bretagne ; she was married in 1403. Sur-
vived the kmg, and died in 1437.
Of Henry V.
Catherine, daughter of the king of France 5
she was married May 30, 1420. 'She outliv-
ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudoi ,
grandfather of Henry VII.
Of Henry VI.
Margaret, daughter of the duke of Aujou ;
she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv-
ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and
died in 1482.
Of Edward IV.
Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir
Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John
Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1,
1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection
of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in
confinement.
Edward V.
This prince perished in the Tower, in
the 13ih year of his age; and died unma'-
ried.
Of Richard III.
Anne, daughter of the eail of Warwick,
and widow of Edward, priQce of Wales,
whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She ia
supposed to have been poisor.ed by Richard
(having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to
make way for his intended marriage with
the princess Elizabeth of York.
Of Henry VH.
Elizabeth of York, princess of England,
daughter of Edward IV. ; she was niarrieo
January 18, 1486; and died February 11
1503.
Of William I.
Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of
Flanders : she was married in 1051 ; and
died 1084.
William II.
This sovereign died unmarried.
Of Henry I.
Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of
Scotland; she was married November 11,
1100; and died May 1, 1119.
Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou-
vaine ; she was married January 29, 1129.
Survived the king.
Maude oi Matilda.
Dc nghter of Henry I., and rightful heir to
the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth-
ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry
v., emperor of Germany, who died 1125.
She married, secondly. Geoffrey Plantagenet,
earl of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from the
English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; landed
in England and claimed the ci'own, 1139.
Crowned, but was soon after defeated at
Winchester, 1141. Concluded a peace with
Stephen, which secured the succession to
her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167.
Of Stephen.
Matilda, daughter of Eustace,, -count of
Boulogne; she was married in 1128; and
iied May 3, 1151.
Of Henry IL
Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis
Vll. king of France, and heiress of Guienne
and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ;
and died 1204.
[The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of
this prince.
Of Richard I.
Berengera, daughter of the king of Na-
varre ; she was married May ]2, 1191. Sur-
vived the king.
Of John.
Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ;
she was married in 1189. Divorced.
Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou-
leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of
the count de la Marche ; married to John in
1200. Survived the king, on whose death
she was remarried to the count de la Marche.
Of Henry III.
Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro-
vence ; she was married January 14, 12-36.
Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo-
nastery, whither she had retired
Of Edward I.
Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in
1253 ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot-
Jend, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296.
Margaret, sister of the king of France ; she
50C
THE world's progress.
[qui
QUEENS, continued.
Of iiENRY vm.
Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She
was married June 3, 1509 ; was the mother
of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after-
wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533 ; died
January 6, 1536.
Anna Bolet/n, daughter of sir Thomas Bo-
leyn, and maul of honor to Catherine. She
was privately married, before Catherine was
divorced, Nov. 14, 1532; was the mother of
queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow-
er, May 19, 1536.
Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey-
mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn.
She was married May 20, 1536, the day alter
Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed-
ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth,
Oct. 13, 1.537.
Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke
of Cleves. She was married January 6,
1540; was divorced July 10, 1540; and died
in 1557.
Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of
Norfolk; she was married August 8, 1540 ;
and was beheaded on Tower hill February
12, 1.542.
Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas
Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer.
She was married July 12, 1543. Survived
the king, after whose death she married sir
Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and
died September 5, 1548.
Edward VI.
This prince, who ascended the throne m his
tenth year, reigned six years and five months,
and died unmarried.
Lady Jane Grey.
Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife
of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen
on the death of Edward. In ten days after-
wards returned to private life ; was tried
Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12,
1554, when but seventeen years of age.
Mary.
Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended
the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip II.
of Spain, July 2.5, 1554 ; and died Novem-
ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in
1598.
Elizabeth.
Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to
the crown Nov. 17, 1558; reigned 44 years,
4 montiis, and 7 days ; and died unmarried.
Of James I.
Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of
Frederick II. ; she was married August 2);
1589; and died March 1619.
Of Charles I.
Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV.
king of France ; she was married June 13,
1625. Survived the unfortunate king; and
died in France, August 10, 1669.
Of Charles IL
Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughtei
of John IV. end sister of Alfonso VI. ; sh«
was married May 21, 1662. Survived th«
king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec
21, 1705.
Of James II.
Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde.
earl of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep
tember 1660 ; and died before James ascend-
ed the throne, in 1671.
Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh
ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar-
ried November 21, 1673. At the revolutioii
in 1683, she retired with James to France ;
and died at St. Germains in 1718, having sur-
vived her consort seventeen yeirs.
William and Mary.
Mary, the princess of Orange, daughtei if
James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16' 7 ;
ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 : died De-
cember 28, 1694.
Anne.
Daughter of James II. She married George
prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeed-
ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen
children, all of whom died young ; lost her
husband, October 28, 1708 ; and died August
1, 1714.
Of George I.
Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke ol
Zell. She died a few weeks previously to
the accession of George to the crown, June
8, 1714.
Of George H.
Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran-
denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and
died Nove.»nber 20, 1737.
Of George III.
Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke ol
Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ; mai'ried Septembei
8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818.
Of George IV.
Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the
duke of Brunswick ; she was married April
8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin-
cess Charlotte; anddied August 7, 1821. See
article Queen Caroline.'
Of William IV.
Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline^
sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she
was married July 11, 1818; and survived the
king.
Victoria.
Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen
daughter of the duke of Kent ; boi-n^May 24
1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837
crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousjd
prince Albert of Saxe-Cotnrrg-Gotha, Feb-
ruary 10, 1840.
QUEENSTOWN, Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri.
RAC j DICTIOliARY OF DATES. 501
ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the
Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the
same day,
iin[CKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It
is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight
of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil-
ver was discovered a. d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the
chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger-
many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in
1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It
was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by
Mr. Walker, in 1787.
^UIETTSTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard,
whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the foundation of the sect of Quietists
in France. His principal tenet was, that tht. purity of religion coLsisted in
an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and
the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of
absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when
arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then
imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its Jod. Ma-
dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions
and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, the celebrated
archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she
occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect
sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet.
iUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a. d. 553 ; but some
say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty
from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling,
ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillips
iDITO. A presidency of Colombia {which see) celebrated as having been Ihe
scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and
Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls
were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost
overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797.
R.
lACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chatty
ots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen,
who wrote in the days of Henry 11. , mentions the delight taken by the citi-
zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south,
and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were
races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — X2amdeii. In the end of
Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket,
although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them,
and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas.
lACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confes-
sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe,
The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times an in-
Btrument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI.,
erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now
eeen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of
Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punish-
ment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, as
being contrary to the laws, 1628. See Rav'dlac.
502 THE world's progress. [ EAi
RADCLTFFE LIBRARY^ Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad-
cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 40.000Z. to the Uni-
versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1, 1714. The first stone of
the library was laid May 17. 1737; the edifice was completely finis lied in
1749, and was opened April 13, same year.
R A.DSTADT, Peace of, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con-
gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers,
Dec. 9, 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro-
cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian
regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798.
RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but en
rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was brought
among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fied from his brother Rameses,
1485 B. a. — Hcijlin.
RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram-ways in and about New-
castle so early as the middle of the 17th century ; but they were made of
wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the
pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 : — " The
manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the
river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll-
ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will
draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the
coal-merchants," — Life of Lord-Keeper North. Tliey were made of iron, a*".
Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at
Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament
(with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small
branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames
at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first
great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester
railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826. and opened Sept. 15, 1830.
EXTENT OF RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847.
Miles.
Miles
Great Britain and Ireland
- 3,375
Italy -
■ 115
United States (in 1849, 6,117) -
- 3,800
Denmark -
- - 106
Germany (in 1849, 3,100)
- 1,.570
Cuba
- 800
Holland - . - -
- 200
Russia
- - 52
Belgium
- 1.095
British Colonies
-1,000
France . . - .
- 2,200
East India -
- - 500
Total length of railways opened throughout the world:— in 1847, 21,761 milea.
In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles
per hour ; in 1829. the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour •,
in 1834, the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the
North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present
moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During
the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been
diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for
one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a correS'
ponding ratio. — Tuck's Railways, 1847.
RAILROADS in the UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines comple^
ed reached an aggregate of
In New England 1,219 miles,
In New York 840 do
In other parts of the United States 4,058 do.
Total .... 6,117 do
iSee American Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.]
lAY ] DICTIONARY 01 DATES. ' 503
A considerable 11111111)61 of miles have since been completed, including a
portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c., &c. The
first railway in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston, to convej j ,
granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, ' \
opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor-
cester, July 6. same year, Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal-
timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10,
1837 Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housa tonic, Feb. {
12, 1840. ;
RAILROADS IN FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as \
1 783 ; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezioux 22 miles, j
commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident j
on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- i
ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and
Brussels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July
8, 1846.
RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in
Belgium, opened May 3, 1836.
lAMILIES, Battle op, between the English under the duke of Marlborough
and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on
Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious
victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import-
ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which
had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his
daughters.
lATISBON, Peace of, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger-
many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession,
October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German
princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under
the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806.
lATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest
of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions
of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F.
Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in
the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers,
that nothing could be done to oppose them; they came from the western
deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad-
vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, an<?
in some parts of France are still unknown.
JAVENNA, Battle of, between- the French under the great Gaston de Foix
(duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal
armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment
of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April
11, 1512.
rWILLAC'S MURDER op HENRY IV. of FRANCE. The death cf Ravil-
lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king, I lay
14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations.
He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack a wooden engine in the
shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened
the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire.
Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot
pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil. pitch, and rosin wero
poured. His body was so robust that he endured this exquisite pain; and
his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to be
504 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ REl
puiled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters,
and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through thu
streets.
REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation
for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for
a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus-
sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re-
form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl
Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by
lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords
by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority. May 7.
New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers
(106 to 22) June 4, 1832.
REFORMATION, Thk. The early efforts for the reformation of the church
may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinu&, bishop of Aqui-
leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal
reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri,
Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca. Browne, and Knox. The
eras of the Reformation are as follows :—
In 'England (Wickliffe) ■ - a. d. 1360
In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405
In Germany (Luther) • - - - 1517
In Switzerland (Zwm^Zms) - - -1519
In Denmark 1521
In France ( Calvin) 1.529
Protestants first so called - - - 1529
In Sweden (Petri) • - - A. D. 1530
In England (Henry VIII.) - - - 1534
In Ireland (Browne) .... 1535
In England, completed (Cranmer, 1 u-
cer, F'agius, S,-c.) .... {.547
In Scotland (Knox) 1560
In the Netherlands .... 1562
The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession
to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first
prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Lnither,
Protestants, <^c.
RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to
God, the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and
applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false
gods among the heathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes
and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits
being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — Phillips. Religious
ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in-
troduced by Enos, 2832 b. c. — Lenglet. See the different sects as described
throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced
with the Reformation {which see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for
the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suffered
death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552;
they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and receiv-
ed the sanction of parliament in 1571.
REPEAL OF THE UNION of Great Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa-
tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in
1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in
1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli-
berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in
various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150 000 persons, and
called "monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf on Oct. 8,
was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were
brought to trial, Jan. 15. 1844.
RETREAT of the GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had
joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta-
xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the
retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though under
lEV]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
505
continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled
to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops cf moun-
tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions.
This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned
home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in
215 days, after an absence of fifteen months^ The whole perhaps might
■now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosophei
who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which
he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 b. c. — Vossius.
lEVENUE, PUBLIC, of England. The revenue collected for the civil hst
and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi-
nary, ill 200 000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles
IT. Raised to ^6, 000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated,
which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary,
1690. — Salmon's Chron. Hist..
aBNERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONQUEST, BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR.
William the Conqueror
William Rufus -
Henry I,
Stephen
Henry H.
Richard I. •
John
Henry III. ■
Edward I.
Edward II.
Edward III.
Richard II.
Henry IV.
Henry V.
Henry VI.
Edward IV.
Edward V.
Richard III.
Henry VH.
• £400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
80,000
150,900
100.000
154,000
130,000
100.000
76;643
64,976
100,000
130,000
400,000
Henry VIII.
Edward VI. -
Mary - - . .
Elizabeth ...
.lames I. ....
Charles I. . . -
Commonwealth
Charles II.
.James II. -
William III. -
Anne (at the Union) -
George I. ...
George II. ...
George III., 1788 -
Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom
George IV., 1825, ditto -
William IV., 1830, ditto -
Ditto, 1835, ditto -
Victoria, 1845, ditto .
Jt: 800,000
400,000
450.000
500;000
600,0OL
895,819
1,517,247
1,800,000
2,001,855
3,892,205
5,691,803
6,762,643
8,522,540
15,572.971
65.599,570
62,871,300
55,431,317
50,494,732
51,067,856
lEVENUE OF THE United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and
sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in
1790 - - $4,399,473 1825 - - $21,342,906 1840 - • $16,993,858
1795 - - - 5,926.216 1830 • - - 24.280.888 1844 - - 28,504,519
1800 - - 10,624;997 1835 - - - 34;i63,635 1845 - - - 29,769.134
1805 . . - 13,520,312 1836 - - 48,288,219 1846 . . 29,499.247
1810 - - 9,299,737 1837 - - . 18,032,846 1847 - - - 26,:346,79C
1815 - - - 15,411.634 1838 - - 19,372,984 1&48 - - 35,436,750
1820 . - 16,779,331 1839 • • - 30,399,043
lEVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. The first publication of the character of a re-
view was the '■'Journal des Savants,'' established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis
de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri-
tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De
Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la
Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society oi
learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from
1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discon;inued ; but in
1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con-
tributors, as De Sacy, Langlds, R^musat, Biot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other
literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few
years.
The Gentleman^s Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly
Review, in 1749, were the first works of fhe kind published in London, that
obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals
wLich preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated
by Nichols J viz. " Weekly Memorials, oran Account of Books lately set forth,"
506 THE world's progress. - [ REV
1688-9 ; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols.. 8vo., 1722 ; • New Memoirs ol
Literature." 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters,"
18 vols.. 1728 to 1736 ; " Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732.
The Gentleman's Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the
first editor, who died in 1754, leaving the work in the hands of his associate,
David Henrj'', who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in
1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more
than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author
of "Literary Anecdotes," 9 vols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole
editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by i^rofession ;
and the appellation assumed a.ad retained by the conductor of the work
from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This Mag-
azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi-
tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of
this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is
spoken,— -that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets which
literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun
January, 1834 ; the first series having been completed in 103 voluoes
The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was
established in 1749. by Ralph Griffiths, LL. D., who continued to conduct it
54 years, assisted by his son in the -latter years of his life. This work was
continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series,
from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in
1825 108 volumes.
The Critical Review [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil-
ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764 to
1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished
upwards of 2.620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since.
First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791
to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes ; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24
volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series
was begun in 1815.
The British Critic [London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were,
the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe : the latter of whom diod
in 1817 ; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the
work till the completion of the 42d volume. It was at first published in
monthly numbers ; bv" ^om 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of
" The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work,
called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem-
bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High
Church principles.
The establishment of the Edinburgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in peri-
odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range
and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced-
ing publication of the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of
Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev, Sidney Smith
(the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among it§
principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished
names of Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham,
and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time,
upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some-
what less than 9000.
The Quaiterly Review [London] was established in 1809. and, as early as
1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It
may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain-
REV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 507
ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles.
It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Gifford ; then by
H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num-
bered sir WaTter Scott. Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and
learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected
with the government.
Che Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805.
It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi-
ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had
many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert
Hall, and John Foster. — Present editor, Josiah Conder. — First Series, froDi
1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive,
30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829,
The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members
of the established church, was commenced in 1802. and maintains what are
commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri-
butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel
Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have bevn republished
in this country.
Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817.
It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics.
The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000.
The Westminster Revievj, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben-
iham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis-
lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill,
and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845.
The Foreign Quarterly Review [London], established in 1827, devoted to
foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united
to the Westminster Review. — Amer. Almanac. &c.
lEVOLUTION, Era of the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng-
land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James
II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres-
sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5,
1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was
consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James)
being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689.
lEVOLUTIONS. Remarkable in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de-
stroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great,
536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per-
sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331
b'. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or
Greek monarchy, by Julius Caesar. 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded
by Constantino the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306.
The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802.
This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire
under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273,
from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern
empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also the
Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome,
France. Portugal, &c.
LEVOLUTIONS. the most celebrated in modern history. In Portugal, a. d.
1640. In England 1688. In Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. In Russia,' 1730
and 1762. In Sweaen, 1772 and 1809. Tn America, 1775. In France. 1789,
1830. and 1848. In Holland. 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome. 1798. In
the Netherlands, 1830. In Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Rjme,
508
THE world's progress.
jiio
Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary. &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary oulj
— tlie former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respec-
tively.
REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame-
rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lite-
rary journals "i several places in this country, particularly Boston, New
York, and Philaaeiphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or
had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary an(i
religious reviews and magazines :
BOSTON. Founded.
American Monthly Ma-
gazine., (the first) es-
tablished by Jeremy
Gridley, continued 3
years, about - - 1745
Massachusetts Masra-
zine., (lasted to 1795) 1784
Monthly AntJiology, Prf.
Ticknor, A. H. Eve-
rett, Buckminster, &c.
(to 1811) - - - 1803
General Repertory and
Review., (1st Amer.
quarterly,} edited at
Cambridge by Andrews
Norton - - 1812-13
North American Re-
view., commenced by
W. Tudor* - - 1815
Christian Examiner,
(quarterly) Channing,
Dewey, Ware, &c. "- 1818
American Biblic. Repo-
sitory, founded by E.
Robinson, D.D., at An-
dover • - - 1831
Christian i2et>/eip,(Bap-
tist) quarterly - - 1835
Boston Quarterly Re-
view, (Brownson) - 1837
New Eiigland Maga-
zine, Buckingham - 1833
American Quarterly Re-
gister. Edwards - 18 —
The Dial, (quarterly)
Emerson, to 1843 - 1841
Massachusetts Quarter-
NEW YORK.
N. Y. Magazine and
Literary Repository,
(to 1792) - - 1787
Literary Review. R. C.
Sands, &c. (to 1823) - 1822
Atlantic Mag., Sands,
fierwards New York
Motithly Review, -1824
Knickerhucker Mag., C.
F. Hotrman, succeeded
by Flint, and now L.
G. Clark - - 1832
Democratic Review (un-
til 1841 at Washington) 1837
American Monthly Ma-
gazine, N. Y.,(to 1838)
Herbert,Hoffman,Ben-
jamin - - - 1835
N. Y. Review, (quar-
terly) J. G. Cogswell,
(to 1842) - - 1837
American Review, G.
H. Colton - - 1844
Hunt's Merchant's Ma-
gazine - - - 1839
NEW HAVEN.
Christian Observer
American Journal of
Science 8f Arts, (Silli-
man's) quarterly
New Englander, Theol.
(quarterly)
Church Review (quar-
terly) -
182-
1818
1843
1848
PHILADELPHIA.
Aitkin's Pennsylvania
Magazine was thtt
most popular before
the Revolution; Tlios.
Pame and Francis
Ilopkinson, editors
Amer. Museum, pub. by
Matthew Carey, (to
1792) - - -1787
Literary Magazine and
American Register, C.
Brockden Brown, (to
1810) - - -lafe
Portfolio, pub. n.onthly
from 1809 by Jos, Den-
nie; edited by Nicho-
las Biddle,1812-16, and
1816-21 by .1. E. Hall - 1801
Analectic Mag., Mo.*=ia
Thomas, (to 1820) ^813
Amer. Quar. Review,
Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 1827
Graham's Magazine -
Lady's Book, Mrs. Hale
Stryker's American Re-
gister, (quarterly) - 1847
Southern Quarterly Re-
view, at Charleston,
(to 1833, recommenced
1842) - - -1828
Southern Lit. Messen-
ger, at Richmond, by
T. W. White - - 1834
Biblical Repertory and
Theological Review,
Princeton, N. J. - IS—
ly, Theo. Parker, «fec. 1846
RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a. d. 406 ; it M^as rebuilt
in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy,
the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine.
The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably,
becouse Clovis. the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from
paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city
was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814.
KlIETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of
Byzantium. 200 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at
Rome by Photius Galhis, 87 b. c. — Idem. " We are first to consider what is
to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to
be ornamented." — Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed in
Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor.
•Subsequent editors :—W. Phillips, 1817; E. T. Channing, Dana, and Sparks, 1817; Edwani
Eferett, 1819; Jared Sparks, 1823 ; A. H. Everett, 1830; J. G'. Palfrey, 1835 ; F. Bowen, .842.
AOM ]
DICTIOJVJARY OF DATES.
50£
RHINE. CONFEDERATION of the. See article Confederation of the Rhine
RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States; first settled by Roger Williams
and his associates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution,
and founded the town of Providence, in 1636. Williams obtained a patent
from Plymouth Co. in 1644, including Providence Plantations and Rhode
Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663,
which has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution.
Dorr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, Id
June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New consti-
tution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United
States adopted May 29, 1790 ; this State being the last to accede to it. Pop-
ulation in 1790, 58,825; in 1810, 76,931; in 1830, 97,212; in 1840, 108,130.
RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho-
dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar-
itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not
completed till 480 b. c. The city built 432 b. c. Its famous Colossus
(which see) thrown down by an earthquake. 224 b. c, and finally destroyed
by the Saracen admiral Moavia, a. d. 672 — Priestley.
RIALTO. AT Venice. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in
his '• Merchant of Venice." It was built in 1570, and consists of a single
arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near
the middle, where it is the narrowest : this celebrated arch is ninety feet
wide on the level of the canal, and twenty- four feet high.
RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng-
land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill of
Rights.
EUOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States :
At Baltimore, office of a Newspaper oppos-
ed to the war, demolished, July, 1812.
At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili-
taiy, Sept. 24, 1831.
At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several
killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1835.
At New York, '-abolition riots," caused by
discussions on slavery, and supposed in-
tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal-
gamation" between whites and blacks,
July 10-12, 1834.
At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary
or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834.
At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots,
40 houses desn'oyed, Aug. 12, 1834.
At Utica, Boston, &c., same cause, 1835-6.
At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur-
ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July
30, 1835.
At New York, caused by the high price ol
flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des-
troyed, Feb. 13, 1837.
At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla-
very newspaper destroyed, and lie was
killed, Nov. 7. 1&37.
At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti-
slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva-
nia Hall, &c., May 17, 1838.
In the Pennsylvania legislature, two different
legislatures organized, the Senate expelled
from their Chamber by a mob. Militia
called out and the contest settled after 4
days, Dec. 8, 1838.
At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against
abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841.
Disgraceful affi-ay in~Pennsylvania legisla-
ture ; a member stabbed by another, April
8, 1843.
Another in House of Representatives of TJ.
S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver.
Jan. 25, 1844.
Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame-
ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3
churches burned, fourteen persons killed,
forty wounded ; finally put down by the
military, May 6-8, 1844.
The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and
wounded by the military: 5000 troops call-
ed out, July 7,1844.
Outrages of '-Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer
County. N. Y. Commenced August 21,
1844 : renewed in December.
Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor
Wright to be in a state of ins-arreciion.
Collection of rents being resisted by riotem
disguised as Indians, and an under sherifl
murdered, Aug. 27, 1845.
Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co, N. Y. March
25, 1847.
Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y,
against Mr. Maci-eady, the English actor
21 killed ; May 10, 1849.
Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mia
sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in ih«
Senate of the U. S., the first gross insult to
that assembly. May, 1850,
RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c. ; as-
310 THE world's progress. | RJM
senibled at Chicago, 111., July 5, 1847. House of Representatives votes
(112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern-
ment to promote such improvements, July 18-48.
ROBESPIERRE S REIGN of TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the
populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of
the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers ot
eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administr»=
tion. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri-
bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant !" resounded through
> the hall; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicke*!
minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and
suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived.
ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who
infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made
excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historiajia
assert ti.at this was only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon,
who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession.
Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu-
merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1247,
when he died. — Stowc's Chron.
ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were
invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were
first us^^d at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated
in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See
article Boulogne FLotilla.
ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of
its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy Land was
alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the
rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of
Christianity by Constantine, a. d. 323. See Rome. The foundation of the
papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of
Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste-
phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756.
The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reform-
ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed
doctrines, and the general diffusion of knowledge among the nations of the
earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under
the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Balbi.
ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them iu
1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to favor
there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded
from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and
estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament
in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent,
1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation
Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. vfho took his
seat under the act.
ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic
flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." —
Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author
of Ethiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence
styled the " Father of Romances." His work has a moral tendency, and
particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. d. 398.- -«
HiLet de Or \gine Fabul. Roman.
os]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
5K
OME. Once the mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the
most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind.
Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele-
brated city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of
the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the
birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of
the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on
the summit of Mount Palatine"; and the founder, to give his followers the
appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard
a : a common asylum for every'criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from
their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From
such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the
death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, the
Palatine, CapitoHne, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coehus, and
Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages,
to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of nearij the
whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting
for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it.
The three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three Curiafii, Albans, having
been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com-
bat, which by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 b. c. —
Liiry. See Pabular Views, p. 15 to p. 63.
FoimJatinn of the city commenced by
Romulus - - - B.C.
Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters
Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the
title of .king of Italy, which ends the
Western empire - - a. d.
Rome is recovered for Justinian, by
Belisarius ....
Retaken by the Goths
Narses, Justinian's general, again re-
conquers Rome - - -
Papal power established - - -
Rome revolts from the Greek emperors,
and becomes free
Pope Stephen II. invested with the tem-
poral dominion of Rome
Charlemagne acknowledged as emperor
of the West - - • -
753
476
553
606
726
«kc. The pope refuses ; the people
attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the
pope yields, and grants a liberal mi-
nistry - - - Nov. 16, 1848
The pope, after being a prisoner in his
palace for seven days, escapes from
Rome to Mola di Gaeta, in the dis-
guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848
Roman chambers dissolved, and a con-
! stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1848
The Roman republic proclanrted ; Maz-
I zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 -
I French armament against the republic
j reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1849
I French repulsed under the walls of
756 j Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1819
I Rome surrenders after an attack of 29
days, and false promises on the part
of the French - - July 2, 1849
Rome entered by the French under Ou-
dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi
and his force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849
Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849
Oudinot surrenders the government
into the hands of three commissionei-s
of the pope, who begin the work of
reaction - - - Aug. 3, 1349
Letter of the French president, dictat-
ing the basis of the restoration of the
pope's temporal power, viz. : general
amnesty, secularization of the admi-
nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe-
ral government - Aug. 18, 1849
Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome -"Apr. 1850
OSARY. "We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Au-
gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary
and the Holy OflSce," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary a3
being said in 1093,
OSES, The White and Rkd. The intestine wars which so long devastated
England, were carried on under the symbols of the White and the Red Rose,
and were called the Avars of the Roses. The partisans of the bouse of Lan-
Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at
Rome - - - '- -1347
[The popes continued in possession of
the city and territories. See article
Popes and Ifahj.]
The recent struggles of Rome for free-
dom commenced in - - - 1848
Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848
Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis-
ter, assassinated at the senate-house.
The populace march to theQuirinal,
and present thoir demands to the
pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con-
stituent assembly, a new ministry,
512 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ R CJM
caster chose the led roses as their mark of distinction, and those of York
were denominated from tlie wliite. Tiiese wars originated with the descend-
ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri-
chard II., who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king
by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heii
to the crown ; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward
lit., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the Lhira
son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira
cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de-
scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdoia
with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parf^cularly ir
the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle foughi, May 22
1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VII
with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486
ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger
many in 1302, and again early in the 17th century, They swore fidelity
promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically ; and affirmed that the an
cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno
sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves.
ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng.
land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava
li«.i-s, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. Thij
latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves
putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting theii
hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers.
ROYAL ACADEMY of ARTS in England. Instituted 1768, under the patron^
age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was
appointed its first president. — Leigh.
ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of
persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He-
berden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions
of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the
metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus
and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object.
ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un-
der the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter as
" The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and
facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and
improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and
experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life.
The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec-
tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on thii
establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833.
ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon.
Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of
divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in tht
apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the society
continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a body
politic and corporate, by the appellation of the "President, Council and
Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge.''
RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of th€
civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block-
aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the
Presbyterian party, whom he confined; above 160 more were excluded;
and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60, wera
tu? j
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
5ia
permit ted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights waa
called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump,
1649. — GoLdsrwith.
irSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of this
vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son
of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion
from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin-
guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap-
pellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians.
Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, a. d. 882, which is the earliest au-
thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian
king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos-
cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in
subjection till 1540, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In
the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered
Siberia.
The foundation of the present monarchy
laid A. D. 1474
Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in-
to the East, 1509 to - - - -1534
Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar,
signifying great kin^, and di-ives the
Tartars clear out of his dominions,
1534 to 1550
The navigation from England first dis-
covered by Robert Chancellor - - 1554
The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay
30,000 of the people - - - -1571
The Novogorodians having intrigued
with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief
inhabitants to be hewn into small pie-
ces before his eyes .... 1581
The race of Rurick, who had governed
Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1598
The imposition practised by Demetrius
See Impostors. 1606
The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their
own king, Sigismund II., upon the
throne of Russia .... 1610
Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of
Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613
Revolt from Polish tyranny . - - 1613
Finland ceded to Sweden - - . 1617
Reign of Peter I. or the Great • - 1682
He visited England, and worked in the
dock-yard at Deptford - . . 1697
Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex-
ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698
The Russians begin their new year
from January 1 . . . 1700
Peter builds St. Petersburg • - 1703
Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given
to Anne of Courland . . . 1730
Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns,
in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant,
who is imprisoned for life . . 1741
Peter III. dethroned and murdered ; suc-
ceeded by Catherine his wife, . 1762
TH£ CZARS,
1461 John m.
1504 Deinetrius; murdered.
1504 Basil V.
1534 John IV.
1584 Theodore I.
1598 Bovise Godounove.
1605 Theodore II.
1605 Demetrius 11. , assassinated.
The young prince, the rightful heir, till
now immured, put to death a. n. 1763
The dismemberment of Poland com-
menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177V
This perfidious robbery completed - 1795
Catherine gives her subjects a new code
of laws ; abolishes torture in punish-
ing criminals ; and dies - - 1796
Murder of the emperor Paul, who is
found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801
Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz,
by Napoleon - . Dec. 2, 1805
Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814
The grand-duke Constantine renounces
the right of succession . Jan. 26, 1822
The emperor Nicholas is crowned at
Moscow -• - - Sept. 3, 1826
Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, I82G
Nicholas invested with the order of the
Garter - - - July 9, 1827
Peace concluded between Russia and
the Persians - . Feb" 22, 1828
War between Russia and the Ottoman
Porte declared - . April 26, 1828
[For the disastrous consequences to
Turkey of this war, see Turkey and
Battles.]
The war for the independence of Poland,
against Russia - . Nov. 29, 1830
This war closed with the capture of
Warsaw, and the total overthrow of
the Poles. See Warsaw • Sept. 8, 1831
[For the events of this last war, see ar-
ticle Poland.]
Cracow, which had been erected into a
republic, and its independence gua-
ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in
1815, is occupied by a Russian and
Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836
Failure of the Russian expedition a-
gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 184Q
Treaty of London. See Syria • July 15, 1^)
OR EMPERORS OP RUSSIA.
1606 Chousky.
1616 Michael Fedorowits,
1646 Alexis.
1676 Theodore III.
1682 Peter I., the Great.
1725 Catherine I.
1727 Peter II.
1730 Anne, a nun.
22*
5l4 THE world's progress. [skw
1740 John V. ; murdered, Jtly 17, 1762.
1741 Elizabeth.
1762 Peter III. ; deposed, ami died soon af-
terwards.
RUSSIA, continued.
1762 Catherine II.
1796 Paul I. ; murdered, Feb 25, 1!»1.
1801 Alexander.
1825 Nicholas, December 1.
RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy t«
assassinate Charles 11. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards James
11.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarket.
This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at New-
market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight
days before the plot was to take place, March 22, 1683. The plot was discov-
ered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a
false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683.
RYSWICK, Peace of, concluded between England, France, Sp^-in, and Holland,
signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697.
SABBATH, The. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh
day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon-
dage of the Egyptians ; the Christians observe the first day of the week in
commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer-
sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be
kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at
break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a. d. 960. Act of parliament levying one
shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606.
Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626-. Act restraining the perform
ance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours,
meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture of
five shillings, 29 Charles IL 1677.
SABBATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts
of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the mo-
dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not
a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath
was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently
that it ought to be as rehgiously observed by the Christians as by the
Jews, 1549.
SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year,
during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every
forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates,
&c., that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families,
&c. — Josephus.
SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away
their daughters by force for wiveS; having made and invited them to some
public sports or shows on purpose ; when the Sabines were determined to
revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in belialf
of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be-
tween them, 750 b. c.
SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 b. c.
The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phoco-ans,
356 B. c. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all
the cities of the Phoceans, 348 b. c. — Plutaixh.
SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel; it con-
sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 b. c. — Josephus; UsJur.
Sacrifices to the gods were fii st introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of
JT. v.] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515
Argos, 1773 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated
with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and
other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacri-
fice of the Redeemer, a. d, 33.
JADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups,
which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use ia
the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in ^4. d. SO-l. They
were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in
ase in 1388. Anne, the queen of Richard IL, introduced them to the En-
glish ladies. — Siowe.
iADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one
Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine,
taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit; that the soul
was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead.
As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed 'u general with the Sama-
ritans, excepting that they were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This
sect began about 200 b. c. — Pardon.
JAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac-
cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im-
proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in
passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be
capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig-
nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is
Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are
authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in
Thomson'' s Annals of Philosophy, same year.
lAGUNTUM, Siege of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now
Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. c. The heroic citizens, after
exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the
ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt them-
selves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became
master of a pile of ashes and of dead.
>T. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or
America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called
Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for
his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of
discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492.
5T. SEBASTIAN'S, Siege op, by the British and allied army under lord Wel-
lington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most
heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins,
was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31
1813.
n\ SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub-
lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by
Justinian ; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe-
rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of
Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at
Rome.
5T. VINCENT, Battle op, between the Spanish and British fleets off the
Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St.
Vincent), who took four line-of- battle ships, and considerably damaged tb«
rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797.
516 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. . [ SAI*
SALAMANCA, Battle of, between the British and allies commanded by lord
Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought July 22,
1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington waa
victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in
killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy
was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11
pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed
to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar-
shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An
immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500
more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores.
SALAMIS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea-
fight, October 20, 480 b. c. Thomistocles, the Greek commander, with only
366 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, of over 1000, at the least. After
this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius,
with 300 000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re-
treat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont,
now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest.
SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit-
ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond. a. d. 424. Rati-
fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French
monarchy, in 511. — HenauWs France. In order to give more authority to
the xnaxira that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual
to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but
this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring
the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it.
SALT AND SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from
salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near
Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been
lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered
about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625, The fine
salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670.
SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They
were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and
were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple
built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be-
tween the people of Judea and Samaria, so that no intercourse took place
between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re-
proach, and as if it were a curse. — Lempriere.
SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one
entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety
of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre-
cincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons.
St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935; West-
minster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc-
tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were
privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup--
pressed in 1696.
SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At
first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the fool
from the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of
cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art, and made of the riche'^t
materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings,
princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn
by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where,
"arJ dictionary or datfs. 517
among- other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of
which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry
their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. Sea
Shoes.
lANDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They
were discc i^ered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na-
tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard
of mankind. It was in one of these islands that this illustrious circumna-
vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779.
Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives,
effected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha, chief of
Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihoriho, his son, succeeds
him, 1819. Idolatry abohshed, 1819. Rihoriho and his queen died in Eng-
land, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824, Mission established
by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000
pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit-
Thouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission-
aries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king, Dr. G. P. Jidd, an Ame-
rican, prime-minister, 18 . In 1831 there were 14 ships. 2630 tons, belong-
ing to the Islands — which are important to the United States as a whaling
station. See OwhyJiee.
ANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jiirisdictioU; of sev-
enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from
Numbers xi. 16. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John
xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon
at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan, 20, 1807.
APPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity-
lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her
amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth
of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid
her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c.
ARACENS, A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their
language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ;
and within 40 years after his death, in a. d. 631, they conquered a great part
of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 713 et seq. ; the
empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258,
— Blair. There are now no people known by this name ; the descendants
of those who subdued Spain are called Moors.
ARAGOSSA. Anciently Cassarea Augusta; whence, by corruption, its name.
Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin,
while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel, and
left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little
Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il-
luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of
the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa taken by
the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as re
nowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809.
ARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman
der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans ir
the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to th(
American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17
1777.
ARDANAPALTIS, The last king of Assyria. See Assyria. One of the most
5]8
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS
[SAl
infamous and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to
his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into
their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused
a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon
it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel,
and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apart-
ment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames.
This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches
thus destroyed were worth a tkoxcsand myriads oj talents of gold, and te\
TIMES as many talents of silver 111 about 1,400,000,000Z. sterling. — Alheneeus.
SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to
have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls
(when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) from
whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the
Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became a part of Lombardy,
from Avhom it Avas taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia has
been successively possessed by the Pbcenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi-
nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to\.hicli
various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin.
Subjugated by the Romans
B.c, 231
Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728
Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115
The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese,
who are. however, too weak to expel
the Saracens 1132
Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes
master of Sardinia - - - -1324
Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng-
lish naval forces - - - - 1708
Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717
They again lose possession - - - 1719
Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi-
valent for Sicily .... 1720
Victor Amade us, having the title of king
abdicates in favor of his son - a.d. 1730
Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is
taken, arid dies in prison - - - 1732
[The court kept at Turin till 1706, when
these dominions were overrun by the
French arms, and shortly afterwards
annexed to the French empire.]
The king resigns his crown to his bro-
ther, duke of Aoust - . .June 4, 1802
Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona-
parte crowned king of the whole.
December 26, 1805
Restored to its rightful sovereign, with
Genoa added to it December 1814
King Charles Albert, having protested
against Austrian encroachments in
Italy, calls out an additional force of
25,000 men - - - Jan. 10, 1&48
Proclaims the basis of a Constitution
Feb. 8, 1848
Declares war against Austria, enters
Milan with ah army, to assist the po-
pular cause, and drives the Austrians
towards Mantua - - March 23, 184S
Takes Lodi - - . . April 1, ****
Forces the Austrian line near Verona,
April 17, •**•
Takes Peschiara - -- -May30, ****
Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky,
|it Goito *'*•
Sardmian army driven from Vicenza,
Verona, the Adige, &c., June-July - 1848
Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of
Milan Aug. 4. **'*
Followed by an armistice - - .:****
Rupture of the armistice - - March 1849
Battle of Novara ; the Sardinians under
Charles Albert, totally defeated by
Radetsky ****
The king abdicates m favor of his son,
Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and
leaves the kingdom - March 23, ****
Insurection at Genoa against the new
king April 1, *'*'
Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, ****
and fully reduced - - April 11, ****
Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis-
bon July 28, •**•
Victor Emanuel opens the legislative
chamber with a moderate speech, and
is warmly greeted - Aug. 1. ****
Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, **'•
The chamber votes 100,000 livres to re-
lieve the refugees fom various parts
of Italy - • Aug30, ""
KINGS OF SARDINIA.
A.n. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- I 1802. Victor Emanuel,
nuel duke of Savoy. | 1821. Charles Felix.
1730. Charles Emanuel I 1831. Charles Albert, AprL 27.
1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 1848. Victor Emanuel
1796. Charles Emanuel. |
SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its
appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius. who was so celebrated in
this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116
aw] dictionary of dates. 519
B. c. — Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand : we
may compare him to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, ac-
companied with mire and dirt. — Horace.
ATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with
the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol
worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was
named by them Saterne's-day.— Par^oTi. It is more probably from Saturn,
die^ Saturni. — Addison.
ATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the
sun, and its diameter to be 89.170 miles. His satellites were discovered bj
Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c., by Huygens in 1G34 ;
his fifth satellite by the same in 1655 ; and his sixth and seventh by
Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the
planets.
ATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long
before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and
equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some,
however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in . h<;
reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while
others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from
whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they wei-e first
celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu-
mius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were
encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased
to their masters with impunity. — Lengleb.
AVINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having ac-
cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was
adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an
extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks
to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed.
Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings
banks considerably increased up to 1846 ; and the number of depositors in
that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount
deposited, 32 661,924Z. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi-
ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous
throughout the United States.
AVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d.
395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till
1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title
of earl. Amadeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi-
nions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor
Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, from
Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of
Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country
in 1792. and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont
Blanc, in 1800.
AW. Invented by Daedalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — ApoUodorus. Ta-
lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it.
Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century ; but he
e-rs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau,' in 1427.
P\'orway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador
from Miry of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there,
1555. In England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Tur-
key, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them were
520 THE world's PROGRESiS. [ SUB
violently opposed ; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be
abandoned.
S_A XONY. The royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied
to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the
same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than
two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423, Saxony, which had been for mauy
centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick
Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his
brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au-
gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became
the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at
Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849, Insurgents put
down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849,
SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, The name given to a special statute relating
to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land,
such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other
great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements,
false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,, 1378.
SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pja-rho, 334 b. c.
Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything,
never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject,
and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence.
As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life
and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he
did not hurry himself out -of the world 1 "Because," says he, "there
is no difference between life and death," Timon was one of the chief fol-
lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. —
Strabo.
SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the
earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ;
they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was
the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. c. The
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481, — Lt
Gendre.
SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc-
tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. —
Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scully. In Eng-
land there are now 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the
education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro-
chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday
schools) 4.836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of
schools in Wales is 841. and the number of children 38,164: in Ireland,
13.327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of
public schools is very generally and efiectively supported. The school- fund
in Maine amounts to $350,000 ; in Massachusetts, S850.000 ; in Connecticut,
S2.077.641; New York, S6.491.803; New Jersey, S369.278 ; Delaware,
S225,000; Virginia. SI. 448.261; Georgia, $262,300; Alabama, $1215,381 ;
Tennessee, $1346.068; Kentucky, $1,221,819; Ohio, $1,566 931; Michigan,
$500,000 ; Indiana. $2,195,149 ; Missouri, $575,668; Iowa, $132,909. Total
in 1849, $21,420,275. In the State of New York the number of District
School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libraries, &c,
SCIENCE IN THE United States. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752.
American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, 1780. First ;ourse of Chemical Lectures in the United
States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of
liT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 52 J
Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Sciecce, formed, 1845.
CILLY ISLES. They held commerce with tlie Phoenicians. They are men-
tioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck
of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This
brave admiral returniug from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these
rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Association, in which
were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went
instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the Romneyimd
Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped, Oct. 22, 1707. Sir
Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in
Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory,
GOTLAND, See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire
was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued
an independent kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth,
when James VI. of Scotland, the most immediate heir, was called to the
throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc-
cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each
country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of
queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name e/
Great Britain. See E^igland and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., et seq.
CREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumping-
screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 b. c,
is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the
screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the
two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each
handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going round will be
seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch,
the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the
assistance of this screw, press down or raise up as much as 150 men could
do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the
spirals and the length of the handles. — Greig.
CULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty.
The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by
others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 b. c, and
sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach
to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. According to sacred history, Bezaleel
and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the
vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and
their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus xxxi. Dipoenus and
Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, establislied a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of
them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues
before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, however, can only be fact
so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern countries the art
was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making
his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were
so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in
gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the
Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of
the sister art, painting, it revived also; and Donate di Bardi, born at
Florence, a. d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculp-
ture was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460. —
Ahb6 Lenglet.
5CYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and
Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and
522 THE world's progress. [ SEN
Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uuinhabited, on account
of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were
unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast
tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The. Scythians made
several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c.
624 when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight
years ; and we find them at ditferent periods extending their conquests in
Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ
they invaded the Roman empire.
SEAS Sovereignty of the. The claim of England is of very ancient date.
Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain,
and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England
over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken
by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1633. The Dutch, after the death
of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated
by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed,
to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag.
SECRETARY of STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1529,
Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign two secretaries were appointed ;
and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for
Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside : but in the
reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the
American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par-
liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the
secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of
State of the United States was Thomas Jefierson, appointed by Washmgton,
Sept. 26. 1789. For his successors see Administi-ations. There is a Secre-
tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected
by the people.
SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of
things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all
others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula-
tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi-
sion, with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. BalH.
Jews .... 4,500,000 I Idolaters, &c., not professing the
Christians - • - - 225,000,000 Jewish, Christian, or Maho-
Mahometans - - - 155,000,000 | nietan worship - • 665,500,000
S^IDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first
seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by
the duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, who ex-
claimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of
beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Fran-
cis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of
such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use
in 1649.
SEDUCTION. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other
punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And
even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in
the world ; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss
of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing. — Paley's
Moral Philosophy. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by
the legislature of New York in 1844.
*SEMPACH. Battle of, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The
heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable vic-
tory over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they es-
ex] dictionary of dates. 52^
tablishe i the liberty of their country ; and it is still annually commemo*
rated with great solemnity at Sempach.
EPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the
seventh from March, whence its name, from septimus, seventh. It became
the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by
Numa, 713 b. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name
of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his
own name, Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of
Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor
lacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into
disuse.
EPTUAGINT VERSION of the BIBLE, made 277 b. c. Seventy-two trans-
lators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; and
on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or
letter. — Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pen-
tateuch ; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Pto-
lemy gave the Jews about a million sterling for a copy of the T.'^sta: aent,
and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. — Jo&efhus.
Finished in seventy-two days. — Hewlett.
ERINGAPATAM, Battles of, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the
British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts
were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792.
After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed
to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 33,0U0,000 of rupees (about
3,300,000^. sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his
two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived be-
fore Seringapatam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April
14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4,
same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See India.
ERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily
attested, was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus
along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many
of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its skin was
afterM'ards seen by Pliny in the capitol at Rome.— Pliny. The American
papers have frequently chronicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the
coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes from
Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, whicli
was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an
Orkney pony, 1808.
ERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in
1775. This tax was augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants
was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on
servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000Z. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue
from it had fallen to 201,482^.
EVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at
Madrid, a. d. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the PhcEnicians, and the
Julia of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and
Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov.
9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken by
assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27,
1812.
EXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains
sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude ol
the planets, &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh,
524
THE world's progress.
[Slil
iu 1550.— Fmce's Astron. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are
said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about a. d.
995.— Ashe.
SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed
being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved
detrimental to our Avoollen manufacture, 8 Edward IV. 1467. — Aiiderson.
Their exportation prohibited on pain of fine and imprisonment, 1522. The
number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated — by some
at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840.
SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from shire-reve, governor of a shire oi
county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I.^ reign ; but some say
that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by William
in 1079.
SHERIFFMUIR, Battle of, between the royal army under the duke of Ar-
gyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier
ae St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar; the insur-
gents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The
battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same
cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715.
SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inven-
tors ; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece
by Danaus, 1485 b. c. — Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by
the Tyrians, 786 b. c. — Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in Eng-
land was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509 ; it was called
the Great Harry, and cost 14,000l — Stowe. Before this time 24-gun ships
were the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being
on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented
by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about
1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74-
gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed
with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping
of the United States — especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from
New York— are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the
Avorld. See Navy and Steam Vessels. '■
SHIPPING OF Great Britain and Ireland. Shipping was first registered in the
river Thames in 1786 ; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle
of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons
— less than London now. In 1840, the number of ships in the British em-
pire was 29,174 ; tonnage, 3,277,338 ; seamen, 205,904. These returns were
exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Steam Vessels.
SHIPPING OF THE UNITED STATES.
Years.
Tonnage.
502,146
Yea7-s.
Tonnage.
1791
1806
1,208,735
1792
564,437
1807
1.268,548
1793
491,780
1808
1,242,595
1794
628.817
1809
1,360,281
1795
747,964
1810
1,424,783
1796
831,900
1811
. 1,232,502
1797
876,913
1812
1,269,997
1798
898,328
1813
1,666.628
1799
946,408
1814
1,159:209
1800
972,492
1815
1,368.127
1801
1,033,219
1816
1,372:218
1802
892,101
1S17
1,399:911
1803
949,147
1818
. 1,225,184
1804
. 1,042,404
1819
■ 1,260.751
1805
1,140,369
1820
. 1,280,166
Quage at different periods.
Years.
Tonnage.
1,298,958
Years.
Tonnage.
1,824,940
1821
1835
1822
1,324,699
1836
1,892,102
1823
1,336,565
1837
1,896,685
1824
1,339,163
1838 .. .
1,995,635
1825
1,423,112
1839
2,096,478
1826
1,534,190
1840
2,180,764
1827
1,620,608
1841
2,130,741
1828
1,741,392
1842
2,092,390
1829
- 1,260,978
1S43
2,158,602
1830
- 1,191,776
1844
2,280,095
1831
- 1,267,846
1845
2,417,002
1832
- 1,439,450
1&J6
2,562,084
1833
- 1,601.150
1847
2,839, MC
1834
- 1,758,907
1»18
3,150,o0&
SHR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525
SHIP-MONEY It was first levied a. d. 1007, and caused great commotions.
This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolu-
tion. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men ;
Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,000Z. ; Bristol in one ship of 100
tons ; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp-
den for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place
in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641.
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died Juue
24, 1643.
SHIPWRECKS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See Wrecks of Shipping.
SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener-
ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du Presnoy.
Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of
Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period
from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans. —
Stowe.
SHOES. Among the Jews they were made of leather, linen, rush, or is'ood.
Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah
iii. 18. Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would
have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably, that
they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they re-
frained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by
women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their
shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians,
like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In Eng-
land the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet ; they wore
the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves
in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen
fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces.
This custom was in vogue from a. d. 1462, but was prohibited, on the for-
feiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edward IV. 1467.
See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The
buckle was not used till 1668. — Stowe; Mortimer.
SHOP-TAX, IN England. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops
was passed in 1785 ; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in
London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute
whereby shop-lifting was made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was
passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See
Acts.
SHREWSBURY, Battle of, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the
army of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of
Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army con-
sisted of about 12.000 men, and the engagement was most bloody. Henry
was seen every where in the thickest of the fight ; while his valliant son,
Avho was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side,
and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and per-
formed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur
supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and
every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300
gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspur
by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory
to the king, July 21, 1403. — Hume. [See Shakspeare's Henry /F.]
SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated,
and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the
treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, a. d. 61
526
THE world's progress.
[ SIC
Wh ile Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by
the splendors that surrounded him. " Alas !" he cried, " how is it possible
that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me an
humble cottage in Britain 1" The emperor was affected with the British
hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained
upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. — Goldsmith.
SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made con-
fession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were per-
mitted to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to partake
of any repast beyond the usual substitutes for flesh ; and hen'ce arose the
custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek
Christians eating eggs, milk, &.c. during the first week in Lent. On these
days of authorized indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated,
provided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church ;
and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in
every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins ; and the
parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient par-
ishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the
name of pancake- bell. Observed as a festival before 1430,
SIBYLS. The Sibyllas were certain women inspired by heaven, who flourished
in different parts of the world. Their immber is unknown. Plato speaks
of one, others of two, Pliny of three, ^lian of four, and Varro of tea, an
opinion wliich is universall}" adopted by the learned. An Erythrean ssbyl is
said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman desti-
nies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon
the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for
the other six, which being still denied, she burned three more, and again
demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin, conferring
with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created
to consult them on all occasions, 531 b. c.
SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani,
a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 b. c. A
second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy,
1264 B. c. — Lenglet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here,
and at last the Carthaginians became masters of the whole island, till they
were dispossessed of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some authors
suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was
separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charyb-
dis were formed. — Justin ; Livy.
Arrival of Ulysses. — Homer - - b.c.
He puts out the eye of Polyphemus
Syracuse founded. — Eusebius
Gala founded. — Thucydides
Arrival of the Messenians -
Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to
death. — See Brazen Bull
nippociates becomes tyrant of Gela
Law of Petalism instituted
Rsigii of Dionysius - - - -
O Tended with the freedom of the philo-
si^iher Plato, the tyrant sells him for a
slave. — Stanley ....
1186
1186
732
713
Plato ransomed bj
friends
Damon and Pythias flourish.— See Damon
and Pythias .... 386
The sway of Timoleon - - • - 346
Usurpaticm of Agathocles - ■ - 317
Defeat of Hamilcar - - - 309
Pillage of the temples of Lepari • 304
The Romans arrive m Sicily - b. o.
Agrigentum taken by the Romans
Palermo besieged by the Romans
Archimedes flourishes
The Romans take Syracuse, and make ail
Sicily a province - - - -
The servile war began.— X-fry
264
202
254
236
212
135
Conquered by the Saracens - a.d. 821
[They made Palermo the capital, and the
standard of Mahomet triumphed for 200
years.]
They are driven out by a Norman \ rince,
Roger I., son of Tancred, who takes the
title of count of Sisiiy - - - 1080
Roger II., son of the above-named, unites
Sicily with Naples, and is crowned kmg
of the Two Sicilies - - - 1130
Charles of Anjou, brother to St. Louis, king
of France, ^onquers Naples and Sicily.
6IE J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
527
SICILY, continued.
depoijes the Norman princes, and makes
himself king - - . A. d. 1266
The French becoming hated by the Sici-
lians, a general massacre of the invaders
takes place, one Frenchman only escap-
ing.— See Sicilian Vespers - • 12S8
la the same year Sicily is seized by a fleet
sent by the kings of Arragon, in Spain ;
but Naples remains to the house of An-
jou, which expires - - - 138'2
Jane, the late sovereign, having left her
crown to Louis, duke of Anjou, his pre-
tensions are resisted by Charles Du
raxzo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the
throne - - - - - - 1386
Aiphonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses-
sion of Naples - - - - 1458
Thj kingdom of Naples and Sicily united
ti> the Spanish monarchy - - - 1504
The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an
insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a
fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises
two hundred thousand men - - 1647
Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage of
these commotions, procures himself to
be proclaimed king ; but is, in a few
days, delivered up to the Spaniards by
his adherents - - - - - 1647
Ceded to Victor, duke of Savoy, by the
treaty of Utrecht - - A. d. 1713
Ceded by him to the emperor Charles VI,,
Sardinia being given to him as an equi-
valent - - - - - 172<
The Spaniards having made themselves
masters of both kingdoms, Charles, son
of the king of Spain, ascends the tnrone,
with the ancient title renewed, of king
of the Two Sicilies - - - ITei-i
Order of St. .Januarius instituted by king
Charles 1738
The throne of Spain becoming vacant,
Charles, who is heir, vacates tiie throne
of the two Sicilies in favor ol his brother
Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty - - 17' 3
Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily,
which destroys 40,000 persons - -I7S3
Naples preserved from the power of the
French by the British forces under admi-
ral Nelson - - - - li 99
Violent earthquake in the neighborhood
of Naples .... .\&05
The French invade Naples, depose 1* ng
Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of ,Jie
Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro-
ther to the emperor of the French - 180&
For subsequent events, see Naples.
KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES.
A..D. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he
resigned it to the emperor Charles
VI., in 1718, and got Sardinia in
lieu of it.
1718. Charles VI. emperor.
1734. Charles, second son to the king of
Spain, resigned in 1759.
1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former
king.
1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte.
1808. Joachim Murat ; he was shot, October 13,
1815.
1815. Ferdinand I. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of
Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand
III. of Sicily ; now of the United King-
dom of the Two Sicilies.
1826. Francis I.
1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8.
SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known
by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had
become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy ag-ainst Charles of Anjou
was already ripe, when the following- occurrence led to develop and accom-
plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa-
lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride
happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet. a
Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under
pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this af-
front, stabbed him with his own sword ; "and a tumult ensuing, 200 French
were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city,
crying out "Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age,
or sex. they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number oi
8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there — the
massacre became general throughout the island.
SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out
for nineteen years. — Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus.
This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege
of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 b. c. The fol-
lowing are the principal and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cen
tury :—
Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona-
parte ; siege raised after
60 days, open trenches.
Algesiras, 1341.
Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vessela
first used by a French en-
. gineer named Renau, 1816
Alkmaer, 1573.
Almeida, August 27, ISlO.
Amiens, 1597.
Ancona, 1798.
Angouleme, 1?^.
628
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Stt
SIEGES, continued.
Antwerp, 1576. I 'se of in-
fernal machines 15S3, 15S5
1706, 1792, 1814.
Arras, 1414.
Ath, 1745.
Avignon, 1226.
Azoff, 1736.
Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta-
ken by escalade on the
night of April 6, 1812.
Bagdad, 1248.
Bangalore, March 6, 1791.
Barcelona, 1697, 1714.
Bayonne, 1451.
Beauvais, 1472.
Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521,
1688, 1717, 1739, 17S9,
Bellegarde, 1793, 1794.
Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761.
Bersen-op-Zoom, 1588, 1622,
1747, 1814.
Berwick, 1293.
Besancon, 1668, 1674.
Bethune, 1710.
Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794.
Bologna, 1512, 1796.
Bommel; the invention of
the covert-way, 1794.
Bonifacio, 1553.
Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703
Bordeaux, 1451, 1653.
Bouchain, 1676, 1711.
Boulogne, 1545.
Brannau, 1744, 1805.
Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793.
Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799.
Breslau, .Tan. 8, 1807.
Brisac, 163S, 170-3.
Brussels, 1695, 1746.
Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686.
Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22,
1812 ; raised. The French
in their retreat blew up the
works, .Tune 13, 1813.
Cadiz, 1812.
Caen, 1346, 1450.
Calais, 1347, (British histo-
rians affirm that cannon
were used at Cressy, 1346,
and here in 1347. First
used here in 1-388. — Ry-
mer's Fced.) 1558, 1596.
Calvi, 1794.
Campo-Mayor,Mar. 23,1811.
Candia ; the lar^st cannon
then known inEurope used
here by the Turks, 1667.
Capua, 1501.
Carthagena, 1706.
Castillon, 1452, 1586.
Ceuta, 1790.
Chalons, 1199.
Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693,
1736, 1794.
Ckartres, 1568, 1-591.
Chaves, March 25, 1809.
Cherboursr. 1450.
ChincilIa,''Oct. 30, 1812.
Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706 ; July
10, 1810 ; Jan. 19, 1812.
Colberg, 1760, 1807.
Colchester, 1645.
Compicgne (Joan of Arc),
1430.
Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794.
Coni, 1691, 1744.
Constantinople, 1453.
Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807.
Corfu, 1715.
Courtray, 1302, et seq. 1794.
Cracow, 1772.
Cremona, 1702.
Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813
to Jan. 12, 1814.
Dendermonde, 1667.
Dole, 1668, 1674.
Douay, 1710.
Dover, 1216.
Dresden, 1745, 1813.
Drogheda, 1649.
Dublin, 1500.
Dunkirk, 1646, 1793.
Edinburgh, 1093.
Fi2ueras. Aug. 19,1811.
Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809.
Foutenoy, 1242.
fi'rnderickshal ; Charles XII.
killed, 1718.
Frederickstein, August 13,
1814.
Fumes, 1675, 1744, 1793.
Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799,
July, 1806, 1815.
Genoa 1747, 1800.
Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809.
Ghent, 1576, 1708.
Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See
Gibraltar), 1782.
Glatz, 1742, 1807.
Gotlingen, 1760.
Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794.
Gravelines, 1644
Grenada. 1491, 1492.
Groningen, 1580, 1672, 1795.
Guastalla, 1702.
Gueldres, 1637, 1640, 1703.
Haerlem, 1572, 1573.
Ham, 1411.
Harfleur. 1415, 1450.
Heidelberg, 1688.
Herat, June 28, 1838.
Huningen, 1815.
Ismael: the merciless Suwar-
roio butchered 30,000 men,
the brave garrison, and
6000 loornen, in cold blood,
Dec. 22, 1790.
Kehl, 1733, 1796.
Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713,
1792, and 1793.
Landrecis, 1543, 1712.
Laon, 991, 1-594.
I^ipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813.
Lemberg, 1704.
Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807.
Leyden, 1-574.
Liege, 1468. 1702.
Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792.
Lilo, 1747.
Limerick, 1651, 1691.
Londonderry, 1689.
Louisbourff, 1758.
Lyons, 1793.
Maestricht. 1576, 1673. Vau-
ban first came into notte%
1676, 1743, 1794. ^
Magdebourg, 1631, 1806.
Malaga, 1487.
Malta, 15G5, 1798, 1800.
Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799.
Marseilles, 1544.
Memz, by Charles V., \!h)L
1689, 1792 et seq., 1797.
Melun, 1420, 1559.
Menin, 1706, 1744.
Mequinenza, June 8, 1810.
Messina, 1282, 1719.
Metz, 1552.
MeziJres, 1521.
Middleburgh, 1572.
Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 174&
1792, 1794.
Mcntargis, 1427.
Moniauoan, 1621.
Montevideo, .Ian. iSOS.
Mothe : theFrench, taught b^
a Mr. Muller, an English
engineer, first practised ths
art of throwing shells. 1634.
Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811.
Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792.
Naples, 1-381, 1435, 1504, 1557,
1792, 1799, 1806.
Nice, 1705.
Nieuport, 1745, 1794.
Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811.
Olmutz, 1758.
Orleans, 1423, 1563.
Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745.
Oudenarde, 1708, 1745.
Padua, 1509.
Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813.
Paris, 1429, 1485, 1594.
Parma 1248.
Pa via, 1525, 1655, 1796.
Perpignan, 1542, 1642.
Philipville, 1578.
Philipsburg, 1644, 1675, 1688,
first experiment of firing
artillery a-ricochet, 1734,
1795.
Plaltsburg, Sept. 11, 1814.
Pondicherry, 1748, 1792.
Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744.
Puebla, (col. Child) 1847.
Quesnoy, 1794.
Rennes, 1357.
Rheims, 1359.
Rhodes, 1522.
Riga, 1700, 1710.
Rochelle, 1573, 1627.
Rome, 1527, 1798.
Romorentin ; artillery firm
used in sieges -Volta.i*s.
1256.
Rosas, 1645. 1795, 1808.
Rouen. 1449, 1562, 1591.
Roxburgh, 1460.
St. Sebastian. Sept. 8, 1813.
Salamanca, June 27 1812,
Salisbury, 1349.
Saragossa, 1710, 1809.
Saverne, 1675.
Schweidnitz ; first experi-
ment to reduce afortreM
sil]
IICTIONARY Oi DATES.
529
SIEGES, continued.
by springing globes of com-
pression, 1762, 1807.
Scio (see Greece), 1822.
beringapatam. 1799.
Seville 1096, 1248.
Sinolensko, 1611.
Sois.sons, 1414.
Stralsund ; the method of
throwing red hot balls first
practised -with certainty.
167.5^13, 1807.
Tarifa. Dec. 20, 1811.
Tarragona, May 1813.
Temeswar, 1716.
Thionville, 1643, 1792.
Thorn, 1703.
Thouars, 1372, 1793.
Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811.
Toulon, 1707, 1793,
Toulouse, 1217.
Tournay, 1340, 1352, 1581,
1667, 1709, (this was the
best defence ever drawn
from countermines), 1745,
1794.
Treves, 1675.
Tunis, 1270, 1535
Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799.
Urbino, 1799.
Valencia, Dec. 25, 18L1.
Valencienes, 1677, 17&4.
Vannes, 1-343.
Venloo, 1702, 1794.
Verdun, 1792.
Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1847
Vienna, 1529, 1683.
Wakefield, 1460.
Warsaw, Sepi, 8, 1831.
Xativa, I7U7.
Xeres, 1262.
Ypres, 1648, 1744, 1794.
Zurich, 1544.
Zutphen, 1572, 1586.
slEKilA LEONE. Discovered in a. d. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with
free negroes living- in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites,
mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra
Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786.
The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives,
February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder-
ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824.
5ILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at
Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the
use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves
by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of
silk, A. D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for
weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees.
Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char-
lemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780.
The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130,
when the Sicilians not only bred the silk- worms, but spun and weaved the
silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south
of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., about 1510 ; and Henry IV.
propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1589.
In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at
Kenilworth Castle. 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534.
Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in
1620. Brought to perfection by the French refugees in London, at Spital-
fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at
Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori-
ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714.
sILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other
ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America
are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in
1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel.
In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a
mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum
at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680^. In England silver-plato
and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty
and ambitious man, a. d. 709. — TijrelVs Hist, of England. Silver knives,
spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300.
SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say ; others, by
Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius I'ictor,
269 B. c. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which
were 22^ grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin
in England. See Shillings, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive,
23
530 THE world's PRC&RESS. I t*L*
were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 15s. in silver, being a yearly
average of 444,330^.— ParZ. Ret.
SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder
Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome
about A. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he
had many followers, a. d. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprufig up . in
France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and
the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu-
larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, held Jan.
24, 1834.
SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very ancien, custom both
among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which
was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode
and circumsiance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the
empress Justina, mother of the then j^oung Valentinian II. a. d. 386, eccle-
siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it
was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern
nations, that the devout might not languish and pitft away with y tedious
sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of
the world. — St. Augustin. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the churcb
music, and made it more exact and harmonious; and that it might be ge-
neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 602.
SIRNAMES, first came up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and
distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be-
nefactor ; Philopater, lover of his father ; PhUometer^ lover of his mother,
&c. Strato was surnamed Pkysicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris-
tides was called the Just; Phocion the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee;
Xenophon, the Attic Muse; Aristotle, the Stagyrite ; Pythagoras, the Samian
Sage ; Menedsemus, the Eretrian Butt; Democritus, the Laughing Philoso-
pher; Virgil, the Mantuan Swain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng-
land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, a. d. 1100. The old
Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O,
for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed
Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the
father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such
as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and
other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435.—
Rymer^s Fmdera, vol. x.
SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi-
nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia,
and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven.
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves.
The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and
butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their
proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only,
they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold
the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 335 b. c. See
Helots.
SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a
great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast.
By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent
debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their ser\i")es or labor, they
had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave
!him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampieys, 42 b. c.
CsBcilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves 12 b. c.
Bi.A J DICTIONARY OF DATEb. 53 (
SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known; and laws respect-
ing the sale of slaves wa^ made by Alfred. The English peasantry v/ere sc
commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were
sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire-
land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a
runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before
two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and
adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take
the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and
cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within that
space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead
or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second
desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck«
arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, ind, on running
away, become a slave to his master, 1547.
81^ VE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the
Portuguese in 1481 Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone,
describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized
a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four
millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the
Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri-
soners for the Christian market. The Abbe Rajmal computes that, at the
time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans,
"Add 1 000,000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr.
Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 1768.
the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786,
the annual number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last j^ear of the
English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by
government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500 000 Africans had been torn
from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been
sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave
trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade,
allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives
of Great Britain, France, Austria. Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841.
King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct.
9, 1847.
SLAVE TRADE op ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, Avas
the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic
of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring
negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the V/est
Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the
colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should
" Europeaji avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures-
■fccollecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and
hat a filth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning. — (Joopbr's I.etters on the Slavs
rsADE. " But," says Butler, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with im-
junuy. Not only its pro.secution, but its effects have in some measure called down upon us tha
rowns and the judgments of heaven.
" By foreign wealth are British morals changed,
And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged."
[.13 trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United
States in 1807. By England (see above) in 1807, The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it, February
815. Napoleon," in the hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain,
S17; with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic continue*
0 be encoiraged in several states. — Haydn.
532
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[ :-5IU
be devoutly and duly served, according- to the rites of tlie Church of Eng-
land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and
Lhat the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of merchantabU
negroes, at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships,
and carried off 42, 000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ;
and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe-
riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of
slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to
770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament
in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The
motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798.
After several other efforts of humane and just UKn, the question Avas
. introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then minis-
ters. March 31, 1806 ; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament,
March 25, 1807.
SLAVERY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe.
Many of the early navigators to Ame-
rica, including Columbus himself,
carried considerable numbers of the
aborigines to Europe, where they
were sold into slavery. Queen Isa-
bella commanded the liberation of
Indians held in bondage in her pos-
sessions, in - - - - 1501
— but the next t^ear the slavery of .n-
dians was re^-ognized as lawful ; and
the practice of selling the natives of
North America into foreign bondage
continued for neai'ly two centuries.
The excellent Winthrop enumerates
Indians among his bequests. — Ban-
croft.
SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES.
The first negro slaves in the English
colonies of North America were
brought to Virginia in a Dutch vessel
of war - - . - -
Negroes " who had been fraudulently
brought from Guinea" to Massachu-
setts (the first in New England), were
sent home at the public expense by
the general court of that colony
Gorton and Roger Williams made a de-
ci'ee against slavery in Rhode Island
White slaves were sold in England, to
be transported to Virginia : average
price for 5 years' service, £Jb — while
a negro was worth £25. — Bancroft -
Virginia had one slave to 50 whites -
The Quakers abolished slavery among
themselves . . . .
Resolutions against the slave trade
passed by the first congress of the
colonies . . . .
Act against the external slave trade
passed by congress of the United
Slates - - . - -
See Slave Trade.
[Slavery had been already prohibited
in most of the northern States in their
constitutions.]
Act of congress against fitting out ves-
sels for slave trade - " - - 1794
Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni-
ted States I'rom holding property in
foreign slave vessels. United States
1646 vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1801'
Act forbidding, under heavy penalties,
1652 the introduction of slaves into the
United States - - - - 180
Act declaring the slave trade piracy,
punishable with death - - 1820
1672 [Slavery has, however, been continued
1650 in thirteen of the States. See Mis-
souri.']
1754 The number of slaves in the United
States in 1790 was - - - 697,697
In 1800 - - - -• - - 896,84S
In 1810 1,191,364
In 1820 1,538,064
In 1830 2,010,436
1789 In 1840 2,487,355
&LAVES, Emancipation of. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the
British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted
slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser-
vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20,000,000Z. sterlings
passed 3 and 4 William IV.. Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act,
slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280
slaves became free.
SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day
attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con-
tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says ho
slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, he found eveiy object so al-
tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 years,
SOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 533
696 B. c. We have manj , and even very late, instances of persons in
these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months.
SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the
snmll-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated Avith perfect
success at Adrianople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by Avay of experiment,
to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned.
Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of Dr.
Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pie-
sent building was not opened till 1756. See Lwctdation and Vaccino.tion,
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithaon, a ?ia.
tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left ^100,000
" to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress
accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment of the trust, 1846,
Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847.
SMOLENSKO, Battle of. One of the most memorable of the celebrated
Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The
French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but
they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city,
which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli,
the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor
Alexander, because he retreated after the battle,, and Kutusotf succeeded
to the command, Aug. 17, 1812.
SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to
enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they af-
terwards became a branch of the public revenue, A severe penalty against
smuggling was enacted in 1736.
SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures
made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo
in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice
soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider-
ably more than 3,000,0000Z. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840,
there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were
entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88,263/!. See Tobacco.
SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express
mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be
an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap.
In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon
in water. Nausicaa and her attendants. Homer tells us, washed theirs by
treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi.
The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it
was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound.
SOBRAON, Battle of ; India. The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir
Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene^
my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ;
and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear,
the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and
more than 10.000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British
loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846.
SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thouars, and
queen Pomare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by
the French government.
SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that al!
men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or-
&34 THE world's progress.
LSOR
gani <ed on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, in
all ages and nations : by Pythagoras b. c. 466, and Plato b. c. 422, amonxj
the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among tho
Jews ; by the first Christians a. d. 34 ; by several of the fathers of tho
Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, a. d. 1515 ; by Campunella^
A. D. 1623 ; and by Babeau, in France, a. d. ; but the principal modern
teachers of it have been Charles Fourier, who was born at Besan^on in 1772 ;
and who published a variety of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri
St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris, in a.d. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of
England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instru
mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France,
England, and the United States, where socialism, in different forms, has a
considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made
by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize
labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious
sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and Ihe Shakers,
adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements.
SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and Lae^Jus Socinus.
They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before h^^
was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct per-
son; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ
died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc-
trines with his death. Original sin, grace, and predestination they treated
as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about a. d. 1560. — Pardon.
SODOM AND GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroj^ed
by fire from heaven. 1897 b. c. — BMe, Blair, Usher. The offence of sodomy
was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri-
minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive.
The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry
VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by
statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562.
SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga-
tions and vliscoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught
by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 b. c. In his system of the universe ho
placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits
round it — a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in-
quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most
accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha-
goras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copernican
system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695.
How truly the poet says —
" He who through vast immensity can pierce,
See worlds on worlds compose one universe,
Observe how system into system runs,
What other planets circle other suns,
What varied beings people every star.
May tell why Heaven has made us what we are."— Pope.
SOI,OMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance
from Egypt, 1012 b. c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, October
30, 1004 B. c, being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer. — Usier^
Lenglet.
SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions.
33 Henry VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 5 Eli-
zabeth, 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversiog
with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instances
of the punishment of son erers, see Witchcraft.
SPA j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 535
SOUDAN OR SOUJAH. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs,
which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards
made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora-
dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt,
A. D. 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym.
30UND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when
the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated.
Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ;
Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were
fired under many varieties of weather In 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet.
The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles
on the sea. See Acoustics.
SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. (Edipus, took extraordinary
soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena,
where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was
made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300
mile from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounaed ; the
weight employed amounted to 450 lbs., 1840.
SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States ; first settlement was made
under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671 ; re-
ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict
of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England establislied by law, 1703 ; proprietary
government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo-
ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par-
liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South
Carolina ; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times.
This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active
in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by
the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution
adopted May 23. 1788, by 149 to 73; "nullification ordinance" passed
Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249 000 ; in 1810, 415,115 ; in 1830,
581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves.
S>OUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in
1710 ; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which
ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates,
to the value of 2.014,000Z. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier,
absconded with 100,000Z. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10,000Z., and
returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king-
dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The
artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of lOOL, to the
enormous price of lOOOZ. See Law^s Bubble.
SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c.
SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal,
fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively
planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole coun-
try. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals,
Alans, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foun-
dation of the present monarchy. See Tabular Views, p. 65, et scq.
The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain
from the Romans - - a. d. 412
The Visigoths enter Spain under their
leader, E uric - - - - 472
The Sai-acens from Arabia invade the
country - - - 713 et seq.
Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed
king of Asturixs - - 718
Alphonsus II. refusing to pay the Sara-
cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins,
war is declared ; Alphonsus is victo-
rious, and obtains the appellation of
" the chaste" - - a. d. 791 at seq.
Inigo, first king of Navarre, «fcc. • 8*
Ferdinand I, count of Castile, takes tb<?
title of king - - - KQl
536
THE world's .•R0GRE5S.
I »Pi
SPAIN, continued.
Union of Navarre and Castile - a. d. 1031
The kinsilom of Airagon commenced
urtder Ramirez I. - - - - 1035
Leon and Astiirias united to Castile - 1037
Portugal taken from the Saracens by
Henry of Bourbon • - -1087
The Saracens, beset on all sides by the
Christians, call in the aid of the Moors
from Africa, who seize the dominions
they came to protect, and subdue the
Saracens - - - 1091 et seq
The Moors defeated in several battles
by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - - 1118
Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one
great pitched battle - - -1135
University of Salamanca founded - 1200
Leon and Castile re-united - - - 1226
Cordova, the residence of the first Moor-
ish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas-
tile and Leon - - - - 1236
The kingdom of Granada begun by the
Moors, their last refuge from the
power of the Christians - -1238
Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - - 1252
The crown of Navarre passes to the
royal family of France - - 1276
200,000 Moors invade Spam - - 1327
They are defeated by Alphonsus XI.,
with great slaughter - - - 1340
The infant Don Heniiquez, son of John
the First of Castile, first had the title
of prince of Asturias - - -1388
Ferdmand II. of Arragon marries Isa-
bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole
Christian dominions of Spain are uni-
ted in one monarchy - - - 1474
Granada taken after a two years' siege ;
and the power of the Moors finally
extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492
Columbus issent from Spain to explore
the western world - - - 1492
Ferdinand conquers the greater part of
the kingdom of Navarre - - 1512
Accession of the house of Austria to the
throne of Spain - - - 1516
Charles V. o( Spain and Germany re-
tires from the world . - - 1556
Philip I. commences his bloody perse-
cution of the Protestants - - 1561
The Escurial began building - - 1562
Portugal united to Spain - - - 1580
The invincible Spanish Armada de-
stroyed. Sec Armada, and Naval
Battles .... 1588
Philip III. banishes the Moors and their
descendants, to the number of 900,000,
from Spain - - - - 1610
Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640
Gibraltar taken by the English - - 1704
Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714
Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies,
succeeds to the crown - - 1759
Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797
Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,-
000 dollars, seized by the English
Oct. 29, 1804
Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar,
Battle of ■ - Oct. 31, 1505
Sway of the prince of Peace - - 1806
Conspiracy of the prmce of Asturias
asainst his father - July 25, 1807
Treaty of Fontainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807
The French take Madric a. d. Ma^ch, 1808
The prince of Peace disn issed by he
king of Spain - March 18, 18(«
Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of
Ferdinand - - March 19, 18a^
And at Bayonne, in favor of his " friend
and ally,-' Napoleon, when Ferdi-
nand relinquished the crown. May 1, 1809
The French are massacred at Madrid,
May 2, U'»S
Napoleon assembles the notables at
Bayonne - - May 25, 1308
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid, as
king of Spain - - July 12, 1808
He retires trom the capital ■ July 29, 1808
Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808
Madrid retaken by the French, ar.d Jo-
seph restored - - Lee. 2, 1808
The royal family of Spain imprisoned
in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy,
Dec. 5, 1808
[Spain now becomes the scene of the
struggle called the Peninsular War,
for the events of which see the arti-
cles severally.]
Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812
Ferdinand VII. restored - May 14, 1814
Spanish revolution began - Jan. 1, 1820
Ferdinand swears to the constitution of
the Cortes - - March 8, 1821^
Removal of ths king to Seville, and
thence to Cadiz - March 20, 1823
The French enter Spain - April 7, 1823
They invest Cadiz - - June 25, 1823
Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823
Despotism resumed; the Cortes dis-
solved ; executions - Oct. 1823
Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823
The French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1828
Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829
Salique law abolished - March 25, 183G
Queen of Spain appointed regent dur-
ing the king's indisposition, and a
complete citange made in the minis-
try - - . Oct. 25, 1832
Don Carlos declares himself legitimate
successor to his brother's throne,
should the king die - April 29, 1833
Death of Charles IV.. and his queen
assumes the title of governing queen,
until Isabella II., her infant daughter,
attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833
The royalist volunteers dis^armed, with
some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833
Don Carlos lands' at Portsmouth with
his family - - June 18, 1834
He suddenly appears among his ad-
herents in Spam - July 10, 1834
The peers vote the perpetual excltj^ion
of Don Carlos from the throne, Aug, 30, 1034
[Here commences the desolating c:vii
war, in which British a;i.xiliaries take
the side of the queen.]
Esparlero gains the battle of Bilboa,
and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 183!
General Evans retires from the com-
mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar-
rives in London, after having achieved
various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837
Madrid is declared in a state of siege.
Aug.' II, 1837
[Espartero and other Christine ge lerala
9^%.
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
537
RPAIN, continued.
engage with the C&,' ists, and nume-
rous conflicts take place with various
success.]
Madrid is again declared in a state of
siege - - A. D. Oct. 30, 1838
The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839
The Carlists under Marota desert Don
Carlos - - - Aug. 25. 1839
Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty
of peace - - Aug. 29, 1839
Don Carlos seeks refuge in France
Sept. 13, 1839
Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to
maintain the war, enters France with
a body of his troops - July ', 1840
The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se-
bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840
Espartero makes his triumphal entry
into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840
The queen regent appoints a new min-
istry, who are nominated by Espar-
tero - - . - Oct. 5. 1840
The abdication of the queen regent of
Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1840
[She subsequently leaves the kingdom ;
visits France ; next settles in Sicily ;
but returns to France.]
Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the
papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840
The Spanish cortes declare Espartero
regent during the minority of the
young queen' - - Apr. 12, 1841
Insurrection in favor of Christina is
commenced at Pampeluna by Gen.
O'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841
It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of
the kingdom - - Oct. 1841
Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at
Madrid, and his followers are repuls-
ed, and numbers of them slain by the
queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841
Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is
shot at Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841
Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841
Rodil, the constitutional general, enters
Vittoria - - - Oct. 21, 1841
Espartero decrees the suspension of
queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841
Espartero makes his triumphal entry
into Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841
An insun-ection breaks out at Barce-
lona; the national guard joms the
populace - - Nov. 13, 1842
Battle in the streets between the national
guard and the troops ; the latter lose
500 in killed and wounded, and retreat
to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842
The troops evacuate the citadel, and
retire to Moutjuich - Nov. 17, 18^
The regent Espartero arrives before
Barcelona, and demands its uncondi-
tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842
Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842
It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842
The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843
The revolutionary junta is re-establish-
ed ^t Barcelona - - June 11, 1843
[Corui na, Seville, Burgos, Santiago,
and numerous other towns, shortly
afterwards " pronounce" against the
regent Espartero.]
Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid,
which surrenders - - July 15, 1843
Espartero bombards Seville - July 21, 1843
The siege is raised - - July 27, 1843
[The revolution is completely success-
ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and
embarks on board her Majesty's ship
Malabar. ]
The new government deprive Espartero
of his titles and rank - Au^. 16, 1843
Espartero and his suite and friends ar-
rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843
Reaction against the new government
breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843
The young queen Isabella II., 13 years
old, is declared by the cortes to be of
age - - - ■ Nov. 8, 1843
The queen-mother. Christina, returns to
Spain - '- - March 2.3, 1844
Don Carlos, from Boui'ges, foi-mally re-
linquishes his right to the crown, in
favor of his son - - May 18, 1845
Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb.
12 ; they return to power, March 17 ;
and again resign - - March 28, 1846
The queen is publicly affianced to her
cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, duke
of Cadiz - - - Aug. 27, 1846
Escape of Don Carlos and others from
France - - - Sept. 14, 1846
Marriage of the queen ; and marriage
also of the infanta Louisa to the duke
de Montpensier - - Oct. 10, 1846
[The Montpensier marriage occasions
the displeasure of England, and dis-
turbs the friendly relations of the
French and English governments.]
Amnesty granted' by the queen to po-
litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1846
The queen has a son born, who dies the
same day - - • July 1, 1853
KINGS OP SPAisr.
▲.D. 406. Alaricl., king of the Goths; murdered.
411. Athalsus; murdered by his soldiers.
415. Wallia.
420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle.
450. Torrisniuna , assassinated by liis fa^
vorite.
452. Theodoric II.
466. Euric.
484. Alaric IL ; killed in battle.
607. Qcsalric ; killed in battle.
611. Ainalaric; killed in battle.
131. Theodat ; aseeissiaated by a madman
548. Theodisele ; murdered for female Ti»
lation.
549. Agila; taken prisoner and put to death.
554. Athanagild.
567. From this year to the year 687 crxteal
kings reigned.
687. Egica or Egiza.
697. Vitizza.
741. Roderick; killed in tattle in 714
An interregnum till
718. Pelagius.
736. Faviia i killed by a boar in 1
538
THE WORLD- S PROGRESS.
[ »•?•
SPATX, continued.
738.
757.
768.
774.
783.
789.
791,
i'2A.
360.
802.
910.
914.
923.
924.
931.
950.
955.
956.
967.
982.
999.
1028.
1035.
1065.
1072,
1109.
1122.
1157.
1158,
1214.
1236.
1252,
1284,
1295,
1312,
Alpho.isus I. ; Catholic.
Fioi la I. ; killed by his brother Aure-
lius.
Aureliua.
Silo.
Mauregat.
Veremond.
Alphonsus II. ; the chaste.
Ramiro I. ; he put 70,000 Saracens to
the sword in one battle.
Ordogno I.
Alphonsus III. ; surnamed the great;
deposed by his son,
Garcias.
Ordogno II.
Froila II.
Alphonsus IV. ; abdicated.
Ramiro II. , killed in battle.
Ordogno III.
Ordogno IV.
Sancho I., the Fat; poisoned with an
apple
Ramiro III.
Veremund II. ; the Gouty,
Alphonsus V. ; killed at the siege of
Viscu,
. Veremund III, ; killed in battle.
Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and
Castile.
, Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile ;
Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and
Garcias in Galicia.
Alphonsus VL, the Valiant; in Castile
and Leon.
Alphonsus VII.
Alphonsus VIII.
Sancho IIL, the Beloved, in Castile;
Ferdinand in Leon.
, Alphonsus IX., in Castile.
. Henry I.
. Ferdinand III. the Holy ; in him Cas-
tile and Leon were reunited, and per-
petually annexed,
, Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed.
. Sancho IV., the Brave; Peter III. in
Arragon.
. Ferdinand IV.
, Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon.
1350. Peter the Cruel ; deposed. Reinstated
by Edward the Black Prince of Eng
land ; afterwards beheaded by hs
subjects,
1368. Henry II., the Gracious; poisoned hf
a monk.
1379. John I. ; he united Biscay to Castile.
1390. Henry IIL, the Sickly.
1406, John II.
1454. Henry IV the Impotent.
1474. Ferdinand v., the Catholic, in whom,
by his marriage with Isabella, the
'<ingdoms of Castile and Arragon
were united.
1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his qiieep
Joan.
1506. Joan alone over both kingdoms.
1516, Charles I., and emperor of Germany,
resigned both crowns, and retired fo
a monastery.
1555. Philip II., married Mary, queeni-eg-
nant of England.
1598, Philip III., son of the preceding; he
drove the Moors from Grenada and
the adjacent provinces.
1621. Philip IV,, his sonj a reign of nearly
continuous and untortunate wars with
the Dutch and France.
1665. Charles It
1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson to
Louis XIV, of France • resigned.
1724. Lewis I. ; who reigned only a few
months,
1724. Philip V. ; again.
1745. Ferdinand VL, surnamed the Wise ; he
distinguished his reign by acts of
liberality and beneficence.
1759. Charles 111., king of the Two Sicilies,
1788. Charles IV, ; abdicated in favor of hia
son and successor,
1808, Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of
of France, also forced to resign.
1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo-
leon; deposed.
1814. Ferdinand VII. ; restored ; succeeded
by his daughter.
1833, Isabella II,, Sept. 29 ; who came to the
throne when three years of age.
While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun-
try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor-
able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From
the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and
the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state,
and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from
the kingdom,
SPANISH ARMADA against England. See article Armada.
gPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics of
the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens, Though without
walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for
eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed, Lelex is
supposed to have been the first king, 1516 b. g. From Lacedasmon the fourth
king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the
city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history ol
Lacedsemon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings,
from Lelex to the settlement of the Heraclidaa, comprising about four hun-
SPl ^ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539
dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclidse as absol ite monarclis, (ill
Lycurg-ns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in tlie
government, inckiding- about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the
establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors
by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the
appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hun-
dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub-
jugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy-
two years, 147 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular Views : Greece, page 7, et
seq. See also Greece. The LacedaBmonians were a nation of soldiers. They
cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their
laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitu-
tion of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never
were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They
hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming tiiem-
selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret, llie
women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall
of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their
own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, tiiey brought
disgrace upon their country. — Abbe Lenglet.
SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un-
known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented
in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy,
about A. D. 1285. — Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own
illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly
giv^en by Bacon about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor was Salvi-
no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spec-
tacles.
SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent-
ed by Anaximander, 552 b. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in-
vented by Eratosthenes about 255 b. c. The planetarium was constructed
by Archimedes before 212 b. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the
motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to
the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres.
SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the
goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca-
dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 b. c. Lucretia with
her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to
her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner; and a
garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the \fim~
pie of Fortune. Augustus Caesar usually wore no garments but such as
were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was in-
vented at Brunswick, about a. d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton
was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles.
Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's
machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Har-
grave's ; but he rdso applied a large and small roller to expand the thread,
and. for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he
worked his machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream
of the Derwt-iit, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which
is a further and Avonderful improvement of this art. — P dllips.
SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was
the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city vcas burnt by the
French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The dietta
540 THE world's progress. [ sta
condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the imperof
Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants.
SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor-
rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of
numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors
have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support
of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits,
Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, arid Ireland about nine miU
lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840,
on the following quantities of spirits, viz. — Rum, 2 830,263 gallons; brandy,
1,107.756 gallons; Geneva, 18,640 gallons; on other foreign spirits, 8,758
gallons; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,848 gallons; mak-
ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty
amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! — Pari. Returns.
SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it
Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it
was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be
the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from
the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds.
STAMP-DUTIES in England. The first institution of stamp-duties was by
statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed
upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was
commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which
stamp-duty was made paj^able. The American Stamp Act, a memorable
statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain
which produced the American war, and led to the independence of the
United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com-
menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp-
duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3,126.535Z. ; and in
1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,817^. See Newspapers, &c.
STANDARDS. See Banner^, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the
cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross
to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on
the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the em-
peror himself, a. d. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily.
Standard of Mahomet; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car-
ried in procession about 1768. when several hundred Christians who igno-
rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace The
Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed-
ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the
kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801.
STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished
with stars. — Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and
part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not fi-om the stars on its
roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth),
but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri-
chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito-
ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I.
The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of
the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent
of atiV law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in
thei' sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and can-
leuiptible.— GoZ<3J5mtiA. U was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There were
STE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 54!
from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting Toioe.-^
Gibbon.
STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b, c
Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and
that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably
gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 p.. c. Job, He-
siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library
at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, in
which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis-
covered ])y Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy and Solar System.
SI ATES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre-
viously to the Revolution it had not met since a. d. 1614. The states con-
sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were con-
vened by Louis XVL, and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a
a contest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses,
or but one assembly. The commons insisted npon the latter, and, assuming
the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to
proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if
they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to
concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See National Assembly.
STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the
dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of
great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was
not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in
Paternoster-row. — Mortimer.
STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter
passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among
the ancients, 440 b. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the
request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with
ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden
statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the
art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast
models in wax, 326 b. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among
the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that
of Charles I. in 1678.
STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge-
nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the
marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions, as "a way to drive up
water by fire,'"' a. d. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in-
ventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery.
Papin's digester invented - a. d. 1681
Captain Savery's engine constructed
for raising water - - - 1698
Papin's ensine, exhibited to the Royal
Society, about - - - - 1699
Atmospheric engine by Savery and
Newcomen - . . . 1713
First idea of steam navigation set forth
in a patent obtained by Hulls - 1736
Watt's invention of performing conden-
sation in a separate vessel from the
cylinder .... 1765
His first patent - ... 1769
His engines upon a large scale erected
in manufactories, and his patent re-
newed by act of parliament - -1775
Thomas Paine proposed the application
of steam in America - - - ' - 1778
Watt's expansion engine - - - - 1778
Double acting engines proposed by Dr.
Falck on Newcomen's principle - 1779
Watt's double engine, and his first pa-
tent for it granted .... 1781
The marquess .JoufFroy constructed a^i
engine on the Saone - - - 178J
Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga-
tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's
im. Curios.) .... 1783^
Oliver Evans' experiments in the
same 1785-6
Rumsey's experiments in the same in
Virginia 1787
W. Symington made a passage on the
Forth and Clyde canal - ... 17S9
First steam-engine erected in Dublin by
Henry Jackson 1791
Engine made to give a rotary motion - 1778 Jouffroy's experiment* in Fraacc - • I79i
642
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[STB
STEAM ENGINE, continued.
Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer
on the Hudson 1797
First experiment on the Thames - - 1801
The experiment of Mr. Symington re-
pealed with success .... 1802
Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802
Oliver Evans' experiments in locomo-
tive engines in Penn. - - - 1804
WoolPs double cylinder expansion en-
gine constructed .... 1S04
Manufactories warmed by steam - 1806
Fulton started a steam-boat on the river
Hudson, built by himself, and named
"The North River;" engine by Boul-
ton and Watt ; passage to Albany in 33
hours: first steam" navigation on
record • ... 1807
The next three steam-boats in the world
were the Car of Neptune, • - ISOS
The Parugou 1811
The Richmond 1812
all in New York.
Steam power to convey coals on a rail-
way, employed by Blenkinsop . . 1811
Steam vessels first commenced plying
on the Clyde (.first in Europe) - 1812
Steam applied to printing in tne Times
office. See Presn .... 1814
There were live steam vessels in Scot-
land {Pari. Returns) in - • - 1813
First steam vessel on the Thames
brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow ISlf
The first steamer built in England {Purl,
Returns) 1815
The Savannah r.eamer, of 350 tons,
went from New York to Liverpool
in 26 days .... July 15, 1819
First steamer in Ireland . . . 182C
Captain Johnson obtained 10,000Z. for
making the first steam voyage to In-
dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed
from Falmouth - - Aug. 10, 1S2£
Locomotive steam carriages on" rail-
ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829
The Railway opened (see Liverpool) - 1830
The Great Western arrives from Bris-
tol at New York, and the Sirius from
Cork, same day, being their first voy-
age, in 18 days - - June 17, 1838
War steamers built in England - - 1838
First steamer of the Cunard line was
the Britannia to Boston; after a pas-
sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, 1840
STEAM BOATS in the UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States
g-ave an aggregate of 700 vessels— whole tonnage, 153,600 tons; but these
returns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was very great :
probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000
tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington,
which made her first passage to Southampton in June 1847. The whole
number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United
States, in 1838, was 3,010.
STEAM VESSELS of the BRITISH EMPIRE.
STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS ;
Year.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
Dependencies.
2'otal.
1S14 -
0
5
0
1
6
1815
- - 3
5
0
2
10
1820 -
- 17
14
3
9
43
1825
- - 112
36
3
17
168
1830 -
- 203
61
31
20
315
1835
-344
85
68
48
545
1845 .
- 694
139
79
89
1001
STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated ba-
lance ill the Pentateuci The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men-
tioned in 315 B. c.
STENOGRAPHY. The art of writing in short-hand is said to have been prac-
tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the
hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius,
improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The
An, Scribendl Characteris, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex-
tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590.
There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement
and great simplicity.
STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking
the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1350. —
And.erson.
STEREOTYPE. See Prirtmg. It is said, that stereotyping was known in
1711 ; but this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged
STO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 543
of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by
others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Fran-
cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Ferguson. But stereotype
printing was in use in Holland, in the last century; and a quarto Bible and
Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. Stereotyping was intro-
duced into London, by Wilson, in 1801. — Idem.
5TERE0TYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is f^aid to have
been invented by Cadwallader Colden of New York, who sent the details of his
plan in 1 779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan
to ])idot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist-
ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au-
thority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that
which Colden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New
York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Catechism. In
June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotyped a duodecimo Bible. — Dr.
J. W. Francis.
>TOC KINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In
1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock-
ings, by her silk-woman, ^Irs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones
any more. — Hmvell. He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose,
except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ;
for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with
a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and
the present was then much taken notice of — /rfem. Others relate that Wil-
liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant,
a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like
them, Avhich he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind
made in England, 1561. — Stoioe.
5T0CKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced
into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have
had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to
337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com-
missioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols
averaged in the year —
1780 - jE63 13 6 1 1795 - j674 8 6 1 1810 - .£57 16 3 I 1825 - jE90 0 8
1785 - - 63 6 6 ISOO - - 66 3 3 1815 - ■ 58 13 9 1830 - - 89 15 7
1790 71 2 6 I 1805 - 58 14 0 | 1820 - 68 12 0 J 1810 - 89 17 6
See Pubhc Debt.
rrOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher ; they obtained the name
of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch
or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su-
preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and
reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees affected
the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this
sect is famous for. — Stanley.
;T0NE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. A stone
bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge
<;xists at Crowiand, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges
ThG first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone
china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues
was manufactired by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776.
Stone paper was made in 1796.
>TONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity
Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius i^.mbrosiaa
in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hangist, the Saxon, a c
544
THE world's progress.
[STC
^1h --Geoffrey of Monmouth Erected as a sepulchral monnment of Am-
brosius, a. d. 500. — Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, \u
which the Druids officiated. — Dr. i^tukeley. The Britons had annual meet-
ings at Abury and Stonehenge, Avhere laws were made, and justice adminis-
tered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets.
KTORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo^
rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d. 944
One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming
from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 500 houses
fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais,
and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against
the barons, perished, 1215. — Holinshed.
It thundered 15 days successively, with tem-
pests of rain and wind, a.d. 12:33.
A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash
passed through a chamber where Edward
I. and his queen were conversing, did them
no damage, but killed two of their attend-
ants: 1285. — Hoveden.
A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in
France, which fell on the army of Edward
III., then on its march. The hail was so
large that the army and horses suffei-cd
very much, and Edward was obliged to
conclude a peace, 1339. — Matt. Paris.
When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohe-
mia, on setting foot on shore an awful
storm arose, and her ship and a number
of others were dashed to pieces in the har-
bor, Jan. 1382. — Holinshed.
Richard's second queen also brought a storm
with her to the English coasts, in which
the king's baggage was lost, and many
ships cast away, 1389. — Idem.
A hurricane throughout Europe, which did
very considerable damage ; more remark-
ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the
day that Cromwell died. — Mortimer.
A storm on the eastern coasts of England ;
200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of
their crews, 1696.
The storm called the '■'■Great Storm," one of
the most terrible that ever raged in Eng-
land. The devastation on land was im-
mense; and in the harbors, and on the
coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives
was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.*
A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes,
it is said, pei'ished upon the mountains, in
their march to attack Drontheini, a. d.
1719.
One in India, when many hundreds of ves-
sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen,
greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and
30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737.
A dreadful hurricane at the Havana; many
public edifices and 4048 houses were de-
stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished,
Oct. 25, n&S.— Annual Register.
An awful storm in the north of England, in
which many vessels were destroyed, and
4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 1775.
At Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 700C
of the inhabitants, April 22, 1782.
One hundred and thirty-one villages and
farms laid waste in France, 1785.
A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the
Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept.
1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone,
104 vessels were lost.
At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred
vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828.
Awful hurricane on the western coast of
England, and in Ireland. The storm raged
through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War-
wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Li-
verpool, by the falling of buildings, and
100 were drowned in the neighborhood;
the coast and harbors were covered with
wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels
lost being nearly half a million sterling. In
Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other
places, more than 200 houses were blown
down, and as many more were burnt, the
wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffer-
ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor-
hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan.
6-7, 1839.
Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275
houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct.
10-11, 1846.
Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug.
21. 1848.
STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German
stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of
* The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000^. sterling. The number of per
sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in
ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve
men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees
were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed,
and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley. and the persons who were with him. The bi
shop ol Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. Multi
tTidee of cattle were also lost ; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned.
SUOj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 546
the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by xiort*
able braziers. See Chimneys.
STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, ty Louis-
Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two offi-
cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of
the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off to America by the
French g-overnment, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt,
by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See Prance.
SI RATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the
forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller; in this battle the
victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed
and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol : fought May 16,
1643.
STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized
by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lenglet.
It was revived by D'Udine about a. d. 1550 ; and is now exquisitely per-
formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in
England.
STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Caesar's ordering leap-year to be
but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 b.c.
Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See
Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act
Xjassed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian,
1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year.
STYLE. ROYAL, of the KINGS of ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and
Tdles.
SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par-
ticularly in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the
war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of
England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a
bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo-
reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution-
ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable
of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at
Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be
vigorouslj prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting
powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia,
Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to
the amount of many tens of millions sterling. — Phillips.
SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging
to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18, Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed
Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-.
SUCCESSION, ACT of. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics
from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and the
crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act cf
June 12, 1701.
SUCCESSION. The WAR of. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by
the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and
unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French
prince, grandson of Louis XIV.. should succeed to the throne of Spain.
Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies
withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded ; 1702 tc
1713. See Utrecht, Peace of.
SUGAR, Saccharum officinarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the
546 THE world's progress. [ gUi
ancient Je^s s. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander,
325 B. c. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the
Juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was
produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. —
Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities,
1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the
Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about IblO.— Robertson's
History of Charles V*
SUGAR-R]<^F1NING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu-
ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. It was lirst practised in England in 1059,
though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years
sooner. Sugar was first taxed byname, 1 James II., 1685. — Anderson; Mor-
timer. See Beet Root.
SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish
history is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman
philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from
the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only in-
stance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin L, when the soldiers, think-
ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des-
troyed themselves, 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of
illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 b. c. In the Catholic church,
i\ the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be
made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias-
tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the
statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation
•of land and goods.
A FEW OP THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C.
Suicide of gen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840
Of raarsliarBerlhier - - June 1, 1815 Of lord James Beresford - April 27, 1841
Of Samuel Whiibred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1815 Of the earl of Munster - March 20. 1842
Of sir Samuel Romilly - - Nov. 2, 1818 Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 2.5i 1845
Of Christophe, kingofHayti Oct. 8, 1820 Ofcol. Gurvvood - - Dec. 29, 1845
Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12, 1822 Of Haydon, the eminent painter
Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 June 22, 1845
There have been only three instances*of self-destruction by fire ; that of
the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount
Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820,
into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the
furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount-
able passion for su'*dde seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could
not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree
being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should
be drawn naked through the streets^ a stop was soon put to the extraordi-
nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being
previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV,, 1823.
SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and
given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the
Turkish princes . Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d. 1055. — Vattier. It
• About the year 1138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence
tc Mad?ira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date sui-it
was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the i-eign of Henry VIII. Mr.
Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript
letter, trom sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1.546, advertises him that
sir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, '' whiche is eighte
pence a pounde." In 1840, tho imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts.,
of which nearly four millions were for home consumption j and the duty amounted to about five
tiillion!; and a half sterUng.
815? ] DICTIONARY OF DATL&, 547
was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth
century of the Hegira.
SUMMATRA, Island of. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committee
piracies on American vessels, the town was destroyed by the tFnited States
frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832.
SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c.
Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more
than one maid in the street unless she were drunk; and that she should
not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely,
450 B. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among
the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the
dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which
was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be
left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ea-
ward III. and Henry VIII. See Dress, Luxury, &c.
SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve sphere^, about
529 B. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun,
about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries,
and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200. when it was brought
into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system
was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga-
lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculae
were first discovered byChr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed
by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened
the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its
motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun. Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma-
cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21,
1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length
taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779,
SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny, 1, 2, The first
erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided
into hours, 293 b. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a, d. 613.—
Abbe Lenglct.
SUNDAY, OR LORD'S D,^Y. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di-
vine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians it is called the
Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that
day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the
sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews
on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance
was made by Constantine. a.d. 321. — Eusebius. The council of Orleans
prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of_ Innocent Sicnday Sports, au-
thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub-
lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy
and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary
cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by
the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. — Bapi/i.
Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780.
Act of parliament closing all the post-ofl&ces on Sunday passed May 1850.
SUPREMACY OVER the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the
hurch as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made
Head of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VHI.
shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself Ou7
kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con-
ferred upon thenL by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and
548 THE world's progress. I SWB
tl; li ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous others,
beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. — Haydn.
SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made
a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions
the ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones.
Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; ^tius, 500 ; Paulus iEgineta
in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century
sj)rung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was
confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the
illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England
surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries,
1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London.
SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen-
ry VIIL, 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was
enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the
drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745; and
a new charter in 1800.
SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d
316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying
public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The
garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 ;
and 13 and 14 Charles II., 1662.
SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China,
near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from
rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen-
sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait
is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times.
SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING of WIDOWS. This custom began in India from
one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his
death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows
have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone,
700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present
at many of these sacrifices. On' February 4, 1743, he saw a young and
beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children,
thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every
witness of the scene. — Holweli. The English government in India have dis-
couraged these self-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference
with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by
English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though
rarely, taken place.
SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used a. d, 528. Introduced in judicial
proceedings about 600. — Rapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by
fine ; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 25. for the first offence ; for
the second offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 WiUiam III., 1695. See
Oaths.
SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabi-
tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory
on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been
masters of the country.
Gylf reigns in Sweden - - -B.C. 57 I barbarians, falls upon the Nort» -u
During this reign, Odin, surnamed the Europe, making vasts couquesi« '
Divine, at the head of a swarm ol j
iVE ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
549
1000
1132
1168
1260
WEDEN, continued.
Yiige, founder of the family of the Yn-
lingars, reigns - - • B.C. 32
[The early history of the kingdom is
altogether involved in fables and ob
scufity. ]
OUf the Infant is baptized, and intro
duces Christianity among his people,
about . . - . AD
Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike
people and invasions of other coun
tries, is annexed to Sweden -
Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru
gen, and destroys the Pagan temples
Stockholm founded
Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular
form of government - - - 1279
The crown of Sweden, which had been
hereditary, is made elective ; and
Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek,
or the Foolish, king of Norway, is
elected 1318
Waldemar lays Gothland waste - - 1361
The crown made elective - - 1320
Albert of Mecklenburg reigns ■ -1365
Sweden united to the crown" of Denmark
and Norway, under Margaret - 1394
University of Upsal founded - -1476
Christian II., " the Nero of the North,"
massacres all the Swedish nobility, to
fix his despotism - - - 1520
The Swedes delivered from the Danish
yoke by the valor of Gustavus Vasa 1523
He makes the crown hereditary, and
introduces the reformed religion - 1544
The titles of ,ount and baron introduced
by Eric XIV. ... - 1561
The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus,
between 1612 and - - - 1617
He is slain at Lutzen - - - 1633
Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648
Abdication of Christina - - -1654
Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657
Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660
Charles XII., " the madman of the
North," begins his reign
He makes himself absolute,
the senate
1699
KINGS OP
825 Regnard Lobrock.
* * * Reigns uncertain.]
966 Eric, the Victor.
994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong.
1026 Edmund Jacobson.
1035 Edmund, or Amand III.
1041 Haquin,
1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel.
1060 Ingo I. ; assassinated by his brother.
1064 Halstan.
1080 Philip.
1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery.
1130 Ragwald; murdered by the Visigoths.
1133 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania.
1144 Suercher II.
1150 Eric X. ; beheaded by rebels.
1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca-
nute, who reigns.
1168 Cnnute, son of Eric X.
1192 Suercher III., son of Charles ; killed in
battle.
1211 Eric XI.
1^29 Jolm I.
Battle of Pultowa, where Chailt« is
defeated by the czar of Russia. See
Pultowa - - - A.D. 170S
He escapes to Bender, where after three
years' protection, he is made prison-
er by the Turks - - - 1713
He is restored ; and after ruinous wars,
and fighting numerous battles, he is
at length killed at the siege of Frede-
rickshall - • - Dec. 11, 1718
Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot-
iv. government ... - 1719
Royal Academy founded by Linne, af-
terwards called Linnaeus - ■• 1741
Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home,
who are beheaded - - - 1756
Despotism re-established ■ - 1772
Order of the Sword instituted - - 1772
Assassination of Gustavus III. by count
Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 15 ; he
expired the 29th - - - 1792
The regicide was dreadfully scourged
with whips of iron thongs three suc-
cessive days ; his right hand was cut
off, then his head, and his body im-
paled - - - May 18, 1792
Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go-
vernment assumed by his uncle, the
duke of Sudermania - March 13, 1809
Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of
Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809
Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte
Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of
Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810
Gustavus IV. arrived in London,
Nov. 12, 1810
Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo-
leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812
Alliance with England - July 12, 1812
Sweden joins the grand alliance against
Napoleon - - March 13, 1813
Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea-
ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814
Bernadotte ascends the throne of Swe-
den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 181S
Treaty of navigation between Great
Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826
SWEDEN.
1223 Eric XII.
1250 Waldemar.
1276 Magnus II.
1290 Birger II.
1318 Magnus in. ; dethroned by his fiulijocti
1365 Albert.
1397 Margaret.
1411 Eric XIII. ; abdicated.
1441 Christopher.
1448 Charles VIIL
1458 Christian I.
1497 John II.
1520 Christian IL
1528 Gustavus I., Vasa.
1.556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison.
1569 John III.
1592 Sigismond I., kin^ iif Poland,
1606 Charles IX.
1611 Gustavus Adolphus II.
1632 Christina; resigned her crovmio
1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke ol Deui-
Ponts.
1660 Charles XI.
650
THE world's progress.
[sirc
1771 Gustavus III., Adolphua.
1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV.
1809 Charles Xlll.
1818 Charles John XIV., Beriiadotte, Feb. 5
1844 Oscar, his son, March 8.
SWEDEN, continued.
1599 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of
Frederickshall.
1718 Ulrica Eleanora; resigned when her
husband was elected.
1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel.
1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein.
SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but ec-
centric Emanuel Svvedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the Ne\*'
Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es-
tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man. of
the Word, of heaven and of hell — concerning all which subjects error and
ig-norance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its
proper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life.
His tlrst work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760,
but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside-
rable number of respectable advocates in the United States.
SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gauhsh people, conquered
by Julius Ca?.sar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans.
Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz
was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in
Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius ;
after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given
name to the whole confederacy.
The Helvetian. converted to Christian-
ity by Irish missionaries - a. d. 612
Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - - 909
Becomes subject to Germany - . - 1032
Fribourg built by Berthold IV. - - 1179
Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions
the memorable revolt under the pa-
" "' " " 1306
1307
triot William Tell,
Swiss independence - ]Sov. 7.
A malignant fever carries off, in the can-
ton ol" Basle, 1 1,000 souls - - 1-314
Form of government made perpetual - 1315
Lucerne joins the confederacy - - 1335
Ti^p canton of Zurich jonis, and be-
cbmes head of the league - -1350
Berne, Glai'is, and Zug join - - 1351
The Grisons league (see Caddee) - 1400
Second league of the Grisons - - 1424
The third league of the Grisons - 1436
Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay
of France, under Louis XI. - - 1480
Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 1481
Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges
Swiss independence - - - 1499
Schaffhausen joins the union - - 1501
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged
by France and other powers ~ - 1516
The Reformation begins at Basle ; the
bishop compelled to retire - 1519
The Grison leagues join the Swiss ,on-
federacy as allies - - - 1544
Appenzel joins the other cantons - 1597
Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts
Geneva by surprise, scales the walls,
and penetrates the town ; but in tlie
end is defeated - - - 1602
[This circumstance gives rise to an an-
nual festival commemorative of their
escape from tyranny.]
Independence of Switzerland recognized
by the treaty of Westphalia (see
Westphalia, Peace of ) - a. D. 1648
[From this period until the French Re-
volution the canton enjoyed tranquil-
lity, disturbed only by the changes
arising out of their va'rious constitu-
tions.]
Alliance with France - May 25, 1777
Domestic strife in Geneva, between the
aristocratic and democratic parties;
France interferes - - - 1781
1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum
in Ireland (see Geneva) - - 1782
Swiss guards ordeied to quit France - 1792
Helvetic confederation dissolved; its
subjugation by France - - 1798
The number of cantons increased to 19 ;
the federal government restoi-ed ; and
a lantlamman appointed by France,
May 12, 1802
Uri, Schweitz, ana Underwald separate
from the republic • July 13, 1802
Switzerland joins France with 6,000
men - - - Aug. 24, 1811
The Allies entered Switzerland in the
spring of 1SI4. The number of can-
tons increased to 22, and the indepen-
dence of Switzerland secured by the
treaty of Vienna - - - 1815
Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1&47
— passes resolves against the Sonder-
bund, and troops of Uri attack canton
Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847
Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov
10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847
Neufchatel declares independence,
Feb. 29, 1848
SWORDS.
1S79 B
They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese,
c. — Univ. HisL. The sword is one of the earliest implements
»TR "J DICTIONARY OF DATES, 551
of wai The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad-
sword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at
an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus ste^I
swords are the most prized ; and next, the sword of Ferrara steel. The
Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated
artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew
Ferraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in
5724.
SYCAMORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The
"date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early.
In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary
queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she
planted in the gardens of Holy rood, and that from this little tree have
sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland.
SYDNEY New South Wales. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port
Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally
intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of
the colony. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney.
The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it
has a legislative council, which was lirst held July 13, 1829. See New South
WoJes ; Convicts, (^c.
SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had
synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others
to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna-
gogues. There are in London six synagogues.
iSYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by
Christian princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his
legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation
only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the
last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but
by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII., 1533.
:SYNOD OF DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to
which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin,
and Arminius, principally u];on the points of justification and grace, 1618.
—Aitzeraa.
SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c. — Eusebius. 749 b. c. — Univ. Hist.
Taken by Marcellus. when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was
slain, 212 b. c. (see Sicily). S^'racuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with
many thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed,
Aug. 6, 1757.
SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned
frcm Scripture ; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, being involved
in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empfres {v.\iich
see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after ths battle
of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidse) founded the celebrated city
of Antioch.
Seleucus, suruamed Nicaior, i. e. Con-
queror, enters Babylon - - b.c. 312
.Era of the Seleucidce (ec/j2c/i see) - 312
Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death
of Antigonus - - - - 301
City of Antioch founded - - 299
Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in
love with his faihe.s' queen, Stralon-
ice, he pines away nearly to death ;
but the secret beiiig discovered, slit
is divorced by the father and mavrier;
by the son.' - - - B. c. 297
* This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of pnysic
Erasistratus, the illustrious father of anatomy (jointly with Herophilus), had observed, than wlicn
552
THE world's progress.
[SYR
SYRIA, continued.
Battle of Cyropsedion • -b.c
Seleucus is ibuUy assassinated bj- Ce
raunuo. — Lcnglat.
Ar.tiacinis defeats the Gauls, and takes
the name of Soter, or Saviour
Rei?n of Aniiochus II., sumamedby the
Milesians Theos, or God !
Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance
■with Smyrna and Magnesia* -
Reign of Seleucus III., surnamed Ce-
raunui, or Thunder -
Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus
III. is signally defeated
Antiochus' conquest of Judea -
War with the Romans begins -
Rcign of Antiochus IV., who assumes
the title of Theos-JSpiphanes, or the
Illustrious God!
He sends Appolonius into Judea ; Jeru-
salem is taken; the temple pillaged:
40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and
40.000 more sold as slaves
Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son
Sefeucus with her own hand
Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus,
whom she attempts to poison ; but he
compels his mother to swallow the
deadly draught herself
Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and
ot' Grypus at Antioch
Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en-
ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus
Asiatichus, about
281
- £80
275
261
243
226
217
204
192
- 175
- 170
124
123
111
65
Conquest of Syria - - a.d, 970
[This conquest is made by the Fatimite
caliphs who rule in Egypt.]
Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1067
The emirs of Aleppo revolt - - 1068
The Crusades from Europe commence
(see article Crusades) - - 1095
[The Christians ultimately conquer that
part of Syria called the Holy Land. —
See Jerusalem]
Noureddin conquers Syria - a.d. 1164
Saladin puts an end to the power of the
Fatimue dynasty - • - 1171
The Tartars overrun all Syria - - 125f
Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who
expel the Crusaders - - - 1291
Syria overrun by Tamerlane - ■ 140(!
Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517
After the conquest by Selim, Syria con-
tinued in possession of the Tu.rks till
the invasion of Egypt by the French.
July 1, 179y
Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with
great lo&s - - - Aug. 6, 17y8
He overruns the country, and takes Ga-
za and Jaffa ... - 1793
Siege of Acre - March 6 to May 27, ITJ'J
Bonaparte returns to France from E-
gypt ... - Aug. 23, 1799
Egypt is evacuated by the French army
Sept. 10, 1801
Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A -re,
and overruns the whole of Syria, I83i-32
Ibraham Pacha, his son, defeats the ar-
my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832
[Numerous battles and conflicts follow
with various success.]
Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar-
my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839
The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria
and places itself at the disposal of
Mehemet Ali - - - July 14, 1839
The Five Powers propose to the Porte
to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July
16, 1839
Death of the celebrated lady Hester
Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840
Treaty of London (not signed by offend-
ed France) - - July 15, 1840
Capture of Sidon - Sept. 27, 1840
Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) Oct. 10 1840
Fall of Acre (see Acre) - Nov. 3, 1840
After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus-
tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pr.chalic of Egypt
hereditary 'u the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish
fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at
London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13, 1841. This
result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its C( atinu-
ance among the great powers of Europe,
ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his frame,
his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She v/as of his own age, and of exceeding beauty.
Ok discovering the true cause of his patient's di.?order. Erasistratus adopted an expedient which
was the foundation of his great fame. He informed the king that his heir must die, as he languished
under a hopeless passion. "Who," asked Seleucus, ■' is the object of his love?" '■^ My wife,'"
answered the physician. "Then resign her to him," said the king. " But if," said Erasistratus
" it were i)\e queen, he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another?'
"Yes,' replied Seleucus, "I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to save
my son's life." "Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, "for the object of his love i* Stva
tonice!" — Biog. Diet.
* This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the coui't of the Theatre of Oxf(>id. J
was presented to Oxford by the earl of Arunde' in the reign of Charles II.
TH&] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 553
TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite.
TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies undei
sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French
army, amounting to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani,
July 27 and 28, 1809.
1 ALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality
of the Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The
one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second
century; the second, being commentaries, &c., by succeeding rabbis, were
collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimoia-
ides in the twelfth century.
1 AMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of
Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sul-
tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter
had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed
his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself. 1403. — Clialcon-
dila's Hist. Turk.
TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was in-
troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising
orange-trees. It was discontinued until about 1719. when ananas were first
brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden-
ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq.
TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence
its original workers in France were called Sarazmois. The invention of
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands.
— Guicciardini. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in-
vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William
Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir
Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619. — Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of
tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early
instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also
in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For
the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeuz Tapestry.
TARENTUM, War of. The war which the people of Tarentum suppoi ted
against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is
greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b. g
281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had oflered to their
ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri-
soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome.
TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar
race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians.
It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per-
manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and
the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of
Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The
first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghia
Khan, a. d, 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all
Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it
was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered
Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and
founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia,
till the close of the eighteenth century.
TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various namea^
24
554 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ TEA
in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century.
"In the raigne of king Edward the Third only three tavern?, were allowed
in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard-
street." — Sir Henry Spelnian. The Boards Head, in Eastcheap, existed in
the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his
dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs.
Quickly, and the scene of sir John FalstafF's merriment. — Shaks'peare^
Hairy IV. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart, Bishopsgate, estab-
lished in 1480: this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by
an act of Edward VI.. 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3
in Westminster. 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in
Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in
Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester,
3 in Oxford, 4 in Cjirabridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Taverns were licensed in 1752.
TAXES. The flrst levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis-
lator, 540 B. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver,
about 55/.. English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes,
which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects
styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b. c.—D' Eon's His-
toire des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by
William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily^; yet subsidies in kind, as
in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till
the accession of Richard II., 1377. — Camden. First taxation of the British
colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act
repealed, 1766: re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern-
ment, &c.
TE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church,
beginning with the words Te Den.m laudamus — We praise thee, 0 God. It
is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose,
about A. D. 390; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp
and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a
great victory or for a bounteous harvest.
TEA. First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610.
Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from
Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from
thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India
Company took up the trade. — Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1715
The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de-
struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773,
and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war.
TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DTJTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS.
1726. - lbs. 700,000 11805. - lbs. 24,133,000 | 1825. - ]bs. 27.803,668
1766. - - 7,000,000 1810. - - 25,414,000 I 1830. - - 30,544,404
1792. - - 13,185,000 1815. - - 26,368,000 1835. - - 44,360,550
1800. . - 23,723,000 I 1820. - - 25,662,474 | 1840. - - 33,068,555
In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,000Z. annually.
Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every
year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Commoris,
1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng-
land, is about 22 000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great
Britain is 30 000.000.— Evideiice in the House of Commons. 1830. The first
tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East
India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United
States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was $4-278.463 ; while that of coflfea
was S9,102 872.
TEM j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 555
TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to England Irom China, aboal 1768.
The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens; but the
lirst that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor-
thumberland at Sion.
TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polj^bius calls the different in-
struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrsics,
because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the
moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when
the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a
telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 168i.
M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about
this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful
purposes: M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French.
Two erected over the admiralty-oflfice, liOndon, 1796. The Semaphore was
erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously-
concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, bv varying the
combinations of two revolving crosses ; and also to spell any particular
words, letter by letter. See Electric THegraph.
TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571.
Roger Bacon, about a. d. 1250, described telescopes and microscopes ex-
actly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen,
of Mrddleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac-
cidental discovery made by his children, 1590—1609. Galileo imitated
their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of
which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's
moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and
were improyed by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton; and finally by
Martin. Hall, Dolland. and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by
More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa-
tory of Madrid, which cost 11,000/. in 1802 ; but the Herschel telescope,
made 1789 — 1795, is superior : it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia-
meter, 3^ inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See
Herschel Tele&cupe.
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that
the first ^-reat public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this
country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the
most prominent of th(i first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt
of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The
exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total
abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general
habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various
names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from
various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with
spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent
in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the
Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has
administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his
countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Ger-
many there were 300 temperance societies in 1846.
TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in
A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous
in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup-
pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon
other orders, in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged,
and it sufilred great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France
556 THE world's progress. [te\»
in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed
in England, and finally in 1340.
TEMPLE. London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house
of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was X'Urchased
by the professors of the common law. and converted into inns. They are
called the Inner and Middle Temple.
TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Eusebius.
The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus.
The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — ApoUonius. For tern-
pie of Bolus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012
B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by
Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a. d.
70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built
of stone by Trophorius. about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratid^e. 548 b.c.
A new temple raised by the family of the AlcmaBonidae, about 513 b. c. —
Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned by Ctesiphon, 544
B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b. c. To rebuild it,
employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a. d. 260. — The Temple of
Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w th,
her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded
from all aliments. — Vol. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years b. c,
is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. — ^The heathen
temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantino the
Great, a. d. 331. See Heathen Temples.
TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char-
ter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetanga
river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the
Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next j^ear, but continued frequent
contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North
Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State,
1796. Population in 1790, 35.691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681,904; in
1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves.
TESr ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and mili-
tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of
the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation,
ifcc, was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828.
TEUl^ONI, OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri
made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They
were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made
prisoners, 101 b. c. See Cimbri.
TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy
Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in
the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian
army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The
order was confirmed by a bull of pope Caelestine III., a. d. 1191. See
Prussia, &c.
TEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over
the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son,
were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London,
where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being,
as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, after-
wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French k?ng,
Lewis XL, for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses
of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses.
the] dictionary of dates. 557
TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran-
cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction
with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican re-
public— an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dis-
agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrant
from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indeper
dence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican
president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the
independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th),
after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery, Feb. 20,
1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an-
nexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to IG, June 8, 1844.]
THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication
between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most
extraordiMary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was
begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption
took place, May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen
perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width
is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath,
about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the
bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot
passengers, March 25, 1843.
THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a
nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most
properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called
thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con-
quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland
by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057.
THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. c, was the
first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres
were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There
was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were
assembled on the night of August 24, a. d, 79, when an eruption of Vesu-
vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by
Balthazar Sienna, a. d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England
was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of
Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, See Globe. But long before
that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad-
mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lords' room. Is.
— Dickens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663. and issued frc:.a
Drury-lane; it runs thus: "By his Majestic, his company of Comedians at
the New Theaj;re in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Hufnov-
rovs Lievtenant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : " The
play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened
in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States
was the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibi-
tions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company
acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in
New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia
soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was published in New
York, 1832. See Drama, Plays, &c.
THEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca-
tompylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to
Jupiter. Ifi the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles,
and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred
558 THE world's progress. [TH£
gates, 20 000 fighting- men and 200 chariots. Thehes was ruined hy Cam.
bj'ses, king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal.
— Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called
Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia, Hyantis, and Bceotia. See Bmotia. Thebes was
called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele-
brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 b. c. It was dismantled by
the Romans, 145 b. c. — Livy ; Thucydides.
THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death
at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal-
ly punished theft with death, if above 12^?. value ; but the criminal could
redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp-
tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very
severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's
acts, 9 and 10 George IV.
T HEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660. and
they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject-
ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that
their religion was better because older and more simple than tl^at which was
given by God to the Hebrews.
THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando-
ver, founded 1808.
THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several
scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer,
A. D. 1609. — Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. — Pnlgenho. Invent-
ed by Sanctorio in 1610. — Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented
about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of
construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years
subsequently.
THERMOPYL^:. Battle of. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the
defile of Thermopylae, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three
days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se-
cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who,
thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their
country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300
heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per-
sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and
insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with
their royal leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the
hands of the Spartan;?, Aug. 7, 480 b. c— ■ Vossius de Grac. Hist.
THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being
the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king
of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from
whom his subjects were flailed Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all
Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived theif
origin, as the Achajans, the ^Etolians. the Dorians, the Hellenists, &-c. The
two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the
deluge of Deucalion, 1503 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263.
See them severally.
THRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and
Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 b. c. ; and it
so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans. 168 b. c. By-
zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which C Constantinople
was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet H., a. d. 1463.-
Priestley.
TIflf ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559
TilR ASHING -MACfflNES. The flail was the only instnimeiit formerly in use.
The Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones
or iron, drawn over the corn-s4ieaves by horses. The first machine attempted
in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about
1732 ; Miekles, in 1776.
TIIRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody engagement between the Car-
thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b. c. No
less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken
prisoners; or, according to Livy, 6000; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of
Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10 000 Romans made their es-
cape, all covered with wounds. — Livy ; Polybius.
THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the
first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England
also. The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the
privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly
resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a
present by the council King WiUiam expressed a desire to see it, and tried it
on, bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out,
" Hold ! hold! doctor ; another turn would make me confess any thing."
IHURSDAY. The iifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero
worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly
by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over
the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is
said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, Avhich
was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and
Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day,
has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day.
TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi-
donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon,
about 79 B. c. ; and Cfesar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic
War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler,
A. D. 1598 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved
for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove
universal gravitation, about 1683.
TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus-
sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri-
tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele-
vation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones
of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July
19 following.
TILTS and TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the
eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them,
and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry
IV., about A. D. 1400. — Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the
suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in
France in 1560. — Voltaire's Gen. Hist.
riMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60 000
loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five Avill stand
on an acre ; in peace, 82 000 tons, or 48 000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship
consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of Hfty-seven acrea
in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102.600 acres, and 1026 per
annum. — Allnut. England imports about 800 000 loads of timber annually,
exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &c., together with about 8,000.'
000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Ret.
560 THE world's progress. [tos
TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. c;. Early au-
thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each
twelve inches long; but as thej'^ burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in-
vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being r
great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses,
sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks^
Watches, &c.
TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100
years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them
commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tiu-
mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor-
mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, par-
ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni-
ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the
stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall.
Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall
into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince,
1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest
sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany,
which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in
Europe, a. d. 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ;
in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons
of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of
400,000Z.
TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490
B. c. — Josephus. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were
given purely as alms, and were voluntary. — Wlcldiffe. " I will not put the
title of the clergy to tith'es npon any divine right, though such a right
certainly commenced and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the-
ocracy."— Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law,
is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786.
Oflfa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to
expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had
caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Burii's Ecclcs. Law. Tithes were
first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold,
a. d. 844. — Henrifs Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by
Charlemagne, about 800. — Renault. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran
councils, 1215. — Rainaldi.
TITLES, ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles
swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of " Grace" and " My liege"
conferred upon him. 1399. The title of " Excellent Grace" was conferred
upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty
Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIII.
had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last
were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I.
of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field
of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled
" Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to '■ Majesty" the present " Sacre4,"
or " Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emi^erors of
Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France,
about U63.
TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tabacuvi. This plant received its name from Tabacco,
a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago,
one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was
first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span-
top] dictionary op dates. 561
iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth,
1565, bv sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake
are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured
only for exportation for some years. — Stov-e's Chron. In 1584 a proclama-
tion was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast
against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 65. ¥)d.
per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II.
An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation
was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax Avas increased, and put under the
excise, 1789. — Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to
tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire-
land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased
in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England
m 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen
millions of pounds. — Chan, of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached
to forty millions of pounds. — Pari. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is
grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all ti'ae
southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was S7,651,122.
Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United
States is consid-ered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for
smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad
taste of this weed.
TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. . 642. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re-
taken. 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was
ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse
in 1781. and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April
14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens. Oct. 6, 1802. The island was
once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814.
TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the
first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The
dissenters have ever since enjoyed tlie benefits of this act without interrup-
tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of
queen Anne's reign.
TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d,
1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound,
1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for
every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes
were used in 1663.
TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods,
commenced in England about 21 Edward III., 1346. The first granted to
the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Cumngham's Hist.
Taxes.
TONTINES, Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so
called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on
foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by
amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653. — Vol-
taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a
lOOZ. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share-
holders, his share produced him 3000^. per annum. He died worth 2,116,-
244^., aged 103 years, June 19, VdS.—HaTfdn.
TOPLITZ. Battle of. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austriana
and Prussians,, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz,
August 30. 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a
considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz, being a tripk
24*
562 THE world's progress. [_Tv>r
alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. Treaty ot
Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year.
TORTURE. It has disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country.
It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It waa
used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used hi
England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558 ; and in Scotland untiT IGOO.
The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order
of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time
before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gustaras III., 1786. ft
yet continues in other countries.
TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be
derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col-
lector of tithes and taxes. — Encijdop. Tlie names of Cavaliers and Round-
heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us,
into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated
the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives ;
while " the Whigs " denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. — Aske.
The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com-
paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (tvMch
see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par-
ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ;
and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. In our
revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists ; but, oddly enough,
at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party,
while the other great party called themselves Whigs. See Whigs.
TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by
land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of
ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise
the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord
Hood, who took possession both of the town and sl^ipping in the name of
Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu-
tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the Enghsh and French
forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated
by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised
towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British.
TOULOUSE, France. Founded about 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es-
tablished here to extirpate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto-
ricians of Toulouse, had their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater-
nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to
the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours.
TOULOUSE, Battle of. The final battle between the British Peninsular army
under lord Wellington and the French — one of the most bloody that had
been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of
the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soultj
whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight-
ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British
forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the
allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that
of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte
had abdicated the thi'one of France ; but neither of the commanders waa
aware of that fact, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814.
TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin,
such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar-
tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show
TOW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563
their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tourner,
" to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility,
both of horse and man, was necessary. They were much practised a. d.
890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about
919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance
iu 1136. One was held in Smithtield so late as the 12th century, when tho
taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the
count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused
the king's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were from
this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is
(led." A magnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took
place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many
of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour
being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes-
tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament.
TOUENAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria
by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison
in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under g;e-
neral Labourdonnaye. Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians
and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious,
May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French,
Avhen the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field-
pieces. May 6; 1794.
TOrjRS, Battle of. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that
which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours,
and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We
are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as
well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10,
A. D. 732.
TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of
Shinar {Genesis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at
Athens, built 550 b. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow-
ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be
reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc-
tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English,
except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes.
These towers were tail, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing
towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above
the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these
productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet
high.
TOWER OF LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more
than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first
maiked out by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and
con.pleted by his son William Rufus, who. in 1098, surrounded it with walls,
and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it,
and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re-
built; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly
repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are
the Armory, Jewel-office, and various otlier divisions and buildings of
peculiar interest; and here Avere many executions of illustrious persons,
and many murders See England.
TOWTON, Battle of. This gieat battle is supposed to be tliemost fierce and
bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between
the housr-.s of York (Edward IV.) ant' Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter
I" IRA
of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37;000 of his subjects
fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless
slaughter ensued. Henr}' was made prisoner and confined in the Tower *,
his queen, Margaret, tied to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461.
TRAFALGAR, Battle of, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng-'
land, fought b}" the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against
the combined tileets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve
and two Spanish admirals. The enemj-'s force was eighteen French and
fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships.
After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other ad-
mirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed.
But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral
Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and
his last signal on going into the engagement, was '• England expects every
man to do his duty.'' Oct. 21, 1805.
TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first
tragic ])oet at Athens, 536 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the
first gained by iEschylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho-
cles, 470 B. c. — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c. — Ibid. Another by
Astydamus, 377 b. c. — Ibid. See Drama; Plays; Theatres.
TRAJANS PILLAR. Erected a. d. 114, by the directions of the emperor
Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus. This column, which still exists at
Rome, Avas built in the large square called the Forum Roinanum ; it is
140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the
emperor.
TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth
century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dying, went
farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro-
longing life. A. D. 1483. — Henaidt. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion
upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five
persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited
the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English
physician, who died in 1691, practised in this way. — Friend's Hist, of Phys.
Transfusion again attcvnpted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Great Bri-
tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood.
TRANSPORTATION of FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were
ordered for transportation instead of execution, a.d. 1590; but banishment
for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England
is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara-
tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans-
portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — Phillips. More
]-ecently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was
traiisported for forging a frank. {IQd. postage) Sept. 9. 1818. The first
transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; they arrived at the
settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished
with death until 1834. when an act passed making the offence punishable
by transportation for life.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about
A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It
was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the
doctrine before 1U66. Belief in it as necessary to salvation A\as finally es-
tablished by the council of Placentia, 1095. The word '' transubstantiation"
was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subsequent
times, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of the
council of Constance, a, d. 1415. — Cave's Hist. Lit.
TRE J
DICTlOiYARY OF DATES.
565
TRAPPTSTS. OR MONKS of LA TRAPPE. A French order in the depart-
ment of Orne. famed in tlie days of superstition for their austerity of dis-
cipline, and for Iceeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with
rebellion and conspiracy in France and 64 English and Irish Trappists were
shipped by the French government at Painboeuf Nov. 19. and were landed
from the Hehe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30. 1831. They have established
themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain
there the extreme rigor of their order.
TRAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage
ICngiish subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money
tliere, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license
for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1635. — Rapin.
TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise
water for the irrigation of the fields. The .'read-mill lately introduced into
the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is
the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton
jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States.
TREASON. See Hi'j:h Treason. It waa punished in Engbland only by banish-
ment till after Henry I. — Bakers Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward
in., 1319. • Trials regulated, and two v/itnesses required to convict. 1695.
The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment
was dreadful — hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive.
Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason,
which passed both houses in 3788. Petty treason may happen three
ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master;
and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so
declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350.
TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any
foreign nation v>'as entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty was
with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain,
1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civihzed nations of
Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following
forms an index to them. See Conventions ; Coalitions; Leagues, &c.
Abo, peace of -
.
-1743
Carlsbad, congress of -
-18H
Aix-la-Chapelle
- - 1668
. Cateau-Cambresis, peace of
. - 155S
Aix-la-Ch;ipelle, peace
of ' -
-174S
Chaiimont. treaty of -
-1814
Akermann, peace of
. - 1826
Chunar, India
-1781
Alt Radsladt
-1706
Cintra, convention of -
-1803
America, peace with
. - 1783
Closterseven, convention of
- 1757
Amiens, peace of
-1802
Coalition, first, against France
- 1792-
Armed Neutrality -
- - 1800
Coalition, second, ditto
. - 1799
Arras, treaty of
- 1435
Coalition, third, ditto
-1305
Arras, ditto -
- - 1482
Coalition, fourth, ditto
.1806
Auesbur^h, league of
Baden, peace of
-1636
Coalition, fifth, ditto
-1803
. - 1714
Coalition, sixth, ditto
- 1S13
Barrier treaty -
- 1715
Concordat
-1801
Basle, peace of
. - 1795
Conflans. treaty of
- 146.5
Bassein, India •
- 18l>-2
Constantinople, peace of
-1712
Bayoane, treaty of -
- - 180S
Constantinople, treaty of -
- 1833
Belgium, treaty of London
- 1839
Copenhagcii, peace of
-1660
Belgrade, pfeace of -
. - 1739
Cressy
. -1544
Berlin, peace of
.
-1742
Dresden
- 1745
Berlin Jecree
- - 1806
Family compact
-1761
Berlin convention
.
- 1803
Fnniainebleau. peace of
- 1679
Breda peace of
- - 1667
Fontainebleau, treaty of -
• 1785
Breiiarny, peace of
.
- 1360
Fontainebleau, concordat at -
-1813
Biu-Viarest, treaty of
. - 1812
Friedwald, treaty of
- 1551
Cambray, league of
- 1508
Fuessen, peace of
-1745
Cambray. peace of
- - 1529
Ghent, pacification of
- 1576
Oampo-Formio. treaty
of ' -
- 1797
Ghent, peace o*" America)
- 1814
Carlowitz, peace of
■ - 1699
Golden Bull
-1356
666
THE world's progress.
[TRl
TREATIES, continued.
Grand Alliance
.
.1689
Pyrenees, treaty of the
' . 1659
Greece, treaty of London
. 1829
Quadruple Alliance
.1718
Hague, treaty of the
. 16.59
Radstadt, peace of •
• - 1714
Hague, treaty of the
-1669
Radstadt, congress of -
-1/W
Halle, treaty of
.
-1610
Ratisbon, peace of -
- • 1630
Hamburgh, peace of
-1762
Raiisbon, treaty of
.1806
Hanover treaty -
.
•1725
Religion, peace of -
. - 1.555
Holland, peace with
-1784
Rhine, Confederation of the
-isoe
Holy Alliance ■-
.
-1815
Ryswick, peace of -
. - 1697
Hubertsberg, peace of
- 1763
St. Germain's, peace of
.1570
Interim -
• 1548
St. Germain-en-Laye
- - 1679
Kiel, treaty of
-1814
St. Ildeibnso, alliance of Spain
with
Laybach, congress of -
- 1721
France ....
^1795
League
-1576
Seville, peace of
. • 1792
Leipsic, alliance of
.
- 1631
Siiirod, peace of -
- 1613
Leoben, peace of -
-1797
Smalcald, league of-
- - 1529
Lisbon, peace of
.
-1668
Spain, pacification of (London)
.1834
I^ondon, treaty of (Greece)
- 1829
S ettin, peace of
. - 1570
London, convention of (.Turl
cey)
- 184U
Stockholm
. 1630
Lubeclc. peace of -
- 1629
Stockholm, peace of
. . 1719
Luneville, peace of
,
. 1801
Siockholni, treaty of ■
-1724
Madrid, treaty of -
- 1526
Stockholm, treaty of
. - 1813
Methuen treaty -
.
- 1703
Temeswar, truce of
- 1664
Milan decree
- 1807
Teschen, peace of -
-1779
Munster, peace of
.
- J 648
Teusin, peace of
. 1595
Nantes, edict of
-1598
Tibit, peace of
. - 1807
Naumberg, treaty of
- 1554
Tolentino, treaty of
■ 1793
Nice, treaty of
- 1518
Topliiz, treaty of •
- 1813
Nimeguen, peace of
.
-1678
Triple Alliance -
-1717
Noyon, treaty of
- 1516
Triple Alliance of the Hague
-1668
Nuremberg, treaty of •
.
1532
Troppau, congress of -
. 1820
Olivia, peace of
1660
Troyes, treaty of
. . 1420
Paris, peace of (see Paris)
.
1763
Turkmauchay, peace of
-1828
Paris, treaty of
1796
Ulm. peace of
- 1620
Paris, peace of (Sweden)
.
1810
Utreiht, union of
-1579
Paris, capitulation of
1814
Utrecht, peace of -
-1713
Paris, treaty of -
.
1814
Valen^ay, treaty of
-1813
Paris, peace of
1815
Verona, congress of
-1822
Paris, treaty of -
.
-1817
Veisailles, peace of •
-1783
Partition, tirst treaty
-1698
Vienna, treaty of -
- 1725
Partition, second treaty -
1700
Vienna, treaty of alliance
.1731
Passarowifz, peace of
• 1718
Vienna, definitive peace
.1737
Pa?sau, treaty of
1552
Vienna, peace of - •
.1809
Petersburgh, peace of
1762
Vierma, treaty of, March 23
-1815
Petersburgh, treaty of -
1772
Vienna, treaty of, May 3J
-1815
Petersburgh, treaty of
1805
Vienna, treaty of, June 4 -
-1815
Petersburgh, treaty of -
.
1810
Vossem, peace of
-1673
Peterswalden, convention oi
1813
Warsaw, treaty of -
.1768
Pilnitz, convention ^f •
.
1791
Warsaw, alliance of
-1683
Poland, partition of -
1795
Wesimmster, peace of
-1674
Pragmatic Sanction
1439
Westminster (with Holland) .
.1716
Pragmatic Sanction
1713
Westphalia, peace of
- 1648
Prague, peace of
.
1653
VVilna, treaty of -
-]&61
Presburg, peace of -
1805
Worms, edict of
-1521
Public good, league for the
-
1464
Wurtzburg, treaty of •
-1610
TREATIES OF the UNITED
STATES.— S
ome of the most important :
Alliance with France
Feb. 6
1779
Treaty with Great Britain, by Mo
nroe
Treaty of Paris (indcpenden
:e secured)
and Pinckney— rejected by the i
\.me.
Sept. 3
1783
rican government
-180S
Treaty of commerce with P
•ussia
1785
Treaty of Ghent, with Great Bri
tain,
Treaty with Morocco -
1787
signed by J. Q,. Adams, Gallatin
and
Treaty of commerce with Gr
eat Britain
H. Clay, for the . ited Slates,
:los.
(Jay's) -
.
1794
ing the " war of 1812," ..ut lea
7ing
Treaty with the Six Nations
and othe
r
the orisrinal disinite much as bel
ore - 1314
Indian tribes -
1794
Ratified by the United States, Feb
. 17, 1315
Treaty with Spain, by Pine
kney; and
Treaty with the Choctaws and Ch
ere-
Algiers, by Humphries -
.
1795
kees ....
-1816
Treaty with Tunis ; with P
russia (by
Treaty with the republic of Colom
3ia - IS23
J, Q. Adams) -
.
1799
Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &
c. - 1325
Treaty with F'-ance, by Ells
trick Henry &c.
worth, Pa-
Treaty with Great Britain, indemi
lify-
Sept. 30,
1800
ing American citizens for spoliat
iona
TRI J
DICTIONARY OP DATES,
567
Gushing ; ratified by the se. ate
Jan. 16, 184S
Treaty of peace with Mexico, signed at
Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2,' iS48 ;
ratified by the senate (with modifica-
tion?) ; ratified at Queretaro by Ame-
rican commissioners Sevier and Clif-
lord, and Mexican minister Rosas
May 30, l&iS
Treaty with Great Britain, respecting
Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between
North and South America; signed
at Washington by Sir II. L. Bulwer
and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850
Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years.
Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years.
Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem,
800 years.
Banian., in Hindostan, 3,000 years.
Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years.
[For proofs and details see tlie article re-
ferred to. ]
TREATIES, continued.
during the war with Napoleon
Nov. 13, 1826
Treaty with Brazil - March 18, 1829
Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830
Treaty witii Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831
Treatv with do. - - April 5, 18.32
Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832
Treaty with Russia (commercial)
Dec. 18, 1832
Treaty with Great Britain, respecting
the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash-
ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr.
Webster ; ratified by the senate (39
to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842
Treaty with China, negotiated by C.
TREES. Age of
manac for 1838, p. 102, are
The Wallace oak at EUerslie, Scotland,
700 years.
(Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500
years.)
Oak on estate of James Wadsworth, Gene-
seo, New York, 500 years.
Yew trees at Fountain's Abbey, England,
1,200 years; and in Scotland, said tube
2,500 years.
TRENT, Council of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic
church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli-
citly received as tlie standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church.
The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (.but Avith interrup-
tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last
council was held.
TRIALS. Alfred is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but there
is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at
Hawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a
list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants ol
one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name
and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate.^ — Phillips.
TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. Tribuni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first
chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 b.c, at the
time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, bad retired to Mons Sa-
cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus ; but their number was
soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which remained fixed.
Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the
ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election.
TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken
from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it
from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the
line, and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom
the island capitulated. Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three
Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng-
land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes
occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies.
'illlNlTY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by
all Christian sects except those called Unitarians {which see). Theophihis,
bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used
the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His
Defence of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546.— Wat kins
588 THE world's progress. I" Tiie
An order of the Trinity was founded, a. d. 1198, by John de Matha and Felix
de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was insti-
tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt from penal-
ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in
1813.
TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between
the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the
Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known
as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668.
TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after
they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great
magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two
sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled
the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs,
accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation.
TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state
with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde-
pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their dilFerent
pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate,
B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the
expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi-
rate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus. Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through
Avhom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his
colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in
Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See
Rome.
TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century,
and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by
several powerful ])rinces, that they spread in process of time throughout
Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in
their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the
troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry.
TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and
more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came
hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the
daughter of Teucer. prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus
built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania : Troas, the second in
succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy; and Ilus, his succes-
sor, converted it into Ilium.
Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- j War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1224
nor. —Blair - - B.C. 1546 ! Reign of Priam or PoJarces - - 1224
Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris,
Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds j son of Priam, 20 years before the
the city of Dardania ' - - 1480 j sacking of Troy. — Homer's Iliad,
Reign of Ericthonius - - - 1449 I book xxiv., litie 964, Pope's edit. - 1201
Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- I Commencement of tlie invasion of the
pie are called Trojans - - 1374 j Greeks to recover Helen - - 1193
The rape of Ganymede - - 1341 I Troy taken and burned in the night of
Ilus, son of Troas, reigns • - 1314
Reign of Laomedon - - - 1260
Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia ;He-
sione delivered from the sea-monster.
—Blair, Usher - - - 1225
the ilih of .Tune, i. e. 23d of the
month Thargelion. — Parian Mar-
bles. 408 years before the first
Olympiad. — Apollodorus - - 1184
.Slneas arrives in Italy.— Lenglet - 1183
Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about
thirty stadia distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name.
and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic eipe-
rUN J riCTIOXARY OF DATES. 569
dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo was
nearly in ruins, — Priestley.
TROY Vv^'EIGHT, The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in
Britain. — Arbuthnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from
Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1095. It
was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used
to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es-
tabhslied by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618.
TROrES TRE.4Ty of, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it
was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles
VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should
inherit the crown. May 24, 1420. The French Avere driven from Troyes by
the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was
finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814,
TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum-
pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the
time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then
shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars. —
Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the
Great in 335 b. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time
of Otfa, king of Mercia, a. d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by
Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained by
Moreland, 1671.
TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tu-
isco. or T'ao. a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day.
Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Je\vs.
See Week Days.
rUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by
Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a. d. 1564 ; con-
tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the
scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, particularly
those of 1789 and 1848.
TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always
been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com-
merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of
Alcraaer, in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold
for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy,
sold for 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant
and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was
carried to England from America, about 1663.
TUNBRIDGE- WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by
Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage
of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its
waters, a. d. 1606.
TUNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The
territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and
were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war. 148 b. g.
Besieged by Louis IX. of France. 1270. It remained under African kings
till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was
expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks, under
Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when
10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was
first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey
refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656.
57C
THE world's progress.
[ TUl
TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting- of twd
parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The
sash of the Turk's turban is white linen; that of the Persians, red woollen.
These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king
of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the tirst who assumed the red color,
to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar,
TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated
their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French
republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and
arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the
island of Sardinia, In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians
and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered
to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restor-
ed it to the king of Sardinia.
TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by
reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they
became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of
manv races of men.
Birlh of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca
(see Mecca) ■ - - ad. .571
His imposture commenced (see Maho-
tnetanisiii) .... 604
The Koran written (see Koran) - 610
Flight to Medina (see Medina) - 622
j3Era of the Hegira (see i/e^iVa) - 622
Death of Mahomet . . - 631
Holy wars begin (see Crusades) - 1095
The Turkish empire first Ibrmed under
Othman at Bythinia - . . 1298
The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and
take Adrianople - - - 1360
Amuraih I. institutes the Janizaries, a
guard composed of Christian slaves
bred Mahometans - - - 1362
Bajazetl. overruns the provinces of the
Eastern empire . . 1389, et seq.
He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is
at length taken by Tamerlane (see
Tamerlane) .... 1403
The Turks invading Hungary, are re-
pelled by Huniades . . - 1450
Constantinople taken by the Turks un-
der Mahomet II., which ends the
Eastern Roman empire - . 1453
Greece made subject to the Mahome-
tans (see Greece) ■ - - 1458
The Turks penetrate into Italy, and
take Otranio, which diffuses terror
throughout Europe - - - 1480
Selim I. raised to the throne by the .la-
nizaries ; he murders his father, bro-
thers, and their sons - . - 1512
He takes the islands of the Archipelago
from the Christians . - - 1514
He overruns Syria - - - 1515
Adds Egypt to his empire - - 1516
Solyman II. takes Belgrade . - 1521
Rhodes taken from the knights of St.
John, who go to Malta . - 1522
Solyman II., with 250,000 men, is repuls-
ed before Vienna - . . 1529
Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571
Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an
end to the fears of Europe from Turk-
ish power (see Lepanlo) ■ • 1571
Amurath II. ascends the throne; stran-
gles his five brothers - . - 1574
[Dreadful persecutions of the Christians
during this reign]
The Turks driven out of Persia by the
famous Schah Abbas - - A. D, 1585
Bloody reign of Mahomet HI. - - 1595
Great fire in Constantinople - . 1606
Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles
his father and four brothers . . 1624
The Turks defeat the Persians, and take
the city of Bagdad - . -1639
The island of Candia, or Crete, taken
after a 25 years' siege - - 1669
Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but
relieved by John of Poland - .1683
Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687
Peace of Carlovitz - - -1699
Mustapha III. deposed - - • 1703
The Morea retaken by the Turks . 1715
Belgrade taken from Austria; and Rus-
sia relinquishes Azoff - - 1739
Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ;
the English and Russian fleets defeat
the Turkish .... 1770
The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783
[This ends the disastrous war with Rus-
sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the
Turks having lost more than 200,000
men. — Ashe.]
War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1806
Passage and repassage of the Darda-
nelles effected by the British fleet, but
with great loss (see Dardanelles)
Feb. 19, 1807
The sultan Selim is deposed and mur-
dered, and Mustapha IV. called to
the throne - - May 29, 180?
Treaty of Bucharest (ickich see) May
28, sia
A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re-
turning fnmi Mecca, destroyed by a
pestilential wind in the deserts of
Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812
Subjection of the Wachabees - .1819
Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares
hirnself independent - - - 1820
Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia
March 6, 1821
The Greek Patriarch put to death at
Constantinople • - April 23, 182I
ruE. J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
571
TURKEY, continue i.
Horrible massa?j'e at Scio; the most
dreadful in mjdern history (see note
to Greece) - - - April 23, 1822
Sea-fight near Mityiene - Oct. 6, 1824
New Mahometan army announced to br
organized - - - May 29, 1S26
Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con-
stantinople - - - June 14, 1826
Firman of the sxtan abolishing the Ja-
nizaries .... 1S26
Fire at Consta uniople ; 6000 houses re-
duced to ashes - - August 30, 1826
Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet
destroyed by the fleets of England,
France, and Russia (see Nnvarhio)
Oct. 20. 1827
Banishment of 132 French, 120 English,
and 85 Russian settlers, from the
Turkish empire - January 5, 1828
War with Russia - - April 26, 1828
The emperor Nicholas takes the field
against the Turks - May 20, 1828
The Russian emperor arrives before
Varna .... Aug. 5, 1828
Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828
Fortress of Bajazet taken • Sept. 9, 1828
The sultan leaves his capital for the
camp, bearing with him the sacred
standard - - - Sept. 26, 1828
Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. I, 1828
Surrender of Varna - - Oct. 15, 1828
TURKISH
1295 Ossman, or Ottoman I.
1325 Orcham, his youngest son.
13-59 Amurath I., his sun; assassinated.
1388 Bajazet I., his son ; died in prison.
1.397 Isa Belis; killed by his brother.
1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother.
1410 Musa; strangled by his brother.
1413 Mahomet I. ;' succeeded by his son.
1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son.
1451 Mahomet II. ; left the empire to his
two sons.
1481 Co -tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by
his father.
1481 Xemin; obliged to abdicate in favor of
his biother.
1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son.
1520 Solyman, the Magnificent.
1566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son.
1512 Selim; succeeded by his son.
1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son.
1595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son.
1804 Achmei; succeeded by his bfother.
1617 Mustaphal.; succeeded by his nephew,
1617 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries,
TURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England ad 1524, and
to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent-
ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari-
ou: particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are natives
neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond
controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met
with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be-
ing larger do not differ from ours. — Smyth.
TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whoii»
articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious \ase8
Russians retreat from I efore Schurnla,
October If., 18^
Surrender of the castle of the Morea to
the French - - - Oct. .".0, 1828
Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians
Nov. 10, 1828
Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa
near Schumla - • June 11, 1529
Adrianople is entered by the Russian
troops - - - Aug. 20, 1829
Armistice between the Russian and
Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 184S
Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14, 1829
Treaty with the U. States - May 7, 1830
St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa-
cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, ld32
He defeats the army of ti. e sultan in Sy-
ria, with great loss - - Jidy 30. 1832
A series of successes brings the ar ny of
Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues
of Constantinople, and the sultan has
recourse to the aid of Russia - Jan. 1833
A Russian force enters the Turkish ca-
pital .... April 3, 1833
Treaty with Russia, offensive ^nd de-
fensive - - • July >>, 1833
Office of grand vizier abolished by the
sultan - - - March 30, 1838
Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848
Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 184'J
EMPERORS.
and his uncle restored.
1622 Mustapha I. ; again deposed and suc-
ceeded by his grandson.
1623 Amuiath IV., succeeded by his brother,
1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries,
succeeded by his son.
1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by
bis brother.
1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his bio-
ther.
1691 Achmet II. ; succeededby his nephew.
1695 Mustapha 11., eldest son of Mahomet
IV., deposed and succeeded by hi<'
brother.
1703 Achmet III. ; deposed.
17.30 Mahomet v.; succeededby his brother.
1754 Osman II. ; succeeded by his brother.
1757 Mustapha III. ; succeeded by his bro-
ther.
1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV.
1789 Selim III.
1807 Mustapha IV.
1808 Mah. Khan II.
1839 Abdul-Medjid, June 27.
572 THE world's PE ogress. f TYE
enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets oi
the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for
turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery ; and
in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war
are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces oi
oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei.
ITJRNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other-
wise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663,—
Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous.
n J'SC ANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. It came
into the Austrian family in 1737. It Avas seized by the French in March
1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his
dominions given to Louis, sou of the king of Spain, with tie title of king
of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 30, 1803 ; and soon after-
wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy;
but was restored to Austria in 1814, The present grana- iuKe Leopold IT
(cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824,
The chambers meet.
Provisional government proclaimed,
Feb. 9, 1B49
Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus-
can troops - - - May 10, 184")
The grand-duke re-enters Florence and
resumes his authority - July 27, 1849
Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8
began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847
Grand-duke grants a national militia.
The grand-duke granted a liberal con-
stitution - - - - Feb. 1848
Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848
The grand-duke flees from Florence
TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation
of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king
and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on
the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece
of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as
king.
TYLER. WAT, his Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to
the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of
one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, Avith a view to prove her of suffi-
cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence),
the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000
men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where
the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and
again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the
mayor. Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of
the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader
awed the multitude, to whorn Richard promised a charter, and they dis-
persed, 1381.
TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor, Another city was bujlt
1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from
before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken by Nebu-
chadnezzar, 572 B. c, and the city demohshed, when the Tyreans removed
to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken
by Alexander with much difhculty, and only after he had joined the islaci
to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. c.
— Slrabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes
were the ;.iege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by
Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the
flames. — Phillips.
TYRE Ee.i OP. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Hy--
perb(n'eta3us. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era,
and the year is similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sub
um]
DICTIONARY OF DATiK. 573
tract 124 ; and if the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and
the r<;mainder will be the year before Christ.
U.
UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger-
many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to
be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1540.
UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia ard
Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor-
ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the
treaty of Partition in 1795.
ULM, Peace of, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from
it previously), July 3, 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great
■ battle between the French and Austrians. in which the latter, imdcr gen-
eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, Avhose vic-
tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the floNver
of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the
confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date.
lTMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to
carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel-
las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel-
las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who
visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince
of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds ol
soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused
a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan-
tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said
that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was
the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.*
UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their
feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole
body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high
priests were anointed at their inauguration; they also anointed the vessels
of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were
anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1. a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme
unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received
unction from the pope, 590. — Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as
extreme unction. See Anointing.
UNIFORMS. Militar} uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man-
* For a long while it was not usual for men to cany them without incurring the brand of eiTe-
minacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary
occasions — lent as -a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers.
The Ftmale Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in
fear of rain, borrowed the umbnllafrom- Wilks's Coffee-house, shall the next time be welcome to
the maid's pattetis " As late as 1778, one .John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life,
infirms us. that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain; but he could not
wilh any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out '"Frenchman! why don't you get a
coach V " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps,
'fi-ere clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther
information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, exc'ept in noblemen's and
gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold jver a lady if it rained,
between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit J is arm one day
from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted
for three months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and lliei?
the English. Now it is beco "^e a great trade in London."— A'ez/j Monthly Magazine.
574 THE world's progress. " [\JNi
ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards
adopted.
UNIFORMITY, Act op. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But
the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles
IL, 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all
clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of
worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of
2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their
lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their
numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest.
UNION OF THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united
by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March
24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604,
but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In
the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc-
cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith-
standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union
was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af-
terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia-
ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law. May 1, same year,
UNION WITH IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propos-
ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British
parliament, July 2, 1800.
UNITARIANS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and
worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who. besides the
Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned
man, excited b}^ the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip-
tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a
tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533,
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to
arrest him on a charge of blaspliemy and heresy : and refusing to retract
his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried
into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana-
tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation
of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States,
especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in-
fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and
eloquent writer. Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian.
UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British
realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new
imperial standard was hoisted on tiie Tower of London and Castle of Dub-
lin. See Union.
UNITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span-
ish yoke. A. D. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange,
at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex-
cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne-
tiierlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht,
Friesland. Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23,
1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of
Orange as their stadtholder ; and formed the alliance ever since known as
the ''Union of Utrecht.'"' the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by
the appellation of the '• Seven United Provinces." Their independence was
acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was
crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated
»INI J
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
575
July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgmm annexed
Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe-
Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgium.
DNITED STATES of AMER CA. See America ; and the separate States,
Maine, .&c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, con-
sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, June 7,
1765. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration of
Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19. 1775
See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4
1776. The title of " United States " adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 177G.
Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris,
Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great
Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at
Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April. 1846. Treaty
of peace signed May 30, 1848. See Wars of the United States. &c. ; also
Naval Battles ; also Administrations, Exports, Noiional Debt, Treaties, Po-
pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States
are given more at large under that head in the Tabular Views in this
vol., page 122, et. seq.]
UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects
of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and
celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted
the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691,
he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon
which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity
of hell torments, involved this doctrine,
UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from
the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient uni-
versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and
Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho-
lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol-
lowing are the principal universities in Europe :
Aberdeen founded
- 1494
Dublin -
.
-1591
Abo, Finland
- 1640
Edinburgh, founded by James VI.
-1582
Aix, 1409 ; re-established
-1603
Erfurt, Thuringia; enlarged
-1390
Alba Julia, Transylvania
- 1629
Florence, Italy; enlarged
-1438
Altorf, Franconia
-1581
Frankfort-on-the-Oder
-1506
Andrew's, St., Scotland
-1411
Fribourg, Germany
-1460
Angers, chiefly law
-1393
Geneva
-1365
Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged
- 1364
Glasgow -
- 1450
Avignon.. France
-i:38S
Gottingen
- 1734
Bamberg
-1585
Granada, Spain -
- 1537
Baale, Switzerland
-1458
Gripswald -
-1547
Berlin
- 1812
Groningen, Friesland -
-1614
Besancon, Burgundy -
-1540
Halle, Saxony
-1694
Bologna. Italy
- 423
Heidelberg
. 1346
Bruges, French Flanders
-1665
Ingoldstadt. Bavaria
. 1573
Caen, Normandy
-1417
Jena, or Sala, Thuringia
- 1548
Cambridge, began, 626—
according
to
Kiel, Holstein
. - 1665
others, 900. See Cambridge.
King's College, London
-1829
Cambridge, New England, projected
-1630
Konigsberg, Prussia
.l->44
Cologne, in Germany, re-
founded
- 1389
Leipsic, Saxonv -
-1405
Compostella, Spain
.
- 1517
Leyden, Holland -
. - 157£
Coimbra, Portugal
-1301
Lima, in Peru -
-1614
Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged
- 1539
Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coimbr
1 . 1391
Cordova, Spain -
.
- 968
London University
.1S2C
Cracow. Poland, 700; en
arged -
-1402
Louvaine, Flanders, 926;
enlargec
1 . 1427
Dijon, France
.
-1722
Lyons, France -
.
. 830
Dillingin, Swabia -
.
-1565
Mechlin. Flanders -
■ - 1440
Dole, Burgundy -
.
-1426
Mentz
.
- 1482
Douay, French Flanders
.
• 1562
Montpelier -
.
. - 119J
T^resden, Srxony
-
-1694
Moscow -
•
.173^
5r6 THE world's progress. [ cm
riNJVERSITIES, continued.
Munster 1491
Naples 1216
Orleans, France 1312
Oxford (see Oxford) - - - - 886
Paderborn 1592
Padua, Italy 1179
Palenza, 1209; removed to Salamanca 1249
Paris. 792; renovated - - - -1100
Parma 1599
Pavia, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361
Porpignan 1349
Perugia, Italy 1307
Petersburgh 1747
Pisa, 1339 ; enlarged .... 1552
Poicliers 1430
Prague 1348
Rheims, 1145; enlarged - - - -1560
Rome Sapienza 1303
Rostock, Mecklenburgh - . • - 1419
Salamanca 1240
Salerno 1233
Saltzburg ..... 1621
Saragossa, Arragon ..... 1474
Seville 1531
Sienna - . 1387
Siguenza, Spain 1517
Sorbonne, Paris 1253
Strasburg 1538
Toledo. Spain 1518
Treves, Germany .... 1473
Tubingen, Wirtemberg - - - • 1477
Turin 1403
Upsal, Sweden 1477
Utrecht, Holland 1636
Valence, Daupliine 1475
Valencia in the thirteenth century.
Valladolid 134(
Venice 1592
Vienna 12:36
Wirtembers . - ... 1^02
Wittenberg'' ... . . R02
Wurtzburg . • . - 1403
UNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES. See Colleges.
UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irvin.i, s chapel, in
London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy,
by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknown Tongue.''' She
was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and
commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the
same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the
whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females
screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to
the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period,
much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap-
sody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but
as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi-
fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics. —
Ann. Register.
URANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by
whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III.
The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious
discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is
asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the
planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781.
USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given
for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 43Z. 6s. M. per
annum for lOOZ., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews.
Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest
of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished
and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest
was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza-
beth. 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word in-
terest was first used for the word usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne,
1714. See Interest.
U lRECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began
here (see United Provinces), a. d. 15 9. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht,
which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of
Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis-
ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were
the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the
»'AL ] DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 577
French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement
of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction
for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the
Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795.
V.
TACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccina, discovered by Dr. Jenner. He
made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the pus from
the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, tc
a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. .Tenner subsequently published the result
to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro-
duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of
vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received lO.OOOZ. for the dis-
covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the
promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded
Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously
to 1816.
VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return
to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry
VIII.. 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of
the gristle of his r^ght ear, 27 Henry VIII., 1535 ; and a third time convicted,
death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a
slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring
the ears, and death for a second offence. 14 Elizabeth, 1571. The milder
statutes were those of 17 George II. ; 32, 35, and 59 George III, The laws
against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as
respects the character of the offender.
VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and
was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in
1705. but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the
French, under Sachet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im-
mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812.
VALENCIENNES, Siege of. This city was besieged from May 23 to July 14,
when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York,
1793. It was retaken, together with Conde, by the French, on capitulation,
the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz.
— 300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions
of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast
quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30. 1794,
VALENCAY; Tre.\ty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII.
of Spain, whereby the latter Avas put in full possession of that kingdom, oa
agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De^
cember 8, 1813,
VALENTINES DAY. The practice of "choosing a Valentine," as it i&
called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of
the custom has been much controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient
date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr-
dom under Claudius II. at Rome, a, d, 271. It is said that on this day
the birds choose their mates; whence, probably, came the custom of
young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of
Valentine.
^ALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions
of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopric
25
578 THE world's progress. [ VES
forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and
goddesses, fifteen ^of each sex, which he called ^^ones, or Ages. I£e
taught in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms : to
these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob-
ligation to suffer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others
practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen-
tiousness.
VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman
under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence
of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North
Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command
it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled an
account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and
died in 1798.
VANDAIiS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Gem my and Gaul,
A. D 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded
and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took
Carthage. Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out. and attacked in turn by the
Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread
devastation wherever they ai)peared,
VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country was discovered by Tasman in 1633.
It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was
deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle-
ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der-
went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804.
VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced
by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William L Under the Nor-
man princes there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold
with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day
the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where
the vassal boors are divided into classes; as boors belonging to the sover-
eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property ; and private boors, who
belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In Eugland,
a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee.
Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May
1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818.
VATICAN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's,
said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448,
is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara-
tively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Vatican,"
was first used by Voltaire, 1748.
VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some
huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them
above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to
give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a
congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep-
arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent in
1830. See Colombia.
VENI, VIDI, VICI. — "I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen-
tence formed the whole of Caesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when ho
vanquished Pharnaces, king of Cimmerian Bosphorus, 47 b. c. See Zela
Battle of.
TENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made
a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 b. c-. Marcellus con-
VK* i DICTIONARY OF DATES, 579
qsiered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 b. c. Th6
islands on \rliich the city is built began to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital-
iaifls, who fled here as a place of safety from the Goths, and other barbar^
ous nations, when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the
morass by Entinopus, by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build-
ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was
first governed by a doge (Anaft^sto Paululio), a, d. 697. The republic was
not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The
ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by
pope Alexander III. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the
discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave
it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter-
ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austiia. and the
rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic,
1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the
whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned
under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan, 24,
1830.
Venice declares herself an independent
republic - - Aug. 18, 1848
Provisional government decrees an as-
sembly wiih lull powers 10 be elected
by universal sulfrage, 1 lo every 1,500
iahabitants - - Dec. 29, 1848
Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi-
tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is
again in the power of Austria,
Aug. 22, 1849
VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven-
triloqui^ and by the Greeks, Engastriraythoi, i. e. people that speak out of
their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi-
nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various
ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the
last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first man whose
experimental philosophy, shown in this hne, excited great wonder, about
1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever
appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822.
VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in
1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or
rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser-
vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan.
1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita,
to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook's Voyages.
The diurual rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This
planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874.
VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu-
setts, 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to
1764 : claimed also by New-York, and granted to that colony by parliament
in 1664 Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into
the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in
that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777.
Claims of New- York withdrawn on payment of $30,000, in 1790. The state
admitted into the Union. 1791. Population in 1790, was 85.589; in 1810,
217,895 ; in 1830, 280 679 ; in 1840, 291,948.
VERSAILLES, Palace of. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a
small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit; and here this prince built a
hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent
palace, which was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of tbe kings
of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it
to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building
580 THE world's progress. [ V£4
to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated a tous Ui
gloires de Prance; and freely opened to the public.
V}!lRSAILLES. Prace op. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri-
tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad-
mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day, the detirjitivo
treat}"" was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain
Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicharry and
Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France.
Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch.
VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use foT
grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey
translated part of Virgil's uEneid into blank verse, which is the iirst composi-
tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the
other measure was but little alfected till the reign of Charles II. The verse
previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the
ottava rima. as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his
Pncnj Qiiee/i), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso. the Italian
language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into
Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French
chaiisms. — Mdropolitan. Vripsino is said to have been the first introducer of
blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. See Poetry.
VESTA. The planet Vesta (tha ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre-
men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. —
Aiiiiual Register.
VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual
fire consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother
of Romulus was one of the vestals, ^neas is supposed to have first chosen
the Vestals. Numa, in 710 b. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar-
quin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs ; but after the
expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care
of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from
the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that
presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were
selected and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses.
The vestal Minutla was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c.
The vestal Sextllla was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves-
tal Cornelia Maximillana on the same charge, a. d. 92. — Blbliotheque Uni-
verscllc.
VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it
emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and
the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneu-ni were overwhelmed by the burning
lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of
those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout
Naples; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not
only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds were
suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished
in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it: this
eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered
in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that
time; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by
fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and
loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and
a great part of the surrounding country, were destroyed. One of the most
dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, Nov. 24. 1759. The
violent burst in 1767 was the thirtv-fourth from the the time of Titus. whe&
VIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 581
Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava flcwed
over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town or
Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in,
and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been
several eruptions since.
VETOES OF THE PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. The power of can
celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows : — by
Washington, twice; Madison, four times; Monroe, once; Jackson, five
times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the
navy vetoed by president Tj-ler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds
of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, Februarj
20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk. August 3, 1846
French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846.
VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca-
pital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city
in 1136, and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I.
of England. 40,000/.. in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the
Magnilicent, with an army of 300.000 men : but he was forced to raise the
siege with the loss of 70 000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in
1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who
totally defeated the Turkish army of 100.000, which had cannonaded the
city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by
the French, under prince Murat. Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12,
following. They again captured it, May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once
more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14. same
year. Conference of ihe ministers of the allies and France, September 28,
1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Austna aud Hungary.
See next articles.
VIENNA, Treaty of, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the
emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which, they confirmed to
each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively
possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force
to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing
the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag-
matic Sanction, April 30, 1725.
VIENNA, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king
of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was gua-
ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain
acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731.
VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the
emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter poAver agreed
to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ;
signed Nov. 18, 1738.
VIENNA, Peace of. between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany)
I. of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol. Dalmatia,
and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united
to France under the title of the lUyrian Provinces, and engaging to adhere
to tiie prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia
October 14, 1809.
VIENNA, Treaties of. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria,
Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had acted by
the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. Th«.
treaty of Vienna between the king of the Low Countries on the one part,
and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to
582 THE world's progress. [ VII*
the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the
house of Orange, May 31. 1815. The treaty of Vienna : Denmark cedes
Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg-,
June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna,
June 8, 1815.
VJLLATN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hard labor
being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to
the V ill or lordship; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat-
tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this
kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties
to be made free at easy rates, a. d. 1574. — Stowe's Cliron.
VI.MEIRA, Battle of,, between the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, and
the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal
Junot, duke of Abrantes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21.
1808. For this victory the British hero and the otficers and soldiers under
his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si-
milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph-
ant career.
VINCENT S St. This was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763,
the French agre<'d that the right to it should be vested in the English.
The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward
side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this
was, that in 1779 thej^ greatly contributed to the reduction of this island
bj the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French
landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which
was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scoutfriei
mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812.
VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea,
in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage,
vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are
aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta-
neously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The
vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, a. d. 279. The
vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in
England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and
celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Grapes,
and Wine*
VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds
of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus-
tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci-
tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they
might dip their bread, and kindly invitmg Ruth to share with them in their
re})ast : hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of
this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy.
It is conjectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our
Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking.
* The following is a tradition in relation to the vine :— When Adam planted the first vine, and
I3ft it, Satan approached it, and said, "Lovely plant! 1 will cherish thee;" and thereupon taking
three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog. he slayed them at the root of the tree, and their blood lias
lieen imbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, if youtuke one goblet of wine, you are cheered by its
influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; if you take two goblets, you beco»r.e furious, and
rave and bellow like the lion ; and if you drink of the third goblet, your reasor. sinks, and, like th«
hog, you wallow in the mire. — Ashe.
VIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 583
There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was not proper for
drinking till diluted.
VIOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns,
so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The
viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very
much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro-
duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin
was invented towards the close of the same century. — Ahbe. LengLet: The
fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as a. d. 1200, in the legendary life of
St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles IL
IT'IRCjrlN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latia
churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according
to their belief August 15, a. d. 45. The Preseniation of the Virgin, is a
fe^st celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the
Greeks in the eleventh century; its institution in the West is ascribed to
Gregory XL, 1372. A distinguished writer says ; '- The Indian incarnate
god Chrishna. the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race,
and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years b. c. It
appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and
was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising
from the dead, he ascended into h(;aven in the presence of a multitude.
The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda." — Sir William
Jones.
VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the
decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the
place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his favorites as the
daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of
judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his
friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from
the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re-
quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged itinto Virginia's breast,
exclaiming, "This is all, my daughter ! lean give thee, to preserve thee
from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius
ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as-
tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they
immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him-
self in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius,
another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed
himself also; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to
death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 b. c.
VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion,"
having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river — the first
white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen
Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh, A settle-
ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his
attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two compa-
nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and
named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the
Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu-
tion; was the first to proclaim Charles II. on his restoration; established
the Church of England by law, 1662 ; took an early and prominent part in
the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Corn-
jvallis, at Yorktown. October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United Stateu
adopted June 25. 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi-
dents of the United States, viz : Washington, Jeflferson, Madison, Monroe,
584 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ WAG
Harrison, and Taylor; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall. ai;d many
distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747.610; in 1810, 974. G22;
in 1830, 1,211,272 ; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves.
VISIP]R OR VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed
in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately
under the grand seignior ; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu-
tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into
his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in
his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knolles.
VITTORIA, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in tlia
annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army com-
manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1813. Mar-
shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his
baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of
France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington toti. Jourd^in's
only remaining gun !
VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200
volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of
Mount Etna are recorded as early as 734 b. o. by authentic historians. See
Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in a. d. 79. See Vesuvius.
The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred a. d. 1004. For an ac-
count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783, see Iceland. In Mexico,
a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in heiglit
by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro
broke out. Sept. 13. 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red
water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared
in one of the Azore islands, May 1, 1808.
VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of
the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large
army, and 85 000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40,000 Germans,
raised the militia to 100.000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers.
Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount,
it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volun-
teers were, according to official accounts, 341 600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the
[Jnited States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war, Congress authorized
the enlistment of 50.000 volunteers. A much larger number responded,
but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled.
VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order
of Necho, pharoah of Eg>pt, when some Phoenician pilots sailed from
Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good
Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along
the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of
about three years, 604 b. c. — Blaii\ Herodotus. The first voyage round the
world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been
under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Is-
land in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery waa
the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumna,cigators^ and Noruhr- Weat
Passage.
W.
WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen in England were first
fixed by act of parliament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one
penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylers, and other coverers ot
houses, had not more than Sd. per day (about 9d. of our money) ; and their
II
s. d.
Yeai:
a.
r/,
per diem.
0 8
In 17&8
per diem.
J
4
ditto
0 9
In 1794
ditto
1
6
ditto
0 10
In ISOO
ditto
2
0
ditto
1 0
In 1840
ditto
3
0
wal] dictiomaPvY of dates. 585
servants 1 ^d. — Vincr's Statutes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 1411, the wages
of a bailift' of husbandry was 23s. 4d. per annum, and clothing of the price
of 5s. with meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothing
4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing 4.0d. ; woman-servant, 10^.,
clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VIZ., 1495, there was a like rate of wages,
only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter,
rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner,
was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a day, without meat and
drink ; or with meat and drink 4d. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate
Id. A master having under him six men was allowed Id. a day extra. The
following were the
WAGES OP HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
Year. s. d I Year.
In 13.50 per diem. 0 In 1688
In 1460 ditto 0 Ic In 17 J G
In 1568 ditto 0 4 ' In 1740
In 1632 ditto 0 6 \ In 1760
WAGRAM, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, in whi«^h the
latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The
slaughter on both sides was dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the
French, and the defeated array retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This
battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty
of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the
kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em-
peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia
to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of
Spain.
WAKEFIELD, Battle of, in England, between Margaret, the queen of Henry
VT., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists
fell upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown,
seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret ; but the earl of Warwick es-
poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and
the civil war that was continued from that time devastated aU England.
This battle was fought December 81, 1460.
WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par-
ticular saint ; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, and
was continued among the Saxons. — Whitaker. Women were hired among
the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were called Carime. The
Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their
frie-qds. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might
lie inactive.
WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth
century led to the establishment of the Holy OflSce or Inquisition. Pope
Innocent III. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies
of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence ; but the Catholic bishops
were at first jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and
the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, a. d. 1203-4.
One of the monkv^ the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf. having been as-
sassinated, the aspiring pontifi" called on all the neighboring powers to
ma.'ch into the heretical distric;. All obstinate heretics were placed at
the disposal of Simon de Montfort. commander of this crusade, and the
whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued
with fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition was spared ; the coun-
try became a Avilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such was
the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman wav constituted first iuqili'
sitor-general, 1208.
25*
586 THE world's progress [ WAM
WALES. After the Roman emperor Honoriiis quitted Britain, Vortigern wa»
elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his
country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for
reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they
made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons
retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac-
cessible moimtains, about a. d. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon-
quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I.
entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by
the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not
entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought
to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him
prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has
borne almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England
by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britain.
WALES, PRINCE of. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of
Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April, 1284. Im-
mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh ciiief
tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his
arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dyn,''^ literally in English,
"This is your man," but signifying, "This is your countryman and king."
These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians
assert, to " Ich Dien" which is the motto attached to the arms of the prince
of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this
prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in
1307. — Myvyrian Archaeology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different
account of the origin of the motto " Ich Dien,^^ see the article under that
head.
WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the
cruel duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of
Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries
revolted from Philip, 1566. — Mariana's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were
well received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by
queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in
this part of England. — Pardon.
WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert,
and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned,
on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill
on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on
the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until
1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors
for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain.
WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per-
sonage : — His original name was Calaphilus. Pontius Pilate's porter. When
they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall, he struck ■
him on the back, saying, "Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin-
ger V Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, " I am in-
deed going; but thou Shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted,
and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every
hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he
returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered,
being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity
of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the
death and resurrection of Christ.— Calmct's Hist, of the Bible.
I
WAR ]
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
587
WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of piinces." Scriptural wri-
ters date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain
3563 B. c, Osymandyas of Egypt was the first w^arlike king -, he passed
into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 b. c. — Usher. He is supposed
by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recorded
in the annals jof antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 — 1184 b. c. The Jongest
siege was that of Azoth, 647 b. c. The most famous sortie was that of the
Plataeans from their city, 428 b. c. It is computed that from the beginning
of the world to the present time, no less than 6,860,000,000 of men have
perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu-
man species as now inhabit our whole earth.
WARS, Civil, of Great Britain. The most remarkable civil wars of Great
Britain are the following : — That of a. d. 1215-16. The war of the barons
against Henry HI., 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of tho
White and R^d Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471.
The war bet\veen Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against
Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender,
1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty
rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebellion,
1798.
WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain. The wars in France, in which England
was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy
being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of
France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English
province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with
France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy,
Poictiers, and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the
reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It
was to the English people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests
of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years
of war as peace. See the countries respectively, Battles, &c.
FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE GONauEST.
Warwi
th Scotland
1068
France,
1116
<'
Scotland,
1138
<(
France,
lltti
u
France,
1194
«
France,
1201
t'
France,
1224
(•'
France,
1294
«
Scotland,
1296
u
Scotland,
1327
((
France,
1339
u
France,
1368
u
France,
1422
((
France,
1492
u
France,
1512
('
France,
1522
"
Scotland,
1522
Peace
1092
1118
1139
1186
1195
1216
1234
1299
1323
1328
1360
1420
1471
same year
1514
1527
1542
with Scotland, 1542
Scotland, 1547
France, 1549
France, 1557
Scotland, 1557
France, 1562
Spain,
Spain,
France,
Holland,
Spain,
France, 1666
Denmark, 1666
Holland, 1666
Algiers, 1669
Holland, 1672
France, 1689
1588
1624
1627
1651
1655
The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland
and Spain, was signed by the ministers of these powers, at the j
Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697. It concluded this last war.
1546
1550
1550
1559
1560
1564
1604
1629
1629
1654
1660
1668
1668
1668
1671
1674
1697
Fiance,
alace of
THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN.
War of the Succession, commenced May 4,
1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713.
War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con-
cluded 1721.
War; the Spanish War. Oct. 23, 1739.
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, April 30, 1748.
War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed
also on April 30, 1748.
War ; the Seven years' war, June 9, 1756,
Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763.
War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. Geoera.
peace of Feb. 10, 17fi3
588
THE world's progress.
[ WAB
Wars, foreign/ of Great Britain — contimied.
War with the United States. July 14, 1774.
Peace of" Paris, Nov. 30. 1782.
War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of
Paris. Jan. 20, 1783.
War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed
same time, Jan 20, 1783.
War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace
signed Sept. 2, 1783.
War of the Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peac«
of Amiens, March 27, 1802.
War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi-
nally closed, June 18, 1815.
War with the United States, June 18, 1812.
Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814.
For the wars with India and China, see th:ee
countries respectively.
In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes
with, and sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war,
and 62 in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in
1815. In the war of 1688, she spent 36 millions sterling ; in the war of the
Spanish Succession, 62 millions ; in the Spanish tvar, 51 millions ; in the
Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in the American war, 136 millions ; in the
war of the French Revolution, 464 millions ; and in the war against Bona-
parte. 1159 millions ; thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years
(from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023
millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life sustained
by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six
hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their
allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Penin-
sula were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and the
inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced.
The total destruction of human beings in this last war must have amounted
to one million two hundred thousand.
WAR, Revolutionary, ending in the independence of the United States, com-
menced by the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended
by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost $135,193,700.
WAR, The, of 1812, between the United States and Great Britain:
War declared - - - Jime 19, 1812
Gen. H. Dearborn appointed comman-
der-in-chief
[See Battles and Naval Battles.]
The war opposed in New England, and
levies of troops rel'used by Mass.,
First difficulty respecting the search of
American vessels - - - 1806
Chesapeake United States frigate fired
on 1807
Non-intercourse act passed - -1809
United States frigate President, engag-
ed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt
May 16, 1811
President Madison's war message to
congress - - - June 1, 1812
Conn., and R. I.
Treaty of peace ratified
Feb. 17, 1815
WAR against Algiers, to punish piracies, &c., declared by the United States,
1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels
and " conquered a peace," July 4,
WAR between the UNITED STATES and MEXICO. [The annexation of
Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate
of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.]
American army of occupation, (3500)
under Gen. Taylor took post .on the
Rio Grande opposite Matamoras,
Miarch 28, 1846
First collision— a reconnoitring party
of 70 from American army under Col.
Thornton, fired upDn and taken pri-
soners by the Mexicans - April 24, 1846
Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at
Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126
wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and
355 wounded - - May 8-9, 1846
Bill passed both houses of Congress U.
S- declaring that war with Mexico
already existed, by act of that power,
and authorizing 50,000 volunteers
May 12, 1^6
Monterey taken by Com. Sloat, July 6, 1847
Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney
Aug. 18, 1846
Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaded
by Com. Stockton - - Aug. 19, 1846
Battle of Montei-ey, 4700 Americans
under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under
Ampudia. Monterey surrendered. A-
merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded,
Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 18^
^AR ]
DICTIONAilY OF DATES.
589
WAR WITH MEXICO, continued.
Stevenson's California resiment sailed
iVom New- York - " - Sept. 26, 1846
Tobasco bombarded by com. Perry,
Oct. 25, 1846
Tampico occupied by com. Connor,
Nov. 14, 1846
Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun-
teers defeated 1100 Mexicans at Bari-
to, the latter losing 63 killed and 150
wounded. American loss 6 wounded.
Gen. Kearney defeats the •' revolted"
Californians, at San Gabriel, &c.
Jan. 8, 1847
Majoi Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major
Gaines, and 80 men, taken prisoners
by the Mexicans at Encarnacion,
Jan. 23, 1847
Revolt against Americans in N. Mex-
ico, American governor Bent and five
others murdere'd - - Jan 14, 1847
1500 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans
defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1847
Battle of Buena Vista : American3-4759
mostly volunteers, under gen. Taylor
and gen. Wool ; and Mexicans 22.000
undel- Santa Anna; latter defeated and
loss 6000 killed and wounded ; Amei'i-
can loss 267 killed and 456 wounded,
Feb. 22-23, 1847
Battle of Sacramento ; American col.
Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000
Mexicans under Herridea, latter loss
300 killed, 300 wounded and 40 pri-
soners; American loss, 1 killed and 8
wounatd - - - Feb. 28, 1847
Vera Cruz surrendered to gen. Scott
and com. Perry; American loss 65
killed and wounded - March 29, 1847
Alvarado surrendered to lieut. Hunter,
April 2, 1847
Battle of Cerro-Gordo ; Americans 3500
under gen. Scott, defeat 12.000 Mex-
icans under Santa Anna, 5 generals
and 3000 men, taken prisoners by
Scott: American loss 250, Mexican
350.
Taspan taken by com. Perry, April 18, 1847
Battles of Contreras and Chiirubtibco,
American gen. Smith drives the Mexi-
cans from these fortified posts towards
Mexico, losing 1066 killed and wound-
ed ; Mexican loss 6000 - Aug. 20, 184.
Armistice agreed upon ; broken by the
Mexicans. Hostilities recommenced
Sept. 7, IBil
Battle of Molino del Rey ; American
gen. Worth carried the fortifications
defended by 14.000 Mexicans under
Santa Anna. American loss, 787 kil-
led and wounded ; Mexican loss 3000,
Sept. 8, i847
Battle of Chepultepec, a height near
Mexico, carried by American gene-
rals Worth, Quitman, and Pillow,
(under gen. Scott) after a loss of 862
Sept. 12-13, 1847
This was followed by the surrender of
the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1847
Col. Childs with 400 men and 1800
sick in hospitals besieged 28 days at
Puebla, but compelled the Mexicans
to raise the siege - - Oct. 12, 1847
Contribution of $600,000 levied in Mex-
ico for protecting public property in
the city - ^ - - Sept. 17, 1847
City of Huamantla captured by Ame-
rican gen. Lane, who defeats Santa
Anna. American loss, 24 killed and
wounded ; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847
Port of Guayamas bombarded and cap-
tured by American frigate Congress,
and sloop Portsmouth - Oct. 20, 1847
A tax levied upon the states of Mexico,
and duties &c. laid to the amount of
about $3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847
Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler,
Feb. 18, 1843
Treaty of peace ratified at Queretaro,
by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N.
Clifford, for the United States, and
the foreign Mexican minister, Sisnor
De la Rosa - - - May 30, 1843
American troops finally withdrawn
from the city of Mexico, - June 12, 1848
vVARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this
city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703.
It has been a great prey to war of late years. In the beg-inning of 1794, the
empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles
to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view ; but this garrison was ex-
pelled by the citizens, with the loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36
pieces of cannon, April 17. 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw in
July 1794. but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year.
It was taken by the Russians in the November following. See next article,
Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony
in August. 1807 ; but the duchy was overrun by the Russians in 1813,
and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian vice-
roy. The late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See
Poland.
WARSAW, B.4TTLES OP. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle ■with
the Russians, Oct. 10. 12, 1794 ; and Suwarrow. the Russian general, after
the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30.000 Poles, of all
ages and conditions, iu cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the
590 THE WOPcLD's progress. [ WAT
surrender was very bloody ; of 26.000 men, more tlian 10,000 were killed,
nearly 10.000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fury of the
merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus
sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 7000 men, Feb.
20, 1831. Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard lighting', the city
capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of
the Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin. This last battle was
fought Sept. 7 and 8, 1831.
W ARSAW, Treaties of. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria
and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted
in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed
• March 31, 1683. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February
24, 1768.
WASHINGTON. The capita, of the United States, founded in 1791, and first
made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was
opened for the first time. May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late
war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the
President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the te'oops not
sparing even the national library, August 21, 1814. General Ross was soon
afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, follow-
ing. See United States.
WASHINGTON. GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1732 ; in the expedition of Brad-
dock against fort DuQuesne 1755; appointed commander-in-chief of the
American army 1775 ; elected president of Convention for forming Consti-
tution 1787 ; elected President of the United States 1789 ; again in 1793 ;
died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid, Oct. 19,
1847. National monument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848 ;
oration by Robt. C. Winthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, corner-
stone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849.
WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, a. d.
1477 ; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch
about A. D. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by
Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first
who had any thing that might be called a watch, though some call it a small
table-clock, 1530. Watches were first brought to England from Germany in
1577. — Hume. Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so called) have
had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huy-
gens by the Dutcj, Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Cloctmaker, says that Dr.
Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears certainlj^ to have produced what
is called the pendulum watch. The time of this invention was about 1658 ;
as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the
double-balance watches presented to Charles 11. , viz., " Rob. Hooke in-
ven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Repeating watches were invented
by Barlowe, 1676. Harrison's time-piece was invented in 1735 ; improved
1739. 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured him
the reward of 20,000Z., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watches
and clocks were taxed in 1797. The tax was repealed in 1798. See
Clocks.
V'^ATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, looked upon water
(as also did Homer, and several of the ancient philosophers) as being the
original principle of every thing besides, about 594 b. c. — Stanley. It is the
tmiversJil drink of man. The ancients usually diluted their wines with
much water ; and Hesiod prescribes three measures of water to one of wine
in sumn er. — Madame Dacier. In the Roman church water was first mixed
WAT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 59 1
with the sacramental wine, a. d. 122. — Lenglet. " Honest water is too weak
to be a sinner; it never left a man in the mire." — Shakspeare.
WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time
independently of the sunshine, were clepsydrcB or water-clocks. These were
most probably vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom
through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour ,
after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This in-
vention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendi-
cular gnomon gave hours of different length at the various seasons of the
year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used ; and
Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning
of a taper as a measure of time.
"W ATER- MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general
of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, a. d. 555. The ancients
parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were in-
vented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor ; and yet
Pliny mentions wheels turned by water.
WATER TOFANA, or Wives' Poison. See article Poisoning. The poisoh so
freely administered by Italians in the 17th century, called aqica tofana, from
the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials.
She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police ; but on
being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people.
Numerous persons were im[)licated by her, and many of them vyere publicly
executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appeared
to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of their hus-
bands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden,
and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists
have not agreed'about its real composition, A proclamation of the pope de-
scribed it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a
solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed
to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two
brothers ; and she with many others was executed, and the preparers burnt
alive. — Phillips.
WATERLOO, Battle of. The greatest victory ever won by British arms, and
the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the
French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the
British and allies under the duke of Wellington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon
attacked the British, whom he expected to overwhelm by superior num-
bers, but they maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy from about
nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver.
The commander then gave orders to charge ; a total rout ensued, and Blu-
cher, who opportunely came up at this juncture, joined in the pursuit.
On both sides the carnage was immense ; but that of the French was double
the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army,
and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of three
great armies, to raise a fourth ; but finding this impossible, his abdication
followed. See Bonaparte and France.
WATER-SPOUT. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause,
the only difference being that water-spouts pass ov^er the water, and whirl-
winds over the land. — Dr. Franldm. Two water-spouts fell on the Glata
mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbacli, an(?
many other villages ; a prodigious number of houses were destroyed, and
many persons perished, July 13, 1827. A water-spout atGlanflesk n"'ar Kil
692 THE world's progress. [ WEI
iarney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, and destroyed
his cottage, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a ves-
tige remained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August 4,
1831.
WAX. This substance came into use for candles in the twelfth century ; and
wax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300. being but little used. In China,
candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Candleberry.
Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particu-
lar species of myrtle, which yields excellent wax, of a green color. Sealing-
wax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. The wax-tree,
Ligusirum htcidum, was brought from China before 1794.
WE. The common language of kings is we, which plural style was begun with
king John, a. d. 1199. — Cokeys Instit. Before this time sovereigns used the
singular person in all their edicts. — Idem. The German emperors and French
kings used the plural about a. d. 1200. — Henault. It is now the style royal
of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plu-
ral, indicating that what they write proceeds from a plurality of pens.
WEALTH. This is a relative term ; for as there is only a certain amount of
property in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the
poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the
country, while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances
of wealth in the early ages are nuiny and most extraordinary. The mighti-
est conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sardanapalus, where riches
amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyed.
— AthencBus. Caecilius Isidorus died at Rome possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600
oxen. 200 000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin,
8 B. c. — Univ. Hist.
WEAVING. The art of wea\ing appears to have been practised in China from
the earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before it was known in
Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally
spun, wove, and dyed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient
nations, to different women as women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to
Isis; the Greeks, to Minerva-; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Manco Ca-
pac. In most easterr countries, the employment of weaving is still per-
formed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Dodd-
ridge, this curious garment might be the work and present of some pious
women who attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, L^tke
viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmet's
Dictionary, under the word Vestments.
\\ "E AVING IN ENGLAND. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where
they manuftictured woollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove of
great benefit to us and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth-drapers,
linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c. settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colches-
ter, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's perse-
cution, 1567.
WEDGWOOD Wx\RE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced by
Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this
ware employed 10 000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the
superit r kinds of earthenwares were imported from France.
WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called from a Saxon idoL call-
ed Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped- on this day. The name given
to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwards
corrupted to Wednesday. See next article.
English.
Saxon.
Presided over by
Saturday,
Saterne's day,
Saturn.
Sunday,
Sun's day,
Moon's day, •
The sun.
Monday,
The moon.
Tuesday,
Tiw's day,
Mars.
Wednesday,
Woden's day,
Mercury.
Thursday,
Thor's day.
Jupiter.
Friday,
Friga's day,
Venus.
WES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 593
WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews,
who observed the sabbath every seventh day ; they had three sorts of weeks,
tlie first the common one of seven days, the second of years, which was
seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at the end of which was
the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon: —
Latin.
Dies Saturni,
Dies Solis,
Dies Lunae,
Dies Martis,
Dies Mercurii,
Dies .lovis,
Dies Veneris,
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver
money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 b. c. et $eq. — Arunde-
lian Marbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the
lowest being still called a grain. — Chalmers,. The standard measure was
originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, ^ d. 972. Stand-
ards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom of Eng-
land by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. A public weighing-
machine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed
by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between
buyer and seller, statute 3d Edward IL, 1309. — Stoioe. The first statute,
directing the use of avordupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VHI., 1532. —
PJiilosophical Transactions, vol. 65. art. 3. The French adopt the metre of
3.28084. or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equa-
tor, as the standard of measure ; and the kilogramme, equal to 2,255 pounds
avoirdupois, as the standard of weight.
WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was
founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his
brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society
for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an
association excited considerable notice, and among other names bestowed
upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley
went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians.
On his return to England, he commenced itinerant preacher, and gathered
many followers ; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious
meeting-houses in London, Bristol and other places. For some time he
was united with Mr. Whitefield ; but differences arising on account of the
doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated
according to their respective leaders. Mr. Wesley was indefatigable in his
labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his
influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791.
WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he
made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th
and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islands respectively.
WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and
Western by Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the western
portion, or Rome, properly so called, a. d. 364. Odoacer. a chief of the
Heruli. entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed
Augustulus. and assumed the title of king of Italy. August 23, which ended
the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, a. d. 476. See
Eastern Empire.
WESTINITNSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the mirac»
lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been que«
594 THE world's progress. [ wm
tioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present
edifice, and who, upon the nicest examination, found nothing to countenance
the general belief that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. His-
torians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the
sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the honor of erecting it. This church
becoming ruinous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, be-
tween A. D. 1055 and 1065 ; and he stored it with monks from Exeter. Pope
Nicholas 11. about this time constituted it the place for the inauguration of
the kings of England. The church w^as once more built in a magnificent
and beautiful style by Henry HI. In the reigns of Edward 11., Edward HI.,
and Richard H., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal mo-
nastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles
were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the years 1340 and 1483. The
west front and the great window were built by those rival princes, Richard
HI. and Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the
magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was
laid Jan. 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved, and made a bishopric, 1541 ;
and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560.
^ tfSTMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of English ar-
chitecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and
here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of Whit-
suntide very royally." Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when
the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000. — Slowe.
The courts of law were established here by king John. — L/eon. Westmin-
<ster-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported
by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a
general repair in 1802.
WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Sax-
ony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ;
and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of
Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of
conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to
the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jerome appointed
king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned
in 1813.
WESTPHALIA, Peace of. signed at Munster and at Osnaburgh, between
France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against
France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was
first reognised : Alsace given to France, and part of Pomerania and some
other di&tricts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Pala-
tinate ; the civil and political rights of the German States established ; and
the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oc-
tober 24, 1648.
WHALE FISHERY of the UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed
650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons,— cost, $20,000,000 ; manned by
17,500 officers and seamen. '• Commercial history furnishes no parallel to
this whaling fieet — it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' ■—
Speech of Mr. Grinnell.
WHEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, from
1790 to 1838, was 10,283,471 bushels,— average, 209.666 bushels per annum.
In 1845 the amount exported was valued at $5,735,372 ; in 1846, $13,350 644.
This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased
by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland.
WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took
WIL. ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 595
their name from Mount Carmel, lying southwest of Mount Tabor^ In th«
Holy Land. They pretended that Elijah and Elisha were the founders of
their order, and that Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of
it. At first they were very rigid in their disciphne, but afterwards it was
moderated, and about the year 1540 divided into two sorts, one following
and restoring the ancient severities, and the other the milder regimea
They had numerous monasteries throughout England : and a precinct in
London without the Temple and west of Blackfriars, is called Wliitefrlars to
this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245.
WHITEHALL, London. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent,
before the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards devolved to the arch-
bishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued
to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII. of
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the
court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought from thence
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion,
Camden informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was
written : —
" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall,
At every stroke the oars did tears let fall.
More clung about the barge : fish under water
Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after.
I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs,
Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ;
For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd.
She had come by water, had she come by land."
In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banquet-
ing-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I.,
according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall
Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a
chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent rej^air between 1829
and 1833.
WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to
commemorate the descent of the Holy Gho»t upon the apostles : in the pri-
mitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear
white garments on Whi'sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls
in May and sometimes ^n June ; but is always exactly seven weeks after
Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday^ it is said to
have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called
Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and pre-
paratory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing
on the fruits of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of Avar and
other evils.
WICKLIFFITES. The followers of John Wickliffe, a professor of divinity
in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the
English church from popery, being the first who opposed the autho-
rity of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of
the church, in 1377. Wickliffe was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's
son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the cliurch, and res-
cued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, Dec,
31, 1384, in his 60th jesiY.— Mortimer.
WILDFIRE. An artificial fire, which burns under water. The French call it
feu Grecquois, because it was discovered by the Greeks, by whom it was
'first used, about a. d. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Helio-
polls. — Nouv. Diet. See article Greek Fire.
596 THE world's progress. [ wss
WILKES' NUMBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper
styled the North Briton, pubhshed by John Wilkes, an alderman of London.
Ho commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute and his adminis-
tration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a
use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the
earl of Halifax, then secretary of state, and he was committed to the Tower.
His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ;
but he obtained ^1,000 damages and fall costs of suit for the illegal seizure
of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's
Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene
poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and out-
lawed; he was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in October
1774, and the same year served the office of lord mayor ; but was over-
looked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797.
WILLS, LAST, AND TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See
Genesis, c. 48. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 b. c. There are
many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this
power, and so had the native Mexicans ; so that it prevailed at least in
three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person
who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b. c. The power of bequeath-
ing lands by the last will or testament of the owner, was confirmed to En-
glish subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100; but with great restrictions and limitations
respecting the feudal system ; which were taken off by the statute of Henry
VIII. , 1541. — Blackstone's Commentaries. The first will of a sovereign on
record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard II., 1899. Edward the
Confessor made a will, 1066.
WIND-MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to
be of Roman invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to
the Saracens. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe
by the knights of St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in
the crusades. — Baker. Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and
Germany, in 1299. — Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutch-
man, in 1633. when one was erected near the Strand, in London.
WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a. d. 79, as is evi-
dent from its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed
so early as the third century, if not before, though the fashion was not in-
troduced until it was done by Bennet, a. d. 633. Windows of glass were
used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. — Anderson. In
England about 6000 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each ;
about 275,000 have ten windows and upwards ; ^nd 725,000 have seven win-
dows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to
defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William
III., 1695.
WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally
built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The monarchs
who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was born
here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the
west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the di-
rection of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel.
Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed
every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpen-
ters, as if he had been levying an army. Several additions were made to
this edifice by succeeding sovereigns ; the last by George IV.
WINES. The invention of wine is given to Noah. — Abbe Lcnglet. Ihe art of
WIT ] DICTIONARY OF DAT ES. 59?
making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching
Noung, about 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. The art of making wine was brought
from India by Bacchus, as other authorities have it. Hosea speaks of the
wine of Lebanon as being very fragrant. — Hosea, xiv. 7. Our Saviour
clianged water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. — John ii. 3, 10.
" The conscious waters saw their God, and blush'd." — Addison.
No wine was produced in France in the time of the Romans. — Bossuet.
Spirits of wine were known to the alchymists. — Idem. Concerning the ac-
quaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured
that tlie Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it ;
but this liquor was very little knowa in our island before it was conquered
by the Romans. Wine was sold in Eaglaud by apothecaries as a cordial in
A. D, 1300. and so continued for some time after, although there is mention
of ' wine for the king" so early as 1219; and we are even sent to a much
earlier period for its introduction and use ic Britain. In 1400 the price
was twelve shillings the pipe A hundred and fifty butts and pipes con-
demned for being adulterated, were staved and emptied into the channels
of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the 6th of Henry VI., 1427.
— Stowe's Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on
June 17- 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed
April 25. 1661. In 1800 England imported 3.307,460 gallons of all kinds of
wine. In 1815. the United Kingdom imported 4.306 528 gallons. Ifi 38?^
were imported 6.879.558 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, wt-<i
imjjorted 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7.000,486 were for home consumption.
—Pari. Ret.
WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg,
A. D. 1410. Mills for t\\\^ purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in- 1563.
The first wire-mill in En^'knd was erected at Mortlake in ]663. — Mortimer.
The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of
gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire, A cylinder of 48 ounces
of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually
drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98
yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of
gold covers the whole 98 yards ; and the thousandth part of a grain is above
one-eighth of an inch long. — Halley. Eight grains of gold covering a cy-
linder of silver are commonly drawn into a wire 13 000 feet long; yet so
perfectly does it cover the silver, that even a microscope does not discover
any appearance of the silver underneath. — Boyle.
IVIRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most popu-
lous for its extent. The dukes were Protestant until 1772, when the reign-
ing prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed
by hostile armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau
made his celebrated retreat Oct. 23, 1796. The prince of Wirtemberg mar-
ried the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797.
This state obtained new acquisitions in territory in 1802 and 1805. The
elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12. 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1,
1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his army in Rus-
sia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king
granted liberty of the press, March 2, 1848.
WISCONSIN. One of the western United States w^as organized out of the
North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836 ; ad-
mitted into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830, 30.945 :
chiefly emigrants from the northe -n and middle states.
WITCHCRAFT. The punishment ol witchcraft was first countenanced by the
598 THE world's progress. [ WIT
church of Rome ; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjectea
to the most cruel and unrelenting punishments. In tens of thousands of
cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others were
drowned by the test applied ; for if, on being thrown into a pond, the}' did
not sink, they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or re
served for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Gene-
va, in three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of
Como in a year. An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one
sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in
Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt
at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and young, clerical, learned, and
ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu.<itiou
of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany.
Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having be-
witched a whole convent of nuns. 1631. In Bretagne, twenty poor womei^
were put to death as witches, 1651. Disturbances commenced on charges
of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1618-9 ; and persecutions raged dreadfully
in Pennsylvania in 1683. Maria Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749.
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bewitched,
and rendered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were
burnt Jan. 17, 1775. — A/m. Beg. Five women were condemned to death by
the Bramins. at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802. — Idem.
WITCHCRAFT and CONJURATION in ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked
laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which
death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the
public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted
declaring all witchcraft and sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy,
83 Henry VIII., 1541. Again, 5 Elizabeth. 1562, and 1 James. 1603. Bar-
rington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft in England in 200 years
at 30,000. The English condemned and burnt the beautiful and heroic Joan
of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress a. d. 1431. See Joan of Arc.
Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. Three thousand
were executed in England Tinder the long parliament. Northamptonshire
and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any
other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in
1705, while ■'■he Spectator was in course of publication in London, and five
others seveu years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged
nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were
burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were per-
sons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I.
even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king pub-
lished his Dialogues of Dcemonologie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in
London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws
• All persons at court "who sought the favor of James, praised his Dcbmonologie ; and parlia-
ment, to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcraft in 1603. By this statute death was
inflicted on sorcerers in these words: "If any person shall use any invocation orconjurationof any
evil or wicked spirit— shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit — take up
any dead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment — or shall praciise, or shall exor
CisV, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, &c.. whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed,
pined, or lamed." This being the law of tho land,' no person presumed to doubt the existence o»
u iichcraft ; hence Shakspeaie gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions
u place where, he said, there were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving out evil
fc'pirits, and abjuring witches became in consecjuence, for a century, a profitable employment to th«
cler,' y of all denominations. Witch-finders existed, too, as public officers; and, besides the publi«
executions, which disgraced everv assizes, multitudes of accused were destroyed by popular ri
Bentmenl, — Phi /lips.
woo ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599
against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an ignorant person,
attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in Sur-
rey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 10 George II.. 1736.—
Viner's Abridgment.
WITENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this waa
the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig-
nified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A
witena-mot was called in London, a. d. 833, to consult on the proper means
to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman
conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament.
WOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were
demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar,
A. D. 961, by which step they were totallj'- destroyed. — Carte. Edward I.
issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of Eng-
land, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for many centuries after
their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found
there so late as 1710. when the last presentment for killing wolves was
made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom
834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they
follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first
in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure
was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of
twelve months following one another, which they denominated Ly cabas, that
is, the march of the wolves. — Abbe Plucke.
WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been
considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and
were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the
northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em-
pire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought
with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards
females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the
polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution of
chivalry. England is called the paradise of women ; Spain, their purgatory ;
and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's
f jst sight of Eve :
" He laid him down and slept— and from his side
A woman in hei- magic beauty rose ;
Dazzled a.id charmed, he calleil that woman ' bride.'
And his first sleep became his last repose." — Besser, tramlated by Bowring.
The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that
state: Aristotle, Socrates, Pittacus. Periander, Euripides, and Aristophane?,
Among the moderns : Boccaccio, Dante. Milton. Steele, Addison, Dryden,
Molifere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon. — Woman; as she is, ana
as she should be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol
lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman :
" Die when you will, you need not wear,
At heaven's court, a form more fair
Than beauty at your birth has given ;
Keep but the lips, the eyes we see.
The voice we hear, and you will be
An angel ready-made for heaven !" — Lord Herbert.
WOOD-CUTS. OR WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood.
The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, to
Reuss, a German, a.d. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in thr
article referred to. Brought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought
600 THE world's progress. [ WOE
to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., in 1789-1799; and
more recently by Cruiksbank, and others.
WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the "Report of the l/Om-
raittee of the Highland Society." proves, from indisputable records, that
from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wool of
Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, bub accounted the
finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu-
facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the
emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is men-
tioned in A. D. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of
it was introduced by Jolm Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This
was the real origin of the English wool manufactures. Edward III., 1331. —
Rymer's Fmdera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of
English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited,
1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824.
WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in
all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also.
Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cae-
sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be-
fore A. D. 1200. and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edwarci
III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See
preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about a. d. 1340. —
Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England,
1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeing.
Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth
begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646.
British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged
to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for-
feit 5Z., 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved
in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland,
11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland Avholly prohibited, ex-
cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged
by 10 Anne, 1712. and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785,
than in all England at the Revolution. — Chalmers.
aUANTITY AND DECLARED VALUE OF CLOTHS EXPORTED FROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOL-
LOWING YEARS : —
Quantity.
Pieces -
Yards - -
Declared value
1800. 1825.
1,022,838 1,741.983
4,213,677 7.798;610
£3,914,661 £6,194,926
1830.
1,747,036
5,-561,877
£4.608,592
1840.
2,143,796 •
8,170,642
£5,921,116
WORCESTER, Battlr of, in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army
and the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Cromwell. A
large body of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate
Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated them; the streets of the city
were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed
or taken prisoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what he called his
crouming mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri-
soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September
8, 1651.
WORLD. According to Juhus Africanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was
created September 1, 5508 b. c. Most chronologers, however, mention tho
jear 4004 b. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the
19th of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was
created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile-
tus, about 640 b. c. The first geographical table and map of the world was
WOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 601
made by Anaximander, about 560 b. c. — Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras
and his system, about 539 b. c. — Slanley. The magnitude of the earth cal-
culated by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated,
A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth
is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started
by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669.
WORMS, Diet of. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin I^uther
was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther
was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a
league froin Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause,
that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer-
ed, "If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs
of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand,
six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre-
lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared,
April 17th. in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions,
and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him
to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and
his triumph was afterwards complete.
iVORSHIP. Athotes. son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been
the author of religious worship : he is supposed to be the Copt of the
Egyptians, and the Toth or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury of the
Latins, and the Teutates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Religious
worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the
causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and
evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by
dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid,
and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens,
and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. — Phillips. In all nations,
whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant
states. — Sherlock.
WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the
period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de-
dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and
there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent-
ing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after
Saxon divinities — the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden. Thor, Friga, and Saturn.
Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from tlieir
great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy ; and they be-
lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was
afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly
superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our
present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence
of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re-
markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood,
Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places
of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation : —
a7id so coynmittis yow to the protection of
" To our traistfriendis, the Lairds ofArn-
tilly and Kiiivaid.
" Traist friends, after maist harty com-
mendacion, we pray you faill not to pa^is
incontinent to the kyrk of Dunkeld. and tak
doun the haill images thereof and bring
furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op-
pinly. And siclyk cast down the allaris,
and purge the kyrk of all kynd of monu-
ments of idoU'trye. And this ye faill not to
do, as ze will io us singular empleseur ;
26
God. Prom Edinburgh, the xii of August
1560.
" Faill not, bot ze tak guid heyd that nei
ther the dasks, windocks, nor durris, be ony
ways hurt or broken either glassin warls
or iron wark.
" Ar. Ergyll,
"James Stewari
" Rdthven."
602
THE world's progress.
[ ^^'
WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained its
name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in
which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still exten-
sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. — Anderson. Worsted-stocking
knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare.
WRECKS OF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a
few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizard.
When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow-
bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder,
utterly regardless of the sutterers. — PkiUips. The loss of merchant and
other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea,
was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a
year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's List, that 677 British vessels were
totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss
varies ; but it is always many hundreds.
SOME OP THE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS.
Of the Thunderer, 74 guns; Stirling
Castle, 04 ; Phce,nix, 44 ; La Blanche,
42 ; Laurel, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ;
Deal Castle, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ;
Barbadoes, 14 ; Canieleon, 14 ; En-
deavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns ;
British vessels of war, all lost in the
same storm, in the West Indies, in
October, 1780
Of the Royal George, capsized in Ports-
mouth harbor, England, when 1,000
persons perished " - June 28, 1782
Of the steamer Home, from New York
to Charleston; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837
Of the Forfarshire steamer, from Hull
to Dundee ; 38 persons drowued.
Owing to the courage of Grace Dar-
ling and her father, 15 persons were
saved. See Forfarshire - Sept. 5, 1838
Of the Pennsylvania, Oxford, and St.
Andrew, packet ships, ma great gale
off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839
Of the Poland from New York to
Havre, struck by lightning. May 16, 1840
Of the President steamer, from New
York to Liverpool, with fifty pas-
sengers on board; sailed on March
11, encountered a terrific storm two
days afterwards, and has never since
been heard of - March 13, 1841
Of the Peacock, one of the United States
exploring expedition, at the mouth
of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid-
day and smooth water - July 18, 1841
Of the Af/ssowrz" United States steam-
frigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843
Of the United States schooner Shark,
wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, 1846
Of the Great Britain iron steam-ship.
This stupendous vessel grounded m
Dundrum bay, on the east coast of
Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1846
Of the United States sloop of war Bos-
ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 1846
Of the United States brig Somers, cap-
sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz ; 39
drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846
Of the West India mail packet Tweed ;
about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847
Of the ship Ocean Monarch, of Boston,
burnt near Liverpool ; 170 lives lost,
Aug. 24, 1848
Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run
down at sea by steamer Europa; 134
lives lost - - June 27, 1849
See Fires, and Steam. Vessels.
It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu-
ally lost; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service ; and 1100 experience
serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary
wear and tear.
WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The
most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon
hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts,
and matters of public notoriety, Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have writ-
ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly-
phics, 2112 B. c. — Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latins
by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b.c. — Thucydides.
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b.c, brought the Phoenician letters
into Greece. — Vosslus. The commandments were written on two tabks of
stone, 1491 b. c. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books,
and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy-
rus, Parchment, Paper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who
Bl%ht good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, b) reminding
II
XERJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 603
them that Mr. Fox was disting-uished by the clearness and firmness, Mr
professor Porson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by
the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed." — Dr.
Parr.
X.
XA.NTHUS, Siege of, by the Romans under Brutus, After a great struggle,
and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able
to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the
loss of their liberty, set tire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil-
dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror
wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they
brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved,
much against their will ; 42 b. c. — Plutarch
XENOPHON, Retreat of. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the
memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in
ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after
whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat;
but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia
into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous
nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step,
and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over
toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-con-
ducted exploit on record; 401 b. c. — Vosnus
XERXES' CAMPAIGN in GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring
of 480 B. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of
servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some
historians, to 5,283,220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have
Consisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the
mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at
Thermopylae, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston-
ished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some
of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three succes-
sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the
courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base
Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the
mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Ther-
mopylae {which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7,
480 B. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters.
His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to
Persia, leaving Mardonius, the best of his generals, behind, with an army of
300.000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and
pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home.
XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont,
the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. It was
formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels ot
fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side
towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were
placed transversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in
the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great
strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fast-
bound rafters, over these a laj'-er of unwrought wood, and over the latter
was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and
604 THE world's progress. [ YEij
beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore
to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480
J'EAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the
year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 b. c, ; and it waa
corrected by Numa 713 b. c. and again by Julius Caesar, 45 b. c. See Calen-
dar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours,
48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 b. g. The siderial year, or return
of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid-
erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and sti.'l
partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Je^vs
dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe-
nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept. ; the Chris-
tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August ; and the Persians
and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the
Chiistian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX.
of France, in 1654, published an arret, the last article of which ordered the
year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written
on and from January 1. See New Style, &c.
YEAR, LUNx\R. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar
months, or 454 days, 8 hours. 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal-
deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added
another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree.
But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first
month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ;
and the month added triennially ^vas called the second Adar. The Jews
afterwards followed the' Roman manner of computation.
YEAR OF OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was
Charles III., emperor of Germany: he added ''In the year of our Lord " to
his reign, a, d. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by
the English ; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the
Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras.
YEAR, Platonic. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the
Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end
whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they
set out. and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another.
Some affirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The
ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the
world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies,
and go through a second course of being.
YEAR. Sabbatical. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this
year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and
have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year was
called the Jubilee Ye.ar. when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven,
and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original families
ili estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged. — Hist. Jews.
YKaR. Siberian, and in Lapland. The year in the northern regions of Siberia
and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent
traveller : — •
June 23, Sriow melts. I July 25, Plants 'a flower.
July 1, Snow gone. Aug. 2, Fruits ripe.
July 9, Field quite green. ] Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed.
July 17 Plants at full growth. j Aug. 18, Snow.
rOR ] DICTIOIMARY OF DATES. 305
The snow the i continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Au-
gust 18th of one year, to June 23d. of the year following, being 309 days out
of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and auturan, are
together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks*
duration in these countries.
TEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes
anct fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner
does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the
Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaim-
ed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a
legal space of time.
VELLOW FEVER, the, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742,
1791, 1795, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805, 1819. and 1822. The deaths by that
disease were as follows : 732 in 1795 ; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000) ;
670 in 1803 ; 280 in 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the
inhabitants (out of 76 000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804.
40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia
was nearly desolated by it in 1793. and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in
1793, and''l7,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta-
lity was great, and 50 000, out of 70^000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand
died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore
sufiered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha-
vana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732,
1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was
very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at
Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz,
and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less
every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of
the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it
proved fatal to many thousands.
rOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised
■by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 b. c. This disgrace was afterwards
inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Abbe Lenglet,
Dufresnoy.
YORK. The Ehoracum of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of
England. Here Severus held an imperial court, a. d. 207 ; and here also
Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in
274. York was burnt' by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York
received its charter from Richard II., and the city is the only one in the
British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix
of lord has'been granted.
fORK, Archbishopric of, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being,
it is said, so made by king Lucius, about a. d. 180, when Christianity
was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment
was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former
were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should be
restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about a. d,
622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for
a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and
Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scot-
tish bishops ; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew
their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose
between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gre-
gory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them was
606 THE world's PROGRpSSS, \ ZAtk
first confirmed, should be superior ; appeal was made to the court of Rome
by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbiiry ; but York
was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles
himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome
eight saints, and three cardinals; and to the civil state of England, twelve
lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north.
It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 1609Z. 195. 2d. per
annum. — Beatson.
YORK CATHEDRAL, England. This majestic fabric was erected at different
periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again
been destroyed by fire. The first Christian church erected here, which ap-
pears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king
of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in
1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Arch-
bishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it was by many hands,
and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were
promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was
completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic,
and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829 ;
the damage estimated at 60.000^., was repaired in 1832.
YORK AND LANCASTER, WARS of the HOUSES of. The first battle be-
tween these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May 22. 1455. The last
was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists,
or While Roses, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Red
Roses. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty
great battles were fought with diflerent success, and half the country was
depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See
Roses.
YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri-
tish army under lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans
and their alhes under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781.
This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans.
YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen-
dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841.
z.
ZAMA, BATTLii: of, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the
time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci-
sive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace which was
granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost
but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed
and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss greater ;
B. c. 202.
ZANTE. Thib island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re-
pubhc, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the whole
group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio {which see),
October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and
were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands,
in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding
year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with
Ragusa. August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3.
1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were
put under the protection of Great Britain, The treaty was ratified at
zin] dictionary of dates. 607
Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 5^
1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February
22, 1817.
ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, a. d. 535 ; he taught
that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be
baptized with fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at
one time very numerous. — Ashe.
ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in
.Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of
queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were
printed in Edinburgh with these words, a. d, 1543.
ZEALAND, NEW, in the Pacific. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra-
versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the
natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time
of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was
seen by him, remained altogether imknown, and was by many supposed to
make part of a southern continent, till 1770. when it was circumnavigated
by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by
the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many
lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh,
under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of
the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, iu 1773. planted
several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in
1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil.
ZELA, Battle op, in which Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus,
son of Mithridates. Caesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous
dispatch to the senate of Rome, in three words: '• Veni, vidi, vici'' — "I
came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained.
This battle concluded the war ; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where
he Avas slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; and Pontus was made a province
of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 b. c. —
Sue. Cas.
ZELTCHOW, Battle of, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the
most desperate and bloody battles fought by the Poles in their late struggle
for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by
general Diebitch. were defeated, losing 12 000 men in killed, wounded, and
prisoners ; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his
flying army, April 6, 1831.
ZENO, Sect or, founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from
a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his ha-
rangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way
of eminence, Sroa, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school
of philo>sophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended
the schools of various masters, and among others he offered himself as a
disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said. 'I am
no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design is
to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about
312 B. c.
ZINC. The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the
moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is no-
ticed by European writers as early as a. d. 1231; though the method of
extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years
after. A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate, Craven,
Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly aftei
608 THE world's progress. [ ZUB
the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817 See Li-
thography
ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named,
and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about
560 B. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos
to whom it has been known from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones,
The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anax-
imander.— Pliny.
ZOE, Reign of. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Con-
stantine IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the
throne of the Eastern empire, a. d. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Pa-
phlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned,
and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the
name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth,
the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname
of Calaphates, 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole em-
presses by the populace ; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty
years of age, took for her third husband Constantine X., who succeeded to
the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire.
ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnasus into six classes,
viz : — Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young ; Aves,
or birds ; Amphibia, ov amphibious animals; Pisces, or fishes; Insecia, or
insects; Vermes, or worms ; a. d. 1741. From this period the science of
zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom
was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris May 13, 1832. The Zoological
Gardens of London were opened in April 1827 ; the society was charterec
March 27, 1829.
ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer,
while he officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and
its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the
papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assem-
blies to be called ; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the
second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuin-
glius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier : he was slain in a
skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531,
The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius Avere called after his name
and also Sacramentarians.
21JRICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which
this canton was made the head, a. d. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This
was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome,
in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk
sent by Leo X., to pubhsh indulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger
of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their
lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French
were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4, 1799. The Imperialists were
defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded,
Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland.
b(l
L
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY.
[ From, the Companion to the British Almanac, ivith additions.']
The following Chronological List of Authors is in extension of the Catalogue
furnished in the Companion of 1831, differing- from it by adding to the name
of each author the title of his most important production, or some word
expressive of the nature of his works.
In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is
divided into three columns : the first containing those authors who have drawn
chietiy from their own sources, as poets and novelists ; the second those who
treat on matters of fact, as history and geography ; and the third, the philo-
sophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles,
his name will be found in the column to which his most distinguished pro-
ductinus appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated
on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend lo them.
The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could
be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the
time when each author has flourished.
HEBREW.
[The words in italics oetween parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persons'
they are formed from the fii-si letters of each word composing their names. For example, tha
Jews call Maimonides Rambam, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses bea
Maimon. J m Tof, in like manner, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bar
Abraham.!
1500 Moses, 1572—1452.
Phinehas, supposed author of the book
Joshua.
1100 David, 1035-1081.5.
1000 Solomon, 1033—975.
POO Jonah, d. 761.
Amos.
Hosea.
Joel.
Obadiah.
Micah.
Isaiah, d. 681.
Nahum.
700 Habakkuk.
Zephaniah.
Jeremiah.
«00 Baruch.
Ezekiel,
Daniel.
Zechariali.
Hasgai.
600 Ezra.
>fehemiah, d. 430
MaJachi.
300 Jesus, son of Sirach.
26*
100 Nechoniah ben Hakkanah, 'Sepher hab-
baliir,' the illustrious book. The most
ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic.
Jonathan, ' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase
of the Bible.
A. D.
0 Onkelos, 'Targum.'
Josephus, b. 35.
100 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has been in-
correctly attributed to him.
Shimeonben Jochai(i2as/i60- The 'Zohar,'
a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary
on the Pentateuch is usually attributed
to him, but was composed by his dis-
ciples.
Jose ben Chilpheta, 'A History of the
World.'
Nathan of Babylon, ' Pirke aboth,' the say-
ings of the fathers. Ethics.
Elie2.cr, 'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayinga oJ
Eliezer, a History of the World.
Judah Hakkadosh, ' Mishna.' tlie oral tradi-
tions of the .fewa, which, with th«
(Jemrira or Commentary, constitutes th«
Babylonian Talmud.
610
THE world's progress.
Raf, supposed author of the 'Siphra,' a
commentary on Leviticus, and of the
'Siphre," a commentary on Numbers
and Deuteronomy.
2(X) Ushaya, ' Beresliiih Rabba,' a Commentary
on the Mishna.
Author of the 'Mechilta,' a Commentary
on Exodus.
Jochanan, -Talmud of Jerusalem.'
300 Rabba bar Nachmon, ' Rabboth,' Commen-
taries on the Bible.
40C Rahasha, began the ' Gemara,' a Commen-
tary on the JMishna.
Martemar, continued the 'Gemara,'
500 Abina, con pleied the 'Gemara.'
800 Simeon H:''.ara, ' Great decisions,' jurid.
Judah bar Nachman (Riban), Compendium
of the preceding.
9S0 Saadia Gaon, ' PhHosopher's Stone,' ' Book
of Faith,' 'Grammar,' &c.
Sherira, ' The Book of Answers,' history.
1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034.
.Joseph Ching, Grammarian.
.ludah Barzelloni, 'Rights of Women,' ju-
ridic.
Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag), ' Compendium
of Hebrew History.'
Moses Aben Ezra, d. lOSO. Grammarian.
Isaac of Cordova, d. 1094. ' Chest of Spices.'
1100 Alphes, d. 1103. 'Compendium of the
Talmud.'
Nathan, d. 1106. 'Talmudic and Chaldee
Lexicon.'
Solomon Jarchi (Rashi), Grammarian, d.
1105. ' Tongue of the Learned.'
Joseph ben Meir {Rlbam), d. 1141. ' Com-
mentary on Talmud.'
Juda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso-
phical.
A.braham Aben Ezra, very learned Com-
mentaries on the Bible.
Tam. d 117. ' Sepher Hajashar,' the Book
of Righteousness.
Samuel "ben Meir (Rashbam), d. 1171.
' Commentary on the Talmud.'
Benjamin of Tudela, rf. 1173. 'Travels.'
Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo-
logy.
Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian.
Moses Kimhi, Grammarian.
David Kimhi (Radak), Grammarian.
Abraham bar Dior {Rabad), d. 1 199. Cab-
balist.
Abraham ben David (Rabad), Jurist.
Moses ben Maimon (Rambam), 1131-1205.
' Yad Hazaka.' the -^v-ong hand, a very
celebrated Commentary on the Talmud,
&c. (This author is better known by
his Latinized name, Maimonides.)
1200 Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics.
Eliakim, Ceremonies.
Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies.
Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries.
Asher, Compendia of Talmud.
Perez Haccohen (Haraph), Cabbalist.
Moses ben Nachman (Ramban), d. 1260.
•Law of Man,' a celebrated book on
Cerema lies, <fcc.
Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of Piucepi*,
' Compendium of Talmud.'
Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ' Proverbs an4
Fables.'
Nissim, d. 1268. ' Book of Homilies.'
Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.*
Moses Aben Tybun, Translator of Mathe-
matical and Philosophical works from
the Greek and Arabic.
Solomon ben Adras {Rashba), Theology.
Meir, Meditations, on 'Maimonides.'
Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason fat
the enactment of the Laws of Moses.'
■Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.'
1300 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.'
Isaac Israeli, 'Foundation of the World,*
History.
Judah, son of Benjamin, Rii^al.
Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.'
Isaac Dura, 'On Forbidden and Permittei
Food.'
Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.'
Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.'
Jacob ben Asher, 'The Four Orders,' a
Ritual of much authority.
David Abudraham, astronomy.
Levi ben Gerson (Ralbag), d. 1370. ' Com-
mentary on the Law.'
Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual.
Isaac ben Sheshat (Ribash), 'Questions
and Answers on Various Subjects.'
Moses Haccohen, 'Help of Faith.'
Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work
against Christianity.
Jom Tof bar Abraham (Ritbd), Commen-
tary on Maimonides.'
Chasdai, d. 1396. 'Light of the Lord.'
Ethics and Theology.
Simeon bar Zemach, ' Shield of the Fathers.'
1400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual.
Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher,—
' Foundation of Faith.'
Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answer*
on the Law.'
Joshua Levita, 'Introd. to the Talmud.'
David Vital, ' Golden Verses.'
Samuel Sirsa, Grammar.
Isaac ben Aiama, ' Com. on the Law.'
Elias Misrachi (Ram). Arithmetic.
Abarbinel, ' Commentary on the Bible,'
Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics.
1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com-
mentary.
Isaac V'arro, ' Explanations of the Bible.'
Elias Levi, Grammar.
Solomon ben Virga, ' History of the .Tews.'
Benjamin Zeef, ' Questions and Answers.'
Abraham Zaccoth, ' Juchasin,' Sacred smd
.Jewish History.
Moses Iserle, Astrology.
Joseph Karro, 'Com. on Maimonides.'
Azarias Edomaeus, History and Philology.
Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and
Chronology.
Leo, d. 1592. ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar.
David Gans, History.
1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.'
1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy
AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT.
0 St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists.
St. Paul, St. Peter, St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GREEK.
611
GREEK.
IMAGINATION,
900 Homer, ' Iliad,' ' Odyssey,'
«fcc.
Hesiod, ' Works and Days,'
&c.
700 Tyrtaeiis, Elegies (fragm'ts.)
Arcliilochus,^Satu-es, Ele-
gies (fragments).
600 Aicagus, Lyrics (fragments).
Sappho, Lyrics (fragments).
Solon, d. 55S.
Epimenides.
Stesichoius, 633-553 Lyrics
(fragments).
Mimnermus, Elegies (frag-
ments.)
Anacreon, Lyrics.
500 Simonides, 556-467, Lvrics.
.S:schylus, 525-456, Trage-
dies.
Pindar, 518^39, Odes.
Bacchylides, Lyrics.
Sophocles, 495-405, Trage-
dies.
Euripides, 480^86, Trage-
dies.
Aristophanes, d. 338, Come-
dies.
tfX)
Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.)
Menander, 242-291, Come-
dies (fragments.)
300 Bion, Idyla.
Moschus, Idyls.
Lycophron, ' Cassandra.'
Calliniachus, Hymns and
Epigrams.
Theocritus, Idyls.
Aratus, Poem on Astrono-
my.
Cleanthes, Hymns.
ApoUonius Rhodius, Argo-
nautics.'
B.C.
900
700
500
Gorgias, Orations (frgts.)
Hecataeus, Hist, (fragmn'ts.)
Herodotus, d. 484, History.
Thucydides, 471-391, Histo-
ry of Peloponnepian War.
Antiphon, Orations.
Andorides, Orations.
Lysias, 458-378, Orations.
400 Ctesias, History (fragm'ts.)
Xenophon, 444-359, History,
Philosophy, &c.
Isaeus, Orations.
Isocrates, 536-338, Orations.
Dinarchus, Orations.
Lycurgus, Orations.
Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora-
tions.
.aEschines, 389-314, Orations.
300
Manetho, History (fragm'ts.)
SPECUIATIVE AND SClENTIFIft
C.
900
00
Pythagoras, Philosophy.
500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy.
Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso-
phy.
Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo«
sophy.
Socrates,
phy.
468-399, Philoso.
400
Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi-
cine.
Democritus, 450-357, Philo-
sophy. •
Plato, 429-347, Philosophy.
Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso-
phy, Criticism.
TheoDhrastus,d. 288, Ethics.
Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso-
phy.
300 Euclid, Geometry.
Zento of Citium, d. 263, Phi-
losophy.
ApoUonius, Conic Sect
Archimedes, d. 212, *Sphei
and Cylinder,' &c.
Eratosthenes, Philosophy.
612
THE world's progress.
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SOIBNTIMOl
200 Nicander, Theriaca.
200 Polybius, 2013-12-1, Universal
History.
Apollodorus, ' Bibliotheca,'
Myihology.
200
100 Meleager, Epigrams.
100 Conon, Mythology.
Scymnus, Poetical Geogr.
Dionysius Haiicamassus,
•Roman Antiquities.'
Dionysius Periegetes, Ge-
ography 1
Dioilorus Siculus, General
History.
100
0
0 Strabo, Geography.
Pausanias, Description of
Greece.
Plutarch, Biography, Morals
&c.
Dion Chrysostom, Orations.
0
Dioscorides, Botany and Me-
dicine.
Epictetus, » Enchiridion,'
Philosophy.
▲. D.
100
lamblichus, ' Rhodis and Si-
nonides, a novel.
Lucian, Dialogues.
Oppian, Poems on Hunting
and Fishing.
Atheneeus, d. 194, ' Deipno-
sophistac, anecdotes.
100 !^lian, d. 140. Varieties.
Appian, History.
Ptolemy, Geog., Astron.
Arrian, ' Expedition of Alex-
ander.'
A. D.
100
Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo-
logy.
Polycarp, d. 167, Theology.
Galen, 103-193, Medicine.
Athenagoras, d. 172, ' On the
Resurrection.'
Phavorinus, Lexicon.
Ilermogenes, d. 161, Rhe-
toric.
Polysenus, Strategy.
M. Aurelius Antoninus, Phi-
losophy.
Nephaestion, ' On Metres.'
Max. Tyrius, Philosophy.
Julius Pollux, <Onomasti.
con,' Rhetoric.
200
200 Dioffenes Laertius, d. 222,
' Lives of Philosophers.'
Philostratus, d. 244, Life of
Apolionius.
Dion Cassius, History of
Rome.
Herodian, History of Rome.
. Porphyrius, 233-304, Life of
Pythagoras, Philosophy.
200
Ammonius, Philosophy.
Origan, rf. 254, Theology
Hesychius, Lexicon,
lamblichus, Philosophy,
Longinus, d. 273, 'On th«
Sublime.'
aoo
Achilles Tatius, ' Clitophon
and Leucippe ' novel.
Xenophon, 'Anthea and Ab-
rocome,' novel.
300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias-
tical History.
Liabanius, Orations and
Epistles.
300
Julian, d. 363, PhilosoT)hy.
Athaiiasius, 298-371, Theo-
logy.
Greg. Nazianzen, 318-3Sfll
Theology.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. GREEK.
613
ISIAOINATION.
PACT.
SPECUS.AT1VJE AND SCIENTIFIC
300
300
Eunapius, 'Lives of Philo-
sophers.'
Gregory Nyssaeus, d. 396,
Theo'lo^y.
Cyril, 315-386, Theology.
Diophantus, Mathematics.
30C Aristaep.etus, 'Erotic Let-
ters.'
Ilelioflorus, 'Theagenes&
Chariclaea.' novel.
Chariton. ' Chaereus and
Calirriioe,' novel.
300
300
Chrysostom 354-40", Thei
ology.
400 Lonsus. 'Daplmis and
Chloe,' novel.
Nonnu-s, ' Conquest of India
by Bacchus.'
Stobaeus, ' Literary Collec-
tions.'
Quint us Smyrnaeus (com-
monly called) Calabar,
'Coniin. of Homer.'
Musseus. Poem of Hero and
Leander 1
Eumathius, 'Ismenseus &
Ismenaea,' novel.
Coluthus, Poem on ' Rape
of Helen.'
Tryphindorus, Poem on
'Destruction of Troy.'
400 Synesius, Orations «fe Epis-
tles,
Zosimus, ' Hist, of Roman
Emperor.'.'
Socrates, 389^46, Ecclesi-
astical History.
Sozomen. d. 450, Ecclesias-
tical History.
Theodoret, d. 4.50, Ecclesi-
astical History.
400 Nemesius, ' Nature of
Man,' Philosuphy.
Cyril, d. 443, Homilies.
Proclus, d. 445, Theology.
Proclus, d. 500, Platonist.
600
503 Stephanus, Geography.
Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign
of .lustinian.'
Olympiodorus, 'Hist, of
Hunorius.'
Cos. Indicopleustes, Topo-
graphy.
Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist
Agathias, Byzantine Hist.
500 Simplicius, ' Commenta orj
Aristotle.'
Tribonianus, Jurist.
600
600 Menan, Protector, Chron.
Theophanes, Byzant.Hisc.
Theophylactus Simocatta,
Byzantine History.
600
Philoponus, Grammarian.
700
700
700 Damascenus, d 750, The-
ology.
800
800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist.
Syncellus, Histoiy.
John Malalas, Histoiy.
800 Theodorus Studites, 759-
826, Sermons.
Photius, d. 891, 'B?bIio>
theca.'
900
900
Leontius, History.
Genesius, History,
900 Leo VI., d. 911, ' OnChrlft
tian Faith.'
C14
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIHa
900
900 Const. Porphyrogenneta,
905-959, Hist. Selections.
Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives
of Sainis.
900
!000
1000 George Cedrenus, History.
John Xiphilinus, d. 1080,
Abridg. of Dion Cassias.
John Scylitza, History.
1000
Theophylactus, Theology.
Michael Psellus, Mathema
tics.
1100
C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho-
damhe and Dosicles,'
novel.
1100
Nicephorus Bryennius, d.
1137, Byzant. Affairs.
Anna Comnena, Reign of
her father Alexius.
Const. Manasses, History.
Zonaras, History of Ro-
mans, History of Jews.
Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184,
History.
John Tzetzes, History in
Verse.
Cinnamus, History.
1100 Euthymius Zygabenua,
Theology.
Suidas, Lexicon.
Eustathias, CoramentarioB
on Homer.
Isaac Tzetzes.Commentary
on Lycophron.
1200
1200 Joel, History.
Michael Glycas, History.
George Acropolita, Hist.
Nicetas Acominatus, Hist.
George Pachymer, Hist.
1200
Nicephorus Blemmidas,
Theology.
1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340,
Poems.
Maximus Planudes, Anth-
ology.
Leo Pilatus, Literature.
1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312,
History.
Callistus Xantopulus, Ec-
clesiastical History.
Niceph. Gregoras, History.
John Cantacuzenus, Hist.
George Codinus, Hist.
Michael Ducas, History.
1300
1400
Demet. Pamperes, Tales.
Mariillus Tarchoniota d.
1500, Poems.
1400
Theodore Gaza, d. 1478.
Origin of Turks.
Laonicus Chalcondyles,
History of Turks.
George Phranza, History.
1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d.
1415, Grammar.
Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho,
d. 1450, Philosophy.
Eman. Moscopulus, Notes
on Hesiod.
Bessarion, 1395-1472. The-
ology.
Geo. of Trebizond, 1396-
1468, Aristotelian.
John Argyrophilus, Arista*
telian.
1800
1500
1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles,
1 • 1453-1513, Philology.
I
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN ARD ITALIAN.
615
IMAGINATION.
1600
1700 Kallinikus, Poems.
Nicholas Caradza, Trans-
lation of Voltaire.
1700
Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, Nat-
u'ral Philoscphy.
1800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy.
Christopuius, Anacreon-
tics?, Opera.
Calvos. Lyrics.
Ilarion, Translation of So-
phocles.
1600
1700
Alexander Maurocordato,
Ilistoiy of the .lews.
Meletius, Geography.
1700
Ducas, Translation of Thu-
cydides.
1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827,
Hist, of Wallachia, «fec.
Paliuris, Hist, of Greece.
Perrevos, History of Suli
and Parga.
Gr. Demetrius, Geography.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1600 Panasioti, d. 1763, The-
ology.
1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian.
Marcus Tharboures, A!©-
chanics.
1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics.
1800 Psalidas, Metaphysics.
Coray, Commentaries, Lex-
icon.
Cumas, Dictionary.
Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics.
LATIN AND ITALIAN.
[The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth centuiy, but was in almost universal
use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the
modern languages began to appear.'
As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged
all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head; but about the sixth century they will be
found under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which
they wrote.]
IMAGINATION.
PACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC
B. C.
B. C.
B. C.
200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies.
200
200
Q,. Ennius, Epics (Fragts).
P. Terentius, Comedies.
M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica.
100
100 T. Pomponius Atticus, 110-
100 Varro, 11^-2S. De Re Rusti-
33, Letters.
ca Liiiguii Lai ma.
Vitruvius, Aichitecture.
Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, FaaU
Capitolini.
T. Lucretius, b. 95, De R&-
M. T Cicero, 107-43, Orator
rum Natura.
and Philo-sopher.
Catullus, 86-40, Lyrics.
Julius Ca3sar, 98-46, Com-
mentaries.
Ilir'ius Pansa, Gallic War.
C. Sallustius. 85-35, Jugur-
thine War.
Corn. Nepos, Biography.
P. Virgilius, 70-19. Eneid.
Q. Horatius, 65-6, Oaes, Sat-
ires.
Propertius, 59-16, Elegies.
T. Livius, 59 b. c— 19 a. d.,
A. Tibullus, 43 b. c— 17
History of Rome.
A. D.. Elegies.
Ovid, 43 b. c— 17 A. D., Me-
tamorph. Fasu. &c.
Hyginus, Poeticon Astro-
nomicon.
616
THE world's progress.
IMAGINATION,
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIEM'flSW
H. D.
A. D.
A. D.
0
0 Vel Paterculus, 19 b. c— 30
A. D., Hist, of Rome.
Pomp. Mela, Geography.
Valerius INIaximus, Anec-
dotes of Great Men.
0
Phaedrus, Fables,
C. Celsus, De Medicina.
Quintus Curtius, History of
Columella, Agriculture.
Alexander.
Persius. :34-62, Satires.
L. A. Seneca, 12-65, Philo*
Liican, 3&-65. ' Pharsalia.'
opher. Tragic Poet.
Petronins Arbiter, d. 67, Sa-
Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nat-
lyricon.
Valerius Flaccus, Argonau-
ral History.
Quintilian Criticism-
tics.
Silius Italicus, « Punic
War.'
Sulpieia, Satires, &c.
Statius, d. 99, 'Thebais,'
'Achilleis.'
Martial, 29-104, Epigrams.
Juvenal, 48-128. Satires.
Pliny the Younger, 61-113,
Epistles.
100
100 Tacitus, History.
100 Valer, Probus, Grammar.
Suetonius, Biography.
Fiorus, History of Rome.
Frontinus, Strategy.
Terentianus Maurus, De Ar-
Aulus Gellius, Noctes At-
te Metrica.
L. Apuleuis, Golden Ass.
tics.
C. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor,
Justin, History.
Pompei. Festus, Grammar.
200
200
200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law.
Teriullian,(?. 220, 'Apology
for Christianity.'
Minutius Felix, Dialogue in
favor of Christianity.
Julius Obsequens, 'De Pro-
digiis.'
Censorinus, 'De Die Na.
tali.'
Cyprian, d. 258, Theology.
Nemesianus, Cynegetica.
Jul. Calpumius, Eclogues.
300
300 El Spartianus, History.
300 Arnobius, ' Adversus gen-
Jul. Capitolinus, History.
tes.'
M\. Lanipridus, History.
Lar.tantius, d. 325, Defence
Vul. Gallioanus. History.
of Christianity.'
TreboUius, Pollio, History.
Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel
F. Vopiscus. History.
.^1. Donatus, Grammar.
in Verse.
Aurelius Victor, Histoiy.
F. Maternus, Astronomy
Theology.
M. Victorinus, Hymns.
F. Eutropius, History of
Ambrosius, Theology.
Festus Avienus, Geographi-
Rome.
cal Poem.
Amm. Marcellinus, History
Jerom. 329-^20, Version of
D. M. Ausonius, Idyls.
of Rome.
Bible.
Rufinus, d. 410, Ecclesiasti
cal History.
T. Vegetius Renatus, De Re
Militari.
A. T. Macrobius, Satur-
Augustin, 354—430, Theol-
nalia.
ogy.
Rymmachus, Epistles.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN.
617
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIEHTIKO
300 C. Claudianus, Poems.
300
300
A. Prudeniius Clemens,
Chiistiaa Poems.
40Q
400 Vib. Sequester, Geography.
Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420,
Sacred History.
400
Sedulius, Poetical Life of
Orosius, Hist, of World.
Christ.
Martianus Capella, De Nup-
tius Phil, et Merc.
Bliulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on
Martin of Tours.
Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488,
Poems.
Victorius, History of Church
in Africa.
Ennodius, d. 521, Christian
Idacius, Chronicles to 468.
Poems.
500 Boethius, Poet and Philo-
500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His-
500 Priscianus, Grammar,
sopher.
tory.
Fulgentius, 468-533, The-
ology.
Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536,
Christian Era.
Non. Marcellus, Grammar.
Arator, 490-556, Acts of
Apostles in Verse.
Jornandes, Hist, of Goths.
Evagrius, Eccl. History.
600
600 Secundus, d. 615, History
of Lombards.
600
700
700
700 Cresconius, Collection
Paul Wamefrid. History
Canons, Verses.
of Lombards.
800
800 Erchempert, History of
Lombards.
Anastasius, Lives of Popes.
800
900
900 Luitprand, History of his
900
Times.
1000
1000
1000 Papias, Grammar.
Lanfranc, d. 1089, I'heol.
1100 Uonizo, Latin Poe.ry.
1100
1100
Falcandus, Hist, of Sicily.
Gratian, Canonist.
Campanus, Mathematics.
Ciullod' Alcamo, Siciliar
Poetry.
1200
1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249,
1200 Accursius, 1182-1260, Law
Guido of C^olonna, Poetry,
History.
Thomas Aquinas, 1224-
History.
1274, Theoloery.
Brunetto Latma, d. 1294,
Bonaventura. Scholastic.
'11 Tesora.'
Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300,
Poems.
Marco Polo, Travels.
John XXII., Poem on Me-
dicine.
G. Durand, Law.
G. de Voragine, d. 1298,
Legends of Saints.
Pietro d'Albano, 1250-1 » ^
Astrology, Physics.
Torregiano Rustecli»»lll,
Commentaries.
618
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
IJtf AGINATION.
FACT.
SPBOULATIVE AND SOIENTIFia
1300 Dante, 12G5-1321, La Di-
1300 Dine Compagni, 1265-1323,
Cliroiiicles.
1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy.
vina Com media, Vita
Arn. Villanovan, d. 1313,
Nova, Couvito, &c.
Giovanni and M. Villani,
Alchemy.
F. Barberiao, 1264-134S,
Chronicles.
Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327,
Poems.
Astronomy.
Peti-arca, 1304-1374, Son-
G. Andreas, d. 1348, Ca-
nets, Epic, Literature.
nons.
Boccacio, 1313-1375, '11-
Bartolus, Law.
Decamcrono,' Poems anil
Domenico Cavalca,Ascetic
various works in Latin
Ferreti, 1356-1429, History
and Translal. of Lives
and Italian.
of his Times.
of Saints.
UOO
1400 Leonardo Bruni, History
1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra.
Nicholas Tedeschi, Law.
of Florence.
A. Beccadelli, 1374-1471,
'Hermapliroilitus.'
Guarino, 1370-1460, Trans-
Poggio, 13S0-1459, Litera-
lation of Plutarch.
ture.
Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462,
Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457,
Medicine.
Literature.
B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His-
Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460.
D. Burcbiello, Sonnets.
tory of Holy War.
Baraterius, Law.
Flav. Blondus, 1388-1463,
Gianozzo, Manetti, 1396-
History of Venice, &c.
1479, Orientalist.
^n. Sylvius, 1400-1464,
Paul Toscanello, d. 1482,
History, Poetry, &c.
Astronomy.
Beccat, Panormita, 1393-
1471, Biography.
Pulci, 1432-1487, ' Mor-
Bart. Platina, 1421-1481,
gan teMasjgiore.'
Lives of Popes.
Franc. Pinlelplius, 1398-
F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496,
14S1, Poetry and Ethics.
Biography.
Loren. de Medici, d. 1492,
Pomp. Lietus, 1425-1495,
Poetry, Literature.
Lives of Cifisars, &c.
Angelo Poliziano, 1454-
Franc. Berlinghieri, Geo-
1494, Poetry, Drama.
graphy.
Pico de Mirandola, 1463-
Marsiiius Ficiuus, 1433-
G. Pontano, 1426-1563,
1494, Metaphysics.
1499, Translat. Plato.
Wars of Ferdinand I.
Bonlinius, d. 1502, History
of Hungary.
Luca di Burgo, Mathem.
1500
1500 E. Accolti, 1455-1532, His-
1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512,
tory.
Anatomy.
L. da Vinci, 1452-1520,
G. Ruccellai, 1475-1526,
'Treatise on Painting,'
'LeApi.'
Giambuliari, 1495 - 1555,
&c.
Alexander ab Alexandre,
History of Europe.
G. Abrosi, Astronomy.
1461-1523, Dies Geni-
A. Acchillini, 1472-1512,
tales.
Medicine.
M. Boiardo, 'Orlando In-
B. Castiglione, 1478-1529,
namorato.'
'The Courtier.'
Sanazaro, 1458-1530, Ar-
cadia.
B-.n.i, d. 1530, Satires,
Burlesque, and Orlando
Innamorato.
Machiavelli, 1482-1528, His-
Ariosto, 1474-1533, 'Or-
tory of Florence, &c.
lando Furioso,' Satires,
Comedies.
F. M. Molza, d. 1544, Po-
Guicciardini, 1482 - 1540,
G. Fracastoro, 1483-1533,
ems.
History of Italy.
Medicine and Latin
,
Bembo, 1470-1547, History
Poems.
Trissino, 1478-1550, ' Italy
of Venice.
And. Alciato, 1492-1550,
Delivered,' Epic, Trage-
L.Alberti,(«. 1552, History
Law.
dy.
of Bologna.
Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN.
619
IMAGINATION.
PACT.
8PECFLATITE AND SCIENTIFIC
1500 Hier. Vida, d. 1566, Latin
1500
1500 F. Commandido,1509-1575,
Poetry.
B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto-
Matbematics.
Mic. Angelo Buonaroti, d.
biogi-anhy.
Angelo Caninio, d. 1507,
1564, Poems.
B. Varcbi, 1503-1566, His-
Orientalist.
Giovanni della Casa, 1503-
tory of his Times.
1550, 11 Galateo, &c.
Segne, 1499-1559, History
Gr. Anguillai-a, l>. 151T, Tra-
L. Dolc'p, 1508-1568, Trage-
of Homer.
dy, Ep'c, History.
And. Vesalio, 1514r-1564,
Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575,
Anatomy.
'Amadis,' Sonnets, and
G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives
Falopias, 1523-1563,Medi-
Letters.
of Painters, &c.
cine.
Greg. Giraldi, 1504r-1573,
Sperone Speroni,1500-1588,
Eustachi, d. 1576. Do.
Tragedy.
C>rations.
P. Manut Aldus, 1512-1574,
S. Ammirato, 1531-1600,
Commentaries.
History of Florence.
Cardano, 1501-1576, Ma-
A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583,
G. Adriani. 1511-1579, His-
tbematics.
Comedies.
tory of bis Times.
P. Lancelloti, 1511-1591,
Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595,
' Gerusalemme Liberata,'
B. Davanzati. 1529-1606,
Law.
Hist. Eng. Reformation.
Sonnets, Drama, ikc.
C. Baronius, 1538-1607, Ec-
G. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra-
clesiastical Annals.
gedy.
P. Paruta, 1540-1598, His-
Guarini, 1538-1613, '11
tory of Venice..
Pastor Fide'
Possevini, 1583-1611, De-
scription of Muscovy,
&c.
P. E. Sarpi, 1552-1633, His-
Andrea Csesalpino, 1519-
1603, Botany.
U. Aldrovandi, 1522-1605,
Ottavio Rinuccini, Opera.
F. Braccilolini, 1566-16U5,
tory of Coim. of Trent,
Natural History.
'La Croce Eacquistata.'
Orazio TorseUino, 1545-
Oraz Vecclii, Comic Opera
1609, Grammar.
G. B. Marini, 1569-1625,
Poems.
C. Achillini, 15T7-1640,
E. C. Davila, 1576-1631,
Poems.
Hist Civil Wars France.
A. Tassoni, 1561-1635,
'Sechchia Eapita.'
1600 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637,
1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644,
History Civil Wars of
1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619,
Poems, Epic, Lyric, &c.
Comparative Anatomy.
Flanders, and Letters.
Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Po-
lemics.
Galileo,1564-16!2, Astron.
T. A. Campanella, 1568-
1693, Pbilosopby.
Zappi. 1667-1719, Poems.
D. Bartoli, History of the
L.Vanini, 1585-16 19, The-
Jesuits in tbe East In-
ology.
dies, &c., 1608-1685.
B. Castelli, d. 1644, Ma-
tbematics.
B. Cavalieri, d. 1647, Do.
Fabio Colouna, 1567-1647,
Botany, &c.
Laur.Lippi, 1606-1664, Co-
mic Poems.
Forricelli, 1608-1647.
Salvator Rosa, 1615-1673,
P. della Valle, 1586-1652,
Satires.
Travels.
C. M. Maggi, 1630-1699,
F. Strada, 1571-1649, Hist.
Poems.
of Wars of Flanders.
Francisco de Lemene, 1639
G. B. Nani, 1615-1671, His-
F. Redi, 1626-1697, Nat
-1704, Poems.
tory of Venice.
ural Hist. & Literatnra.
A. Guidi, 1650-1712, Lyric
Oderic Eainaldi, Ecclesias-
M. Malpigbi, 1628-1694,
Poems.
tical Annals.
Anatomy.
620
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
IMAGIXATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTIPIQ
1600 Ben. Menzini, 1646-170-1,
1600 Sforza Pallevicino, 1607-
1600 V. Viviani,1621-1703, Ma-
Art of PoetrT, Satires.
1667, Historv of Coun-
tlu'uuitics.
V. Filicaja, 1642-1707, Po-
cil of Trent, Ac.
A.Magliabecchi,1638-1714,
ems.
Literature.
P. Sogner, 1G24-1694, As-
cetic and Sermoni
A. Marchettf, 163^-1714,
G. D. Oassini, 1625-1712,
Poems, Pliilosopby.
Mathematics, Astron.
D. Gnglielmini,lG55-1710,
Mutliematics.
1700 N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735,
1700
1700 G. Baglivi, 1668-1706, Me-
Kicciiirdetto.
dicine.
G. M. Crescembini, 1663-
G. V. Gravina, 1664-1718,
172S, Poetry.
Law.
Apostulo Zeno, 1669-1750,
G. B. Vico, 1670-1744,
Olteras.
L. Muratorl, 1672-1750,
Philosophy of History.
8. Miitnu, 1675-1755, Tra-
Annals of Itality.
gedy, Comedy, and An-
B. Giannone, 1080-1748,
tiquities.
History of Naples.
G. Cassini, 1677-1756, As-
tronomy.
G. Morgagni, 1681-1771;
Anatomy.
M. Metastasio, 1693-1782,
F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756,
Dramas, Operas.
History of the ValteUne.
A. Genovesi, 1712-1769,
Metaphysics.
F. Algavotti, 1712-1764,
'Newtonianism.'
G. Barettl, 1716-1789, Mis-
B. Buonamici, 1710-1761,
G.R.Bosco\vi«h,1711-1787,
cellaneous.
History.
Mathematics, Philolosv-
C. GoMi, Dramas, &o.
A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, Bio-
F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777,
Philosophy.
0. Beccaria, 1720-1795,
'Crimes & Punishments.'
C. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co-
gi-aphy.
medies.
G. Tiraboscbi, 1731-1794,
L. Spallanzanl, 1729-1799,
C. I. Fi-ugoni, 1692-1768,
Hist, of Italian Litera-
Natural History.
Poems.
ture.
G. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa-
tires, Odes, but chiefly
L. Galvani, 1737-1798,
prose — L'Osaervatore,
Venito, &G.
Denina, History of Italian
Galvanism.
Revolutions, and many
Volta, 1745-1827, Do.
V. Alfieri, 1749-1803, Tra-
other works, chiefly his-
G. Filangieri, 1751-1798,
gedies, &C.
oricaL
Legislation.
1800 Pindemonte, Poems.
1800
1800
Monti, Poems.
Ugo Foscoio, Drama, Po-
ems.
Botta, History of Italy,&c.
Scarpa, Anatomy.
I. da Ponte,Poems, Operas.
M. Gioja, 1767-1839, Poli-
Manzoni, Tragedies, Po-
tical Economy.
ems, and one novel— I
Eomagnosi,Polit. Science.
Promissi Sposi.
Galluppi, Metaphysics.
Silvio PeUico, Tragedies,
CoUetta, History of Na-
Eosmini, Do;
&c.
ples.
Costa, Metaphysics, hia
G. B. Niccolo, Tragedies,
Conti, Universal History,
torical and critical
Ac.
&0.
Cesari, Philology.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH.
621
BRITISH, &c.
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIFlft
A. D
BOO
A. D.
500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain.
A. D.
500
600 Caedmon, Saxon Poems.
Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Po-
ems.
600 Nemiius, Origin of Britons.
600
700
700 Bede, 673—735, Eccl. Histo-
ry of England,
700
Alcuin, d. 804, Theol)gy,
History, Poetry.
900 Alfred, 849-901, Saxon Po-
ems, Translations, «fcc.
SOO
Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred,
History of England.
800 J. Scot Erigena, d. 853, ' Of
the Nature of Things.'
900
900 Ethelwerd, History of Great
Britain.
900
1000
1000 Ingulphus, 1030— 1109, His-
tory of Croyland.
Eadmer, Chronicle.
1000
1100
Lavamon, Saxon Poetry.
Nigellus, Speculum Stulto-
vura.
Walter Mapes, Satires,
Jos. of iSxeter, Troj. War,
War of Antioch, Epics.
1100 Order. Vitalis, 1075-1132,
History of England.
Florence of Worcester, d.
1118, Chron. of England.
GeoflVy of Monmouth, His-
tory of Britain.
William of Malmsbury, d.
1143, Hist, of Britain.
Henry of Huntingdon,
Chronicles of England.
Simeon of Durham, Chron-
icles of Ensriand.
John of Saiirsburv, d. 1181,
' Life of Becket,' &c.
G. Cambrensis, Conq. of
Ireland, Itin. of Wales.
Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136,
Chron, of England.
1100
Robert PuUeyn, d 115U,
Theology.
Richard of St. Victor, d.
1173, Theology.
Ralph Glanville, Collectiok
of Laws.
mt
1200 Roger Hoveden. Chron. o-f
England.
Gervase of Canterbury,
History of England.
Roger of Wendover, Hist.
of England.
Matthew Paris, d. 1259,
History of England.
1200
Alex. Neckham, d. 1227,
Theology.
Robert Grosteste, Natnral
Pliilosophy.
Alexander Hales, d. 124o,
Aristotelian.
John Peckham. Theology.
John Holiwood, d. 1253;
Astron., Mathematics.
62S
THE world's progress.
IMAGINATIOM.
FACT.
SPECCLATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC
Robert of Glocester, Chron-
William Rishanger, His-
Roger Bacon, 1214—1292
icle in verse.
tory of England.
Chemistry, Optics, &c.
T. Lemiont, the Rhymer,
Rich. Middleton, Tlieology.
Sir Tristem, Romance.
1300
1303
1300 Albriciis. Theology.
Duns Septus, d. 1308, Phil-
osophy.
Walter Burleigh, Philoso-
phy.
Gilb. Anglicus, Medicine.
Adam Davie, Metr. Ro-
Nicholas Triveth, d. 1328,
R. Aungervile, 1281—1345,
mance, Life of Alex.
Hist. Physic, Theology.
Richard of Chichester,
Philobibiion.
Lawrence Minot, d. 1352,
Chron. of England.
J. Wicliffe, 1324-1384,
Historical Poems.
Ralph Higden, d. 1360,
Theology, Translation of
Chron. of England.
Bible.
Henry Knighton, d. 1370,
Chron. of England.
Matthew of Westminster,
John Barbour, 1326-1396,
'Flowers of History.'
' The Bruce.'
John Maundeville, d. 1372,
H. de Bracton, Law.
R. Langlande, 'Pierce
Travels.
Plowman,' a Satire.
John Fordun, Chron. of
Geof. Chaucer, 1328-1400,
Scotland.
' Canterbury Tales,' &c.
John Gower, d. 1402, Ele-
gies, Romances, <fec.
1400
1400 Andrew of Wyntoun,
Chron. of Scotland.
1400
John Lydgate, 1380-1440,
Poems.
T. Walsingham, d. 1440,
History of Normandy.
James L of Scotland, 1395-
John Fortescue, Laws ol
1437, 'King's Quhair,'
&c.
Harry the Minstrel, 'Sir
England.
W. Wallace.'
John Hardyng, Chron. of
Thomas Littleton, d. 1487,
England.
Law.
Lord Berners, Trans, of
Froissart.
Stephen Hawes, 'Passe-
W. Caxton, Translations.
tyme of Pleasure.'
John Skelton, d. 1529,
Douglas of Glastonbury,
Satires, Odes.
Chron. of England.
1500 Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530,
1500 R. Fabyan. d. 1512, Chron.
1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524
* Thistle and Rose.'
of England and France.
Philology, Medicine.
Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522,
Trans. Virgil.
Thomas More, 1480-1535,
Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus-
' Utopia.'
bandry.
Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541,
.
Sonnets.
T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist, of
John Heywood, d. 1565,
Houses of York and Lan-
Thomas Elyot. Philology.
H. Latimer, 1475—1555,
Drama.
caster.
Earl of Surrey, d. 1546-7,
John Leland, d. 1552, Eng-
Sermons.
Poems.
lish Antiquities.
Geo. Gascoigne, d. 1577,
W. Cavendish, 1505-1557,
Drama.
'Lifeof Wolsey.'
J. Ball, 1495-1563, 'Lives
Roger Ascham, 1515— 156t
of British Writers.'
'The Schoolmaster.'
Ralph Hollingshed,d. 1581,
Thomas Wilson, d. 1581
Chronicles.
Logic and Rhetoric.
Geo. Buchanan, 1506-1582,
Thomas Tusser, d. I5S0,
History of Scotland.
Husbandry
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH.
523
IMAGINATION.
Philip Sidney, 1554—1586,
'Arcadia.'
Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593,
Drama.
Edm. Spenser, 1553—1598,
'Faery Queen."
W. Shakspeare, 1564—
1616, Drama.
John Lylie, 1550—1600,
'Euphues.'
John Fletcher, 1576—1625,
Drama.
F. Beaumont, 1586—1615,
Drama.
1600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin
Epigrams.
Sir H. Wotton, 1568—1639,
Poet.
J. Fox, 1517-1587, Bock
of Martyrs.
N. Fitzherbert, 1550—1612,
Biography.
John Stowe, 1527—1605,
Chronicles, Topography.
Sir T. North, Translations
of Plutarch.
J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama.
Ben Jonson, 1574—1637,
Drama.
P. Massenger, 1585—1639,
Drama.
J. Harrington, 1561—1612,
Trans. Ariosto.
E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans.
M. Drayton, 1563-1631,
Poems.
G. Sandys, 1577-1643,
Translations, Poems.
J. Daniel, 1562—1619,
Poems.
W. Drummond, 1585-1649,
Poems.
John Donne, 1573—1662,
Satires, Essays.
Geo. Wither, 1588—1667,
Satires.
James Shirley, 1594—1666,
Drama.
Sir J. Suckling, 1609—1841,
Poems.
John Denham, 1615—1668,
Tragedies. Cooper's Hill.
Samuel Butler, 1612—1688,
Hudibras.
John Milton, 1608—1674,
' Paradise Lost.'
Edm. Waller, 1605—1687,
Poems.
A. Cowley, 1618—1667,
Poems.
A. Maxwell 1620-1678,
Poems.
1600 J. Pitts, 1560—1616, Biog.
of Kings, Bishops, &c.
Richard Knolles, d. 1610,
History of the Turks.
Wm. Camden, 1551—1623,
Antiquities.
R. Hackluyt, 1553—1616,
Naval Histories.
W. Raleigh, 1552—1617,
History of the World.
Samuel Daniel, 1.567—1619,
History of England.
John Hayward, d. 1627,
English History.
J. Speed, 1555—1629, Hist.
of Great Britain.
Henry Spelman, 1562-1641,
Antiquities.
R. B. Cotton, 1570—1631,
Antiquities.
S. Purchas, 1577—1628,
Collection of Voyages.
Thomas Roe, 1580—1641,
Travels in the East.
E. (Lord) Herbert, 1.581—
1648, History of Henry
vin.
R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron.
of England.
Thomas Fuller, 1608—1661
History, Biography.
Clarendon. 1608 - 1673, His
tory of Rebellion.
Thomas May, d. 1650, His
tory of Parliament.
Izaak Walton, 1593—1683,
Biography-
B. Whitlocke, 1605—1676,
History.
Mrs. Hutchinson, Biogra
phy.
W. Prynne, 1660—1667,
History, Politics.
SPECULATIVE AND 3CIEWTIFI0
J. Jewel, 1522-1570, Di-
viniiy.
R.Hooker, 1553-4600, E>
clesiastical Polity.
W. Gilbert, 1540—1603,
' On the Loadstone,'
L. Andrews, 1565 — 1626.
Sermons.
1600 Edward Coke, .550- -1634,
Law.
John Napier, 1550—1617,
Logarithms.
Robert Buncr, 1576—1639,
' Anat. of Melancholy.'
Francis Bacon, 1560—1626,
Philosophy, History.
Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657,
Circulation of Blood.
John Selden, 1584—1654,
Antiquities, Law, Hist.
J. Harrington, 1611—1677,
' Oceana.'
James Usher, 1580—1666,
Divinity, Sermons, Hist.
Thos. Hobbes, 15SS— 1679,
Metaphysics
W. Dugdale, 1605—1686,
Antiquities, History.
W. Chillingworth, 1602—
1644. Theology.
Isaac Barrow, 1630-1677,
Divinity, Mathematics.
J. Pearson, 1612—1686,
Divinity.
Brian Walton, 1600—1661
Polyglot Bible
Jeremy Taylor, (/. 1667,
Divinity.'
Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683
' Discourse on Govern-
ment.'
Thos. Browne, 160.5—1682
'On Vulgar Err )rs.'
Edmunil Castell, d. 1685
Lexicon Ileptae'ottOD.
R. Cudworth, 1617— 1,6>-^
Metapljsios.'
624
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
XMAGINATIOM.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIEMTIFIO
1600
1600
1600 J. Eve'yn, IG-^O— 1706,
' Sylva.'
H. More, 1614—1687, Tho-
oUvry.
T. Sydenham, 1624-1689,
Rochester, 1648— 16S0,
Wm. Temple, 1629—1710,
Satires.
Memoirs, &c.
Medicine.
Roscommon, 1633—1684,
W. Sherlock, d. 1689, Di-
Poems.
vinity.
N.Lee, 1656—1691, Drama.
J. Tillotson, 1630— IGW,
John Bunyan, 162S-1688,
Sermons.
Pilgrim's Prosjress.'
Archbishop Leight .■n.
John bryden, 1631—1701,
1613-1684, Divinity.
Tragedy, Satire, 'Virgil.'
Thos. Otvvay, 1651-1685,
R. Baxter, 1615—1691,
'Saint's Everlasting
Tragedy.
R. Brady, d. 1700, History
Rest.'
of England.
R. Boyle, 1627—1691,
Theology, Chemistry.
6700 John Pomfret, 1667-1703,
1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713,
1700
' The Choice.'
Foedera.
John Ray, 162b— 1705, Bot.
any. Natural History.
John Locke, 1632-1704,
Metaphysics.
R. South, 1633-1716, Di-
vinity.
fohn Philips, 1676-1'08,
'Splendid Shilhng.'
Thos. Parnell, 1679-1718,
S. Ockley, 1678—1720,
'The Hermit.'
Oriental History.
Isaac Newton, 1642-1719
Geo. Farquhar, 1678-1707,
Thos. Hearne, 1678-1735,
' Principia.'
Oom-edies.
History and Antiquities.
J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719,
John Strvpe, 1643-1737,
Astronomy.
Eccl. History, Biog.
R. Hooke, 1635—1702, Ph
Gilbert Burnet, 1643—1715,
osophy.
' History of his Times.'
B. de Mandeville, 1670—
Matthew Prior, 1664-1721,
L. Echard, 1671—1730,
1733, ' Fab. of the B^es.'
Poems.
History of Eniland.
Edm. Halley, 1656-1742,
K. Steele, d. 1729, Drama,
Thos. Carte, 1636—1754,
Astronomy.
Essays. Politics.
History of England.
Hans Sloane, 1660-1753,
Daniel Defoe, 1660-1731,
John Potter, 1674—1747,
Natural History.
'Robinson Crusoe.' kc.
Antiquities.
Jcs. Addison, 1672—1719,
Sir W. Petty, 1623-1682,
'Spectator,' 'Cato.' &c.
Statistics.
Nich. Rowe, 1673-1718,
Trasedy.
J. Vahbrugh, d. 1726, Corn-
ed v.
A. Clark, 169G— 1742, Dl
W. Consreve, 1672—1728,
vinity, Philosophy.
Comedy.
D. Waterland, 1683—1740,
lohn Gay, 1688-173^,
Divinity.
' Besgar's Opera,' Fab.
Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763,
R. Bentley, 1661—1740,
M. \V. Montague, 1690—
History of P^ome.
Divinitv, Philology.
1762. Letters.
C. Middleton, 1683—1750,
A. Baxter. 16S7— 1750, Met
Robert Blair, 1699—1746,
Life of Cicero, &c.
aphysics.
' The Grave.'
Lord Bolingbroke, 1672—
S. Richardson, 16S9— 1761,
1751, Politics. Literatur*
' Clarissa,' ' Pamela,' «fec.
G. Berkeley, 1634—1753.
Metaphysics, Ethics.
P. Doddridge, 1701—1751
Divinity.
Jas. Bradley, 1692-1762,
Astronomy.
F. Hutcheson, 1694-'747,
Moral Phil jsophy.
D. Garrick, 1716-1779,
T.Sherlock, 167&-17G1,
Drama.
Divinity.
§. Foote, 1720-1771,
C. Maclaurin, 1696--174i«,
Drama.
Mathematics.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH.
625
IMAGINATION.
i7O0 R. Rodsley, 1703—1764,
Drama.
Jona. Swift, 1667—1745,
Saiires, Tales, &c..
1. Watts, 1674—1748,
Hymny.
Edw. Younsr. 1681—1765,
' Nighi Thoudits.'
Alex. Pope, 16S8— 1744,
J'oetry.
W. Somerv'ille. 1692—1743,
' The Chase.'
Allan Ramsay, 1696-1758,
'The Ce-.tle Shepherd.'
Rich'd Savage, 1098—1743,
Poems.
Jas. Thomson, 1700—1748,
'Seasons.'
John Dyer, 1700—1758,
Poems.
H. Fielding, 1707—1754,
'Tom .fones,' &c.
James Hammond, 1710 —
1742, Elegies.
Lawr. Sterne, 1713—1768,
' Tristram Shandy.'
W. Shenstone, 1714—1763,
Pastorals, &c.
W. Collins, 1720—1756,
Odes.
H. Brooke, 1706-1783,
' Fool ol" Quality.'
M. Akenside, 1721—1770,
'Pleasm-es of Imagina-
tion.'
Thos. Gray, 1716-1771.
Odes, Elegies.
T. SmoUet, 1720—1771,
Novels.
R. Glover, 1712—1789, ' Le-
onidas.'
O. Goldsmith, 1731—1774,
'Traveller,' 'Vicar of
Wakefield.'
W. Mason, 1725—1797, Po-
ems, Biography.
T. Chatterton, 1752—1770,
Poems.
Ar. Murphy, 1727—1805,
Drama.
Wm. Cowper, 1731—1800,
Poems.
R.Cumberland, 1732—1811,
Drama.
Eras. Darwin, 1732—1802,
'Botanic Garden.'
James Beattie, 1735—1803,
Poems.
R. Ferguson, 1750-1774,
Poems.
Geo. Colman, 1733—1794,
Comedies.
J. Wolcot (Peter Pindar),
1738— 1S19, Com. Po-
ems.
Jas. Macpherson, 1738—
1796, ' Ossian's Poems.'
Robert Burns, 1759—1796,
Poems.
f. Home, d. 1808, Drama.
1700 John Swinton, 1703—1767,
History, Antiquity.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO.
Lord Lyttleton, 1709—1778.
History, Poems, Divin-
ity.
James Granger, d. 1776,
Biog. Hist, of England.
Sam. Johnson, 1709—1784,
Lives of Poets, Diet., &c.
Jonas Hanway, 1712—1786,
Travels in the East.
John Blair, d. 1782, Chro-
nolo2v.
David 'Hume, 1711-1776,
History of England.
Essays, &c.
W. Robertson, 1721—1793,
Hist, of Charles V., &c.
Thomas Warton, 1728-
1790, History of England,
Poetry, Poems.
H. Walpole. d. 1797, ' His-
toric Doubts,' 'Royal
and Noble Authors.'
J. Moore, 1730—1802,
'Viev/3 of Society and
Manners.'
James Bruce, 1730—1794,
Travels.
W. Gilpin, 1724—1804, Bio-
graphy, Divinity.
E. Gibbon, 1737—1794,
Decline and Fall of Ro-
man Empire.
J. Whitaker, 1735—1808,
Hist, of Manchester, &c.
Edmd. Burke, 1730—1797,
Oratory.
J. Boswell, 1740—1795, Bio-
graphy.
J. Miiner 1744—1797,
Church History.
Joseph Strutt, 1748—1802,
Chronology, Antiquities.
i6i
1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1G94—
1773, Letters.
Eph. Chambers, d. 1740,
Cyclopaedia.
B. Hoadley, 1676—1761,
Polemics
Bishop Butler, 1692—1758,
Divinity.
J.Wesley, i703-179l, fl-
vinity.
D. Hartley, 1704-1757,
' Observations on Man '
Soame Jenyns, 1704—1 id7,
Theoloscy.
W. Warburton, 1709—1779,
Theology, Critictfrn.
J. Jortin, 1698— 17 iU, Di-
vinity, Criticism
Lord Kaimes-, ]696-1782,
Elements of Cniicism.
R. Lowth. 1710— 17S7, Di-
vinity, Philolosy.
W. Blacksione. r7;i3— 1780,
Laws of England.
"Junius."
Adam Smith, 1723-1790,
' Wealth of Nations.'
J. Harris, 1709-1730, Phi-
lology.
John Hunter, 1728—1793,
Medicine.
F. Balguy, 1716-1795 Di-
vinity.
T. Reid, 1710-1796, MeU-
physics.
Sir J." Reynolds, 1723-1792,
Art.
S. Horsley, d. 1806, Theo-
logy.
Jos. Priestley, 173.3—1804,
Metaphysics, Chemistry.
Hugh Blair, 1719—1800,
Sermons.
J. Home Tooke, 1736—1812
Philolosv.
Wm. Jones, 1747-1794,
Orientalist.
R. Price, 1723-1791, Meta-
physics, Divinity.
Wm. Paley, 1743—1805,
Theology.
Ricd. Porson, 1759—1808,
Philology.
Ths. Beddoes, 1760~18U8»
Medicine
626
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATICN.
PACT.
SPECU7.ATIVE jJUT) SCIENTIVIO
1700
1700
N. Maskelyne d. 181i
Ricd. B. Sheridan, 1751—
Astronomy.
la'.e, Drama,
G. L. Staunton, d. 1801
Chinese Code.
Ann Radcliffe, 1764—1823,
Charles Burney, d. 1841,
W. Herschell, 1738-1822,
Novels.
' History of Music.
Astronomy.
laa Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823,
1800 J. Macdiarmid, 1779— 180S,
ISGO Arthur Young, 1741-1820,
' Farmer's Boy.'
Mrs. Barbauld, Poems.
Biography.
Agriculture.
A. Rees, 1743— 1825, Cyclo-
Tales.
paedia.
Joseph Banks, 1743-1820,
Natural Hisiorv.
E. D. Clarke, d. 1822,
Dr. Parr, d. 1825, Philo-
1 ravels.
log v.
C. J. Fox, d. 1806, History.
D. Ilicardo, d. 1823, Pcliti.
Lord Byron, 1788— 1S24,
cal Econov'y.
Poems.
C. Hill ton, a. 1823, Mathe-
John Keats. Poems.
maiics.
P. B. Shelley, d. 1822,
John Playfair, d. 1819.
Poems.
W. Mitford, History oi
P. Elmsley, Philology.
R. C. Maturin, d. 1824,
Greece.
T. Wollasion, Chemistry.
Drama.
Thomas Young, Hieroglj--
Miss Austin, Novels.
phics. &;c.
Wm. Godwin, 1755—1836,
T. Scott, d. 1821, Divinity.
Novels, Metaphysics.
D. Siewart, d. 1821, Meta-
Waller Scott, 1771—1832,
physics.
Novels, Poems.
Vicessimus Knox, 1752—
R. Heber, Travels, «&c.
1821, Essays.
Major Rennel, Geography.
Wm. Rosco, 1751—1831,
Malthus, Polit. Economy.
Wm. Hazlit, Critic and
Life of Leo X., &c.
Essayist.
Robt. Pollok, 1798—1827,
Walter Scott, —1832,
Francis Jeffrey, 1773—1849,
'Course of Time.'
History, Biography.
Essays, Criticism.
Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832, 'The
Archbish. Magee, d. 1831,
Borough,' &c.
Divinity.
Fanny Burney, —1840,
Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829,
NoVels.
Chemistry.
Wm. Beckford, 1760—1844,
Jer. Bentham, d. 1832,
Novels.
'Principles of Legisla-
Thos. Haines Baily, 1797-
tion.'
1839. Lyrics.
Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766—
Adam Clarke, 1763-1832,
Thos. Hamilton, 1789—
1832. Hist, of En-land.
Divinity. Criticism.
1842, Novels, Travels.
Geo. Chalmers, 1742-1825,
Arch. Afison. 1757—1839,
Felicia Hemans, 1754—
Political Annals.
Essays on Taste.
1835, Poems.
Marsden, 1755—1836, Ori-
Francis Baily, 1774—1844;
Barbara Holland, Novels.
ental Hist, and Travels.
Astronomy, &c.
Jas. Hogg, -1835, Po-
Jas. Mill, -1836, Hist.
Bp. Burgess, 1756—1837,
ems and Tales.
British India.
Theology.
Then. E. Hook, 1788-1841,
Robt. Morrison, —1834,
Herbert Marsh, 1751V-1839,
Novels.
Travels, Philology.
Theolo.Ty.
Thos. Hood, Poems, No-
Jas. Grahame, History of
Thos. Mitchell, 1783— 1&15,
vels, &c.
United Slates.
Classic. Critic.
Hannah More, 1744—1833,
John Gillies, 1747—1836,
Robert Mudie, 1777-1842,
Poems, Tales.
History of Greece.
Scient. Miscellanies.
Jane Porter, —1849,
Basil Hall, 1788-1844,
Sir E. Brydges, 1762—1837,
Novels.
Travels and Voyages.
Miscellanies.
S. T. Coleridge, -1834,
Wrn. Cobbett, — 1^35,
Poems.
Politics, «fcc.
Wm. Wordsworth, —
J. Dalton, - 1814, Che-
1850, Poems.
Wm. Hone, —1842,
mist.
Robt. Southey, —1843,
Every Day Book.
J. F. Daniell, —1845,
Poems.
Chemist.
Marg. Blessington —
Sydney Smith, —1815,
1849, Novels.
Theology, Essays.
Chas. Lamb, 1775-1834,
Chas. Bonnycastle, —
Poems. Essays.
R. & J. Lander, 1834,
1S40. Maihematics.
Thos. H. Lister, 1801—1842,
Travels in Africa,
T.hos. Chalmer.^. Theology
Novels.
and PjI itical Cconomj
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN.
627
IMAGINATION.
1800 S. T. Coleridge, 1773-1834
Ethics.
L. E. Landon Maclean
1804-1838, Novels and
Poems,
Wm. Maginn, 1793-1842,
Poems,
Marryatt, —1847, Nov-
John' Gait, 1779—1839,
Novels.
Wra. H. Ireland, Shaks.
Forgeries.
Lady Morgan, —184-,
Novels.
Jas. Morier, 1780— ,
Novels.
Thos. Campbell, 1777—
1844, Poems.
Thos. Banim, 1800—1842,
Novels.
Henry F. Gary, 1772—1344,
Trans. Dante. &c.
1800
Southey, 1774—1843, Bio-
graphy.
Wm. Beckford, 1769—1844,
Travels.
Arch. Alison, History of
Europe.
Thos. Arnold, 1795—1842,
History of Rome.
Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 1770—
1842. Archaeoiogv.
Thos. McCrie, 1772—1835,
Life of Knox.
Sir John Malcolm, History
Persia and India.
I. D'Israeli, 1766— 184S, Cu-
riosities of Literature.
Basil Hail, 1788-1844, Voy-
ages and Travels.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1800 John Leslie, —1332.
Mathematician.
J. C. Loudon, 1783— l&ia
Botany. Agricul., Aixhiti
John Bell, 1763—1825,
Anatomy & Physiology.
Olinthus Gregory, 1774—
1841, Mathematics and
Religion.
Robert Hall, 1764-1S31,
Sermons.
Sir Chas. Bell. 1781—1834,
Anatomy and Physio-
igy-
GERMAN.
IMAGINATION.
800
Walatrid Strabo, d. 840,
Poems, Theology.
Otfried, Harmony of Gos-
pels in rhyme.
800 Eginhard, d.
Life of 800
Charlemagne, Annals
Nithard, d 853, History o'
Wars of France.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Rabanus Maurus, 776—856,
Theology.
Gottschalk, d. 869, 'On
Predestination.'
91^
Hroswitha, Let. Comedies.
Notger, Trans, of Psalms.
900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles
Witikind, Hist, of Saxons.
900
Batherius, d. 974, Theolo
gy, Grammar.
iOOO
Witpo, 'Praise of Hen:
HI.,' Biography.
■W illeram, Francic Poems.
HOC
Hem 7 of Veldeck, Minne-
einger.
1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron,
of Saxon Emperors.
Hermannus Contractus,
Universal History.
Mar. Scotus, 1028—1086,
Chronicles.
Adam of Bremen, Ecclesi-
astical History.
Lambert, General History.
Sigebert. rf. 1113, Chron.
Kosmas, 1045—1126, Histo-
ry of Bohemia.
1000
1100 Berthold Constantiensis,
Universal History.
Otio, d. 1158, Chronicle.
Helmold, d. 1170, Chron.
of Slavi.
1100 Mangold, Theolof y.
628
THE WORLD S PROGRESS
IMAGINATION.
V200 Giiiither, Poems.
Frederic II., 1196—1254,
' De Arte Venandi.'
Freydank, Poems.
!300 Rlidger of IManesse, Collec-
tion of Ballads.
Henry Frauenlob, Songs.
Boner, Fables.
1400
Felix H.-immeriein, Satires.
Hans von Rosenplut,
Poems.
Heinrich von Alkmaar.
' Reinke de Voss.'
Conrad Celtes, 14.59—1508.
Latin Poems, History of
Tsurembur?.
Thos. Murnei-, 1475—1536,
' Rogues' Guild.'
L500
Melc. Pfinzing, 1481-
' Theuerdank.'
-1535,
Glareanus, (H. L.) 1488-
1563, Classics.
Har.s Sachs, 1494—1574,
Poems.
John Fischart, 1511—1581.
Satires.
1200
Arnold of Lubeck, Chro-
nicle of Slavi.
1300
Henrich von Rebdorf,
Chronicle.
Heinrich von Hervorden,
Chronicle.
Jacob von . Kcinigshofen,
Chronicle.
John Schildberger, History
of Tiniour.
1400 Gobelin Persona, General
History.
Windcck, Life of Sigis-
mund.
John Stadweg, Chronicle.
Peter von Andlo, de Im-
perio Romano.
Mar. Behhaim. Geography.
Breydenbach, Topogy.
Conrad Botho, Chronicle.
1500 Maximilian, d. 1508, Auto
biography.
Griinbeck, Lives of Em
perors.
Albert Kranz, d. 1517, His-
torv of Saxons, &c.
B. PiVkheimer, 1480—1530.
History, Poetry.
John Aventin, 1466—1534
Anals of Bavaria.
Con. Peutinger, 146.5 — 1.547.
History and Gco^raphv
John Carion, 1499—1538.
Comp. of History.
John Sleidan. 1506—1556,
Universal History.
G. Tschudi, d. 15/2, HeL
vetic Chronicle.
Gerard Mercator, 1512 —
1594, Geography.
SPECULATIVE AND SriEMTIFIO
1200
Epko of Repgow, * Saxor
Mirror,' (Law;.
John Semcca, Law.
Alb. Magnus, 1193—1280.
Natural Philosophy.
1300
John Tauler, Sermons.
Join; Husfi., 13Sb— Ul»
Theology.
1400
John von Gmlinden, Astro-
nomy.
Geo. von. Peurbach, 1423-
14G1, Tlicory of Planets.
Reciomonianus, 1436 — 147fl
Astron., Maihemat.
Nic. von Cuss. Mathemat.
Thomas ;i Kern pis, 1330—
1471, Theology.
Gabriel Brie, d. 1495 The-
ology.
•John Ceyler, 1445—1510,
Theology.
John Trithemius, 1462—
1516. Nat. Philosophy.
Reiichlin, 1454—1522, Phil-
ohigy.
1500 J. Wimpfelingen, 1452-
1528, Theol., Poems,
Holoander, d. 1.531. Law.
Corn. Agrippa, 1486- -1535
Phvpics, Theology.
M. Luther, 1483-1546,
Theology.
Zwingle, 1484—1531, The-
ology.
Melancthon, 1497—1560,
Theology.
Paracelsus, 1493—1541,
Cheniisrry.
Joac. Camerarius, 1500^
1574. Philology.
Conrad Gesner, 1516—1565
Natuial History.
Basil Faber, 1520—1576,
Thes. Erud. Schol.
Mar. Chemnitz, 1522-1586
Theology.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN.
629
IMAGINATION.
IBOO G. Fabricius, 1516—1571,
Lat. Pms. Topography.
Rollenha?en, 1542—1609,
Froschmiiusler.
Fr. Taubman, 1565—1613,
Latin Poems.
1600
Martin Opitz, 1597—1639,
Poems.
Jame:5 Balde, 1603—1668,
Poems.
A. Giypbius, 1616—1664,
Tragedies.
Paul Fleming, 1609—1640,
Poems.
Lohenstein, 1638—1683,
Poems.
1500 Simon Schard, 1-535—1573,
Collec. German Hist.
John Pistoriiis, 1544—1607,
Collec. German Hist.
Marq. Frelier, 1565—1614,
Hist. Germy. & France!
1600
P. Cluvier, 1580-1623,
Geosraphy.
M. Goidast, 1576—1635,
History.
G. Calixtus, 1556—1656,
Ecclesiastical History.
Olearius, 1604—1685,
Travels. /
S. von PufTendorf, 1631-
1694, History, Law.
D. G. Morhoff, 1639—1691
Biography, History.
SPECUIATIVE ANC SCIENTIFIC.
15C0 Wm.Xylander, 1532—1576,
Philotogy.
Wesenbeck, 1531—1586,
Law.
Fred. Sylterg, 1531—1596
Philolosy.
Theod. Beza, 1519—1609,
Theology, Philology.
C. Rittevhuis, 1560—1618,
Law.
1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616,
Natural History.
J. Bu.xtorf, 15.55-1621,
Philology.
John Kepler, 157i— lo31,
Astronomy.
B. von Helmont, 1577 —
1644, Chemistry.
C, Scioppius, 1576—1649,
Ars Critica.
John Baver, Uranometria.
G. Barih, 15S7-1658, Phil-
ology.
Sol. Glass, 1593—1656,
Philol. Sacra.
Otio Guerike, 1602—1686,
Air-Pump, &c.
Her. Conring, 1606—1681,
Antiquities.
Ez. Spanheim, 1629—1702,
Numismatology.
John Schilter, d. 1705, An-
tiquities.
1700 C. Gryphius, 1649—1706
Poems, Hist., Philology.
Von Canitz, 1654—1699,
Poems.
Gunther, 1695-1724, Poems.
Liscov, Satires,
J. C. Gottsrhed, 1700-1766
Poems, Trail., Criticism
Hajredorn, 1708—1754,
Fables.
Haller, 1708—1777, 'The
Alps.'
J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759,
Drama.
E. C. Kleist, 1715—1759,
Idylls.
Gellert. 1715—1769, Fables
Rabener, 1714—1770, Satir.
1700 H. INleibomius, 1638— 1700, 1
History.
C. Cellarius, 1633—1707,
Geography, Aniiq.
C. Frankenstein, 1661—
1717. Hisiory, Biog.
J. Arnold, 166.5—1714, Ec-
clesiastical History.
J. G. von Eccard. 1670—
17.30, General History
J. A. Fabricius, 1668—1736,
Bibliography.
H. Freyer, Gen. History
B. G. "Struve, 1671—1738,
History of Germany.
J. L. Mosheim, 1695-1755,
Ecclesiastical History.
A. F. Buschi..g, 1724—1793
Geography. |
700 Ludolph, 1649—1711, Phil-
oloiry.
Leibnitz, 1646—1716, Ma-
thematics, Metaphysics,
C. Thomasius, 1655—1728,
Law.
F. Budffius, 1667—1729,
Divinity.
G. E. Stahl, 1660—1734,
Chemistry.
F. Hofiman, 1660—1742,
Medicine.
J. Bernouilli, 1667—1747,
Mathematics.
B. Hederick, 1675—1748,
Philology,
J. M. Gessner, 1691—1761
Philology.
A. G. BHiimgarten, 17M—
1751. Ethics, Metarh.
J. J. Gessncr, 1707—1787,
Numismatology.
G. F. Meyer, 1711-1777,
Philosophy.
F. W. von Gleicken, 1714-
1783, Nat. History.
J. Winkelmar.n, 1718—1768
Antiquity.
Leon. Euler, 1707—1783,
Mathematics:
630
THE world's progress.
IMAGINATION.
1700 Gleim, d. 1803, Songs.
Klopstock, 1724—1803,
'The Messiah.'
Zachariae, 1727—1777,
Comic Poems.
C. F. Weisse, Drama.
T. G. Zimmerman, 1728 —
1795, ' On Solitude.'
Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals.
Ramler, 1725—1798. Odes.
Dusch, 1727—1738, Poems.
G. E. Lessing. 1729—1781,
Drama, Fables.
S. Gessner, 1730—1788,
'Death of Abel.'
Wieland, 1733—1813, Ro-
mances, Poems.
Pfeffel, 1736— 1S09, Fables.
G. A. Biirger, 1748—1794,
Poems.
I. n. Voss, 1751—1826,
Novels.
F. Schiller, 1750—1805,
Drama.
Kotzebue, 1761—1819,
Drama.
Goethe, 1749-1832, Drama,
Tales, Poems.
ISOO F. Schlegel, 1773—1829,
Novels, Poetry, Hist..&c.
Ernst Schultze, 1787—1817,
Elegies.
E. T. W. Hoffman, d. 1822,
Tales.
A. G. H. Lafontaine, 1760—
1831, Tales.
Korner, Poems.
L. von Amim, — 1831,
Poems, Novels,
Schooenhauer,
W:yels.
-1838,
1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol.
Walch, d. 1784, Ecclesias-
tical History.
C. Gatterer, d. 1799, Hist.
J. W. von Archenholz,
1745-1812, ' Seven Years'
War.'
Scurokh, d. 1808, Eccle-
siastical History.
Forster, d. 1798, Geogra-
phy.
A. L. von Scholzer, d. 1
History.
1800 J. von Muller, d. 1809, Uni
versal History.
J. G. Eichhorn, d. 1827,
History.
Heeren, History.
Von Hammer, Orien. Hist
B. G. Niebuhr, History.
Schiill, —1833, History,
C. O. MuKer, —1840,
History, Archaeology.
F. Rotteck, —1849, His
toiy.
H. Hase, —1842, His
tory. Antiquities.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIBKTIPIO
1700 G. J. Zollikofer, 1730-
1780, Sermons.
J. A. E. Giitze, 1731—1786,
Entomology.
Im. Kant, 1724— ISM.
Metaphysics.
Semler, d. 1791, Theology
Putter, Law oi Nations.
Adelung, d. 1807, Phil-
ology.
Lavater 1741—1801, Phy-
siognomy.
Werner, Geology.
1800 Herder, 1741—1803, Philo-
sophy of History.
Fichte, d. 1819, Metaphy-
sics.
F. H Jacobi, d. 1819, Me-
taphysics.
Blumenbach, Physiology.
Schelling, Metaphysics.
Thaer, —1828, Agri-
culture.
Rosenmuller, —1855,
Theology, Criticism.
Gail, —1829, Philology.
Griesbaeh, —181?, Phi
lology.
Grotefend, —1836, Phi
lology.
H. J. Klaproth, 1784—1835,
Philology.
F.Passow, —1833, Phi-
lology.
Hegel, —1831, Meta-
physics.
F. Accu m, —1838, Che-
mistry.
Mohs, —1839, Minera-
logy.
G. A. Fatrt, —1841, Phi.
lology.
E. Bekker, Philology.
Buttmann, —1841, Phi-
lology.
C. T. FoUen, —1849
Theology, Eseays.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FRENCJH.
631
IMAGINATION.
1800
Tieck, Poems, Novels.
1800 Augt. Neander, 1850,
Ecclesiastical History.
J. L. C.Heeren, — 1S12,
History.
H. Berghaus, Geography.
A. von Humboldt, Travels,
History.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC
1800 Olbers,
nomy.
-1840, Astro-
-18i3,
Hahnemann,
Homoeopathy.
A. W. Schlegel, — 1845^
Criticism, Essays.
Humboldt, Science.
Liebig, Chemistry,
FRENCH.
IMAGINATION.
PACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
500 Venan. Fortunatus, Latin
Poetry.
500
Gregory of Tours, 554—595,
History.
500
600
600 Marculfe, ' Chartse Re-
gales,' &c.
600
700
700 Fredegaire, Chronicle.
800
Ado, d. 875, Chronicle.
700
800 Theodulph, d. 821, Hymns,
Theology.
Servatus Lupus, d. 862,
Epistles.
Hincmar, d. 882, Epistles.
Abbon, ' Siege of Paris.'
800
Agobard, d. 840, Theology
Paschasius Radbert, 'Tiane
substantiation.'
900
Adalberon, d. 1030, PDetry.
900 Flodoard, 896-966, Chron.
Dudon, Histoiy of Norman
Conquest in France.
900
1000
Fulbert, d. 1029, Epistles.
1000 Almoin, d. 1008, History of
France,
1000 Gerbert, d. 1003, Geometry,
Mathematics, <fcc.
Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic,
and Astronomy.
Berengarius, d. 1088, Thecv
logy.
nofl
Wm. of Poictiers, 1071—
1126, First Troubadour.
Hildebert, 1067—1133, Po-
etry.
Bechada, Norman Poetry,
' Gestes de Godefroi.'
1100 Guibert. 1058-1124, Histo-
ry of First Crusade.
Pierre Theutbode, History
of Crusades.
Marbodaeus, d. 1123, Bio-
graphy.
Suger, 1082-1152, Life of
Louis le Gros.
1000 Anselm, 1033-1109, Sch©.
lastic.
Pierre Abelard, 1079-1142,
Theology.
Bernard of Clairvaui,
1091-115S, Mystic.
632
THE world's progress.
IMAGINATION.
1100
Geoffroi Gaimar, Anglo-
Norm. Chron. in verse.
Rob. Wace, 'Roman de
Roa.'
Fouque, a Troubadour.
Alexander of Bernai, Poet-
ry, Fables.
1200
John ^gidius, Poem on
Medicine.
William le Breton, 'Deeds
of Pliilip,' in verse.
P. Gautier, '•Alexandrieda.'
William de Lorris, 'Roman
de la Rose.'
Jean de Meun, Contin. of
' Roman de la Rose.'
EstBve de Bezier, Last
Troubadour.
1300 Peter Langtoft, Anglo-Nor-
man Chronicles.
Philippe of Vitri, Transla-
tion of Ovid.
1400
Alain Chartier, d. 1458,
Poetiy.
Ccrbeil, Satire.
D'Auvergne, d. 14.58, Po-
ems.
Clement Marot, 1463—1525.
Poems.
1500
F. Rabelais, 148^-1553
Satires.
J. du Bellay, 1492—1560,
Poems.
Steph. Jodi;<j, 1532—1573
Odes, Trage' ies, &c.
1100 Hugh de St. Victoire, 1097-
]I40, Geography, Histo-
ry, and Theology.
1200 Pierre de Poictiers, Sacred
History.
Geoffrey de Villehardouin,
Conq. of Constantinople.
Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His-
tory of France in verse.
W. Rubruquis, Traveller.
Jean de Joinville, 1260—
1318, Hist, of Louis IX.
1300
John Froissart, 1337—1402.
Chronicles.
1400
Philip de Comines, 1445 —
1509, Hist, of his Times,
1500
SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTIFItt
1100
Peter Lombardus, d. 1164,
Theology.
Alain de I'lsle, d. IIMK,
Theology, E-Jiica.
1200
Vincentius of B(.-:iuyai8,
Encvclopaedia.
Rob. of Sorbonne, d. 1271,
Theology.
1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine.
John of Paris, d. 1306, The-
olosy.
W. Durand, d. 1333, Law.
W. Occam, d. 1347, Law.
1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350—1425,
Astronomy.
John Gerson, 1363—1429,
Scholastic.
Raymund de Sebunda, d,
14.32, Theology.
Henry of Balma, d 1439,
Mystic.
James Lefevie, 1436~i537,
Theology.
Wm. Budffius, 1467—1540
Jurist.
Guill. du Bellay, d. 1543,
History of his Times.
Jaques Amypt, 1514—1593,
Translations.
150( J. C. Scaliger, 1484—1558
Philology.
Du Bois, J 478— 1555, Aiat
Rob. Stephens, 1503~15M
Philology.
P.Ramus,T515— 1572,Lodi
Seb. Castellio, 1515- 15B3
Philologv.
Jas. CujaciuB, 1520—1590
Law.
Lambinus, 1516—1572
CommentarieB.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FRENCH.
633
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIEKTIPIO.
1500 M. A. Muret, 1526—1585,
1500
1500 Hen. Stephens, 1528—1590,
Poems. Criticisms.
Philology.
Micli. Je Montaigne, 1533—
J. J. Scaliger, 1540—1609,
F. Vieta, 1540—1603, Al-
1592, Essays.
History, Criticism, &c.
gebra.
Pierre Charon, 1543—1603,
Theolosy.
Isaac Casaubon, 1559—
1604, Philology.
Fran. Malherbe,1556— 1628,
J. A. de Thou, 155J-1617,
Odes.
History of France.
1600 M. Reignier, 1573-1613,
1600 P. Matthieu, 1544—1621,
1600
Satires.
History of France.
An.Du.Chesne, 1584-1640,
C. Salmasius, 1596—1652,
Collectioas of Histories.
History and Criticism.
Dennis Peiau, 1583-1652,
Ch.-nolosy.
P. Gassendi, 1592—1655,
J. Chapelain, 1595—1674,
Bochart, 1599—1667, * Geo-
Philosophy.
La Pucelle.'
graphia Sacra.'
Des Cartesj 1595 1650,
Henry Spondanus, 1568—
Metaphysics, Maihem.
1643, History.
P. ComeiUe, 1606—1684,
S. Guicheron, 1607-1664,
Drama.
Hist, of House of Savoy.
Henri Valesius, 1603—1696,
Ecclesiastical History.
St. Evremond, 1613—1703,
Literature.
B. Pascal, 1623-1662,
Miscellaneous.
D'Herbelot, 1626—1695,
Rochefoucault, 1603-1680,
Adr. Valesius, 1607—1692,
Orientalist.
Reflections. Memoirs.
' Deeds of the Franks.'
Cassini, 1625-1712, Astron.
Moliere, 1620-1073, Drama.
La Fontaine, 1621—1696,
Fables, Tales.
Segrais, 1624— 1701, Idyls.
T. Coi-neille, 1625-1709,
Drama.
M. de Sevign6, 1626-1694,
Letters.
J. Racine, 1639—1699,
L. Moreri, 1643—1680,
Huet, 1630-1721, Philos'phy
Bourdaloue, 1632-1704,
Drama.
Historical Dictionary.
Tilicmont, 1637—1698, Ec-
Sermons.
clesiastical History.
La Bruyere, 1636-1696,
' Characters.'
Malbranche, 1633-1715,
Boilean, 1636-1711, Satires.
'Search after Truth.'
l730Regnard, 1M7-1709,'
Comedies.
1700
1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706,
Dictionary.
Galland, 1646—1715, Tran.
Hardouin, 161&1729,
of Arabian Nights.
Criticism.
And. Dacier, 1651-1722,
Philology.
Anne Dacier, 1651-1720,
Fhilology.
Fcnelon, 1651-1715, « Tele-
machus,' &c.
Deshouiieres, 1633-1694,
ElegiiA
Tourasfort, 1656-1708,
J. Marsollier, 1&47-1724.
History, various.
Botany.
Fontenelle, 185T-1756,
Fleury, 1653-1723, Eccle-
'Plurality of Worlda,
siastical History.
Ac.
G. Daniel, 1649— 1728, His-
tory of France.
Montfaucon 1665-1741,
-
Antiquities.
"
Vatincourt, 1663—1730,
Biography.
Massillon, 1663-1742,
Sermons.
-2V"
634
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION.
PACT.
SPECULATIVE AND BCIKNTIFIfl
1700
1700 Vertot, 1655—1735. History.
Paul Rapin, 1661—1725,
History of England.
Bossuet, 1662-1704, His-
1700
J. B. Rousseau, 1671—1741,
tory, Sermons.
Odes.
C. Rollin, 1661-1741,
Crebillon, 1674—1762,
Ancient History, Educa-
Folard, 1669-1752, Stra
Tragedies.
tion.
tegy.
Ren. Le Sage, 1677—1747,
Saurin, 1577-1730, Ser-
'Gil Bias.'
mons.
P. N. Destouches, 16S0—
1754, Cumedies.
t
J. B. Grecourt, 1683—1743,
Odes, Tales. &c.
Marivaux, 1688—1763,
Montesquieu, 1698—1755,
Novels.
C. I. F. H6nault, 1685-1770,
' Esprit dcj; Loix.'
Voltaire, 1695-1778, Tra-
History.
Reaumur, 1683—1757
gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c.
Natural History.
Houbigant, 1686—1783,
Criticism, Philology.
C. Villaret, 1715—1766,
Girard, d. 1748, 'Synoriy-
History of France.
mes.'
L. P. Anquetil, 1723—1808,
History.
Mart. Bouquet, d. 1754,
J. J. Rousseau, 1712—1778,
BufTon, 1707-1788, Natural
' Emile,' ' Heloise,' «fec.
Recueil d'Historiens.
History.
Diderot, 1713-1784, 'En-
A. Goguet d. 1758, ' Origin
De Brosses, 1709—1777,
cyclopedie,' Novels.
of Laws, Arts, &c.'
Philology, History.
Beriiis, 1715—1794, Poems.
Lai-cher, 1726-1812, Trans.
Favart, d. 1762, Comic
of Herodotus.
Operas.
Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient
Louis Racine, d. 1763,
History.
Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias-
tical History,
Poems.
Helvetius, 1715—1771,
J. J. Barthelemy, 1716-1795,
'De I'Esprit.'
' Anacharsis.'
D'Aubenton, 1716—1799,
Marmontel, 1719—1799,
Natural History.
Tales.
N. Vattel, d. 1770, 'Law
Gressei, d. 1777, Elegies.
of Nations.'
Dorat, d. 1780, Novels.
J. DeGuignes, 1721-1800,
D'Alembert, d. 1783, ' En-
l.Ti'5tory of the Huns.
cyclopedie.'
D \nville, 1702-1782,
La Grange, Mathematics,
Geography.
G. Raynal, 1711-1796, Hist.
of East and West Indies.
Bailly, 1736—1793, Hist.,
C. F. X. Millot, 1726-1785,
History.
Astronomy.
Lavoisier, 1743—1794,
Chemistry.
Moniucla, 1725-1799,
Mathematics.
Turgoi. Polit. Economy.
Florian, 1755 -1794, Tales.
Mirabeau, Politics.
Beaumarchais, d. 1799,
Fourcroi, d. 1809, Chem.
Comedies.
J. Lalande, d. 1807, Asrjoo.
180) B. St. Pierre, ' Paul and
1800 Sismondi, History and
1800 Volney, 1755-1820, Travels,
Virginia.'
Politic.ll Science.
Philology, &c.
Madme. de Genlis, Novels.
Barante, History.
Haiiy, d. 1822, Cr-'stallo
August! n Thierry, History
graphy.
Mdme. Cottin, 1772-1807,
Amedei Thierry, History.
La Place, d. 1827, Maihe-
Tales.
Guizot, History,
matins
Delille, d. 1813, 'L'Homme
Thiers, History.
Guvton Morveau, Chem.
des Ciiamps.' &c.
Cuvier, d. 1832, Nat. Hist.
Madame de Stael, 1768—
Denon, d. 1825, Travels in
Dumoni, Legislation.
1817, ' Corinne,' &c.
Egypt.
P. L. Courier, Politics.
H. de Balzac, 1790-1550,
J. P: F. Ancillon, 1767—
J. F. Audoin, 1797-1841,
Novels.
1837, History.
Zoology.
J J. Boissaid, 1743-1831.,
Louis E. Bignon, —1841,
J. E. D. Esquiro'i, 1772—
Fa')les.
History.
1840, on Insanity.
J. J. Jacotot, 1770-1840,
Chas. Fourier, 1772—1837
Edu:ation.
Socialism.
LITEEARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE.
635
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
1830 C. Delavisna, Tragediea
1800 Mad. Jimot, 1784-1839,
and Poems.
Bioirraphy.
Victor Hugo, Tragedies,
A. L. G. Laljorde, —1842,
Poems, iind Romances.
Travels.
A. de Lamartine, Poems,
Las Cases, —1842, Biog-
History, and Travels.
raphy.
Mad. Dudevant (George
J. Michaud, -1839, His-
Sand). Novels.
tory.
A. Dumas, Poems, Plays,
Boumenne, —1834 ' Life
and Eomauces,
of Napoleon.'
A. Coilie, —1838, Voyage
a Tembuctou, &c!
Champollion le .Jeune,
1832, Aiitiq. Egypt
J. P. A. Remu.sat, —1832,
Philology, Antiquities.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 1796-1842,
Meiaphysics
A. L. de J ussiou, 1748-1836,
Boiany.
S. F. Lacroix, 1765-1843,
Mathematics.
Lamarck, —1829, Natural
History.
Legendre, 1753—1833, M'a
ihematics.
Louis, — 1837, Surgery,
Broussais, — 1838, Medv
cine. Physiol.
Chaptal, —1332, Chem-
istry.
Say, Polit. Economy.
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE.
p. is prefixed for Portuguese.
IMAGINATION.
PACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
500
500
500 Anian, Law.
Fulgentius Ferrandus,
Canon Law.
Martin, d. 580, Ethics.
600
600 John of Biclair, d. 620
Chronicle.
Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de
Goth.
600
Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemics.
800
800 Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr-
ology.
Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius.
800
P. iiOO Egaz Monez, Songs.
P. Gonzalo Hermiguez,
Sonss.
1100
1100
1200
Gonzalo Berceo, Rhymes.
1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. \2i5,
History of Spain.
1200
R. de Penafort, 1175—1275,
Decretals.
Alphonso X., d. 1284,
Astronomy, Alchemy.
Raimund Lullo, 1336—
1315, Theology, Chera-
istry, &c.
1300 .Juan Manuel, d. 1362, Ro-
mances.
1300
1300
14G() Villena, d. 1434, Trans.
Virgil and Dante.
E. de Villena, 1434, Moral
Drama.
Juan de Mena, 1412-1456
Poems.
L. de Mendoza, 1393-1458
Poems.
1400 Diez de Games, Biography.
1400
J. de Torquemada, d. 1108^
Sermons, Criticism.
636
THE world's PHOGRESS.
IMAGINATION.
1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics.
Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral
Drama.
1500 Lope de Rueda, Comedies.
Tones Naliarro, Comedy.
Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son-
neis.
P. Ber. Ribeyro, Eclogues.
Garcilaso de la Vega,
150.}— 1536, Poems.
P. San lie Miranda, 1495—1558,
Lyrics.
Juan de la Cueva, Art of
Poetry.
P. Gil Vicente, d. 1557,
Comedy.
J. de iNIoiitemayor, 1520—
1561. Romance.
Ant. Ferreira, 1528—1569,
Elegies.
Diego do Mendoza, d. 1575,
Poems, History.
P. Camoens,1524— 1579, 'The
Lusiad.'
Luis de Leon. 1527—1591,
Lyric Poems.
Fern, de Herrera, d. 1578,
Classical Poems.
P. Rodriguez Lobo, Ro-
mances. Pastorals, &c.
P. P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595,
Episrams, Pastorals.
C. de Castillejo, d. 1596,
Romantic Poems.
A. de Ercilla, 1533—1600,
' Araucana.'
Geron. Bermudez, d. 1589,
Tragedy.
L. de Argensola, 1565 —
1613, Tragedy, History.
P. Jeron. Cortereal, Poems.
Cervantes, 1549 — 1616,
'Don Quixote.'
1400 R. de Zamora. 1407—1470,
His(ory of Spain.
Fern, del Pulgas, Biog. of
Ferdinand and Isabeiia.
1600
Bart, de Argensola, 1566—
1631, Tragedy, History.
F. Quevedo, 1570—1645,
Tales, Satires.
L. Congora, 1585—1638,
Poems.
Lope de Vega-, 1562—1635,
Drama.
J. P. de Montalvan. d. 1639,
Tragedy.
M. de Madrigal, Romances.
P, Man. de Faria e Sousa, d.
1649, Pastoral Poems. I
1500
P. Damian Goez, History,
Travels.
Joao de Barros, d. 1570,
' Hist. Portugu. in India.
A. Zarate, 'Discov. of
Peru.'
A. de Morales, 1513—1590,
History of Spain.
J. Acosta, 1547—1600, Hist
of the West Indies.
Gonsalvo Iliescas, d. 1580,
Lives of the Popes.
Luis Marmol, Description
of Africa
Jeron. Ziirita, 1513—1580,
History of Arragon.
Estevan Garibay, History
of Spain.'
Juan Mariana, 1537—1624,
Hist., Chronology, &c.
Blanca, History of Spain.
J. G. de Mendoza, Hist, of
China.
1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 1565—
16-25, History of Spain.
P. A. de Meneses, d. 1617,
History of Augustiues.
P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of
John III.
P. B. de Briio, l.n70— 1617,
History of Portugal.
A. de Andrada, d. 1633,
Travels in Thibet and
Cathay.
Pru. de Sandoval, History
Jayme Bleda, History of
Moors in Spain.
' OPECUI.ATIVB AND SCIKNTiriO.
1400
Fras. Ximenez, 1437—1517,
Polyglot Bible.
1500 Perez de Oliva, d. 1533,
Ethics.
J. Luis Vives, 1492-1540,
Philosophy, Theology.
P.
Ant. de Guevara, d. 1544,
Ethics, Epistles.
A. Govea, 1505—1565, Law.
Ant. Agostino, 1516-1586,
Theology, Law.
S. des Brosses, 1523—1600,
Grammar.
D. de Andrada, 1528—1535
Theology.
Luis Molina, 1535—1600,
Metaphysics.
J. Guevara, 1541—1628,
Publicist.
J. Va verda, Anatomy,
LITERARY CHRONCLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE.
687
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIBXTIVIA
1600 L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646,
1600
1600
'El Diablo Coxuelo.'
Vic. Espinel, 1515—16.34,
Elegies.
P.
C.Acuna, 1597— 1641, <De.
scrip, of River Amazon.
E. de Almeyda, d. 1646,
History of Ethiopia.
Calderon, 1601—1667,
P.
J. F. de Andrada, 1597—
Drama.
1657, Life of .John de
L. Ulloa, d. 1660, Poems.
Castro, Comic Poetry.
P
A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663,
Sonnets.
?.
Matheo Ribeiro, Romance.
M. de ViUegas, l.'95-1669,
Anacreoniics.
P.
NIC. Antonio, 1617—1672,
Bibliotheca Hispanica.
Alb. Coelho, d. 1658,
' Wars of Brazil.'
P.
F. de Vasconcellos, Poems.
P.
R. de Macedo, d. 1682,
Poems.
P.
Viol, do Ceo, 1601-1693,
Poems.
Ant. deSolis, 1611-1686,
Hist, of Conq. Mexico,
P.
F. da Castanheira. Novel.
P.
A. Nunhes da Sylva, Son-
nets.
1700 Fran. Candamo, d. 1709,
1700 J. Ferreras, 1652-1735,
1700
Drama.
History of Spain.
Ant. de Zamora. Comedy.
P.
Xav. de Meneses, 1673—
1743, ' Henriqueide,'
Epic Poem.
Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754,
Feyjoo, 1765, Ethics, Criti.
cism.
A, Ulloa, 1716—1795, Matb
Art of Poetry.
P.
Barbosa Maehado, Diction-
ary of Learned Men.
Velasquez, d. 1772, Hist.
of Castilian Poetry.
Figoeireda, Eccl. History.
ematiciaa.
Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771,
Fables, &c.
**•
A. de Barros Pereira,
Poems.
Manoel da Coste. Poems.
V. Garcia de la Huerta,
Tragedy.
Munoz, Hist, of America.
P-
P. Correo Garcao I.yric
Poems.
Ruiz, Botany.
Pavon, Flora Peruvians.
L'Hon de Arroyal, Odes.
Cavanilles, Annals.
P. J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790,
P-
Paulino de Vasconcellos,
Sonnets.
Natural Philosopihy.
Felix de Azara, Zoology.
J. N.de Azara, 1731— ly04
Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics.
Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy.
Antiquity,
1800 G. Jovellanos, 1744—1811,
1800 J. A. Llorente, History of
1800
' Agrarian Law.'
Inquisition.
Tol. da Almeida, Satires.
Fern, de Moratin, d. 1828,
Comedies.
M. Garcia de Villanueva,
' On the Theatre.'
J. H. Daviia, General Lit-
erature.
Jose Antonio Conde, His-
tory of Moors in Spain,
THE world's progress.
DUTCH.
IKAGINATIOM.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND 8CIEKTIF73
•200 J. Van Maerlant, 1235—
1300, Poems, ' Rymby-
bel.'
Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron.
1200
1200
1300 Jan van Helen, Poems,
Chronicles.
Heij. van HoUantl, Poems.
Claes Willems, Poems.
1300
1300
Gerard Groot, Theology.
UOO J. Wilt, Trans. Bcethius.
Dirk van Munster, ' Chris-
tian Mirror.'
Lambert, Goetman, 'Mir-
ror of You til.'
1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448,
Chronicles of Brabant.
p. vander Heyden, 1393—
1473, Chronicles,
1400
J. W. Gransfoet, Theo.
Rud. Agricola, 1442— 14S5,
Philosophy, Hist., &c.
1501^
A. Byns, Relisious Poems.
Jan. Fruiiiers", Poems and
Prose.
J. Secundus, 1511-1536,
Amatory Poems.
Dirk Koornhert, 1522—
1590, Transl. Homer,
P. van Marnix, Odes,
Songs.
R. Vis.scher, Epigrams.
Hendrick Spieghel, Didac-
tic Poems.
1500
S. Pighius, 1520—1604,
'Roman Annals.'
A. Schott. 1552—1629, His-
tory of Spain.
1500 Erasmus, 1467-1536, The-
ology, Literature, «Sr'-
J. Heumius, 1543—1601,
Medicine.
C. Kiliaan, d. 1607, Dic-
tionary.
Justus Lipsius, 1547—1606,
Philology.
Sim. Stevinus, d. 1633,
Hydrostatics, Mathem.
H. Erpenius, 15S4— 1624,
Orientalist.
60(1 G. Brederode, 1585-1637,
Comedies. &c.
D. R. Kainphuizen, 1588—
1626, Religious Poems.
Daniel Heins, 1580—1655,
Poems, Philology.
J. Cats. 1577—1660. Drama.
P. C. Hooft, 1.587-1647,
Tragedy, Odes, Hist, of
the Netherlands.
G. van Baerle (Barlaeus),
1584—1648, Latin Poems.
Just van Vondel, 1587—
1679, Tragedies.
M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso.
Jan van Heems'terk, 'Ar-
cadia.'
J. Westerbaen, 1599—1669,
Epigrams.
1600
H. de Groot (Grotius),
1583—1645, Hist., Theol-
ogy, Poetry, &c.
1600
J. Golius, 1596—1667, On
entalist.
Voetius, 1589-1676.
Polemics.
Beverwyk, 1594—1647,
Medicine.
Diemerbroek, 1609—1674,
Anatomy.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY DUTCH.
63^
IMAGINATION.
Cons. Huygens, 1596—1687,
Epierams.
Jer. Decker, 1610—1056,
Elegies.
D. Juncktijs, d. 1654, Ama
tory Poems.
Nicholas Heins, 1620—1681
Poems, Philology.
Jan de Biune, " Whetstone
of Wit.'
Jan Vos, Drama, Epi-
grams.
Reinier Anslo, 1622—1669
' Plague of Naples,'
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC
700 P. Francius, 1645—1704,
Latin Poetry.
J. A. Vander Goes, 1647—
1&48, Drama.
Eliz. Wolff, Novels.
Loosjes, Novels.
Bellamy, 1757—1786, Odes
Klein, Lyrics.
Van Alphen, Odes.
1800
Hincopen. Odes.
Helmers, d. 1831, Poems
Nieuwland, Poems.
Borger, Odes.
Bilderdyk. Diamas, Odes,
&c.
Ger. Brandt, 1626—1685,
Hist, of Reformation.
Can, Collect, of Baiavian
History.
J. G. GrcBvius, 16.32-1703,
Roman Antiquities.
J. Perizonius, 1631—1715,
History.
1700
J. Gronovius, 1645—1716,
Greek Antiquities.
P Bondam, Collection of
Batavian History.
Simon Siyl, History of
Netherlands.
1800
Te Water, History.
Engelberts, Ancient Hist,
of Netherlands.
J. F. Gronovius, J611-
1671, Philolosy.
J. Leusden, 1614-1699,
Philology.
F. Burman, 162S— 1679,
Theology.
Chr. Huygens, 1629-1695,
Maihem., Mechanics.
B. Spinoza, 16.32—1677,
Theology.
Swammerdam, 1637
Natural History.
A. Leuwenhoek, 16.j2 —
1723, Natural History
1680s
1700 F. Ruysch, 1639—1731,
Anat.
G. Bidloo, 1649-1713,
Anat.
C. Vitringa, 1659—1722,
Theolosry.
Binkerschoek, 1663—1743,
Law.
H. Boerhaave, 1668—1733,
Medicine.
Hemsterhuis, 1685—1766,
Philology.
A. Schultens, 1686—1750,
Philology.
Gravesande, 1683—1742,
Ma I hematics.
Chr. Hechi, 1696—1748,
Philoloiry.
B. S. Albinus, 1683—1771
Anatomy.
Oudendorp, 1696—1761,
Philology.
W. Otto Reiz, 1702—1768,
Law.
D. Gaubius, 1705—1780.
Medicine.
Hoogeveen, 1712—1794,
Philolosy.
G. van Swieten, 1700-
1772, Medicine.
P. Camper, 1722—1789,
Anatomy.
D. Ruhnker. 1723—1799,
Philolosy.
Valckenaer, Philology.
1800 D. Wvttenbach, d. 1808.
Philology.
Van Kami e.i, Statistics
b4U
THE WORLDS PROGRESS.
IMAGINATION.
PACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTIFIO
Tollens, Poems.
Da Cosia, Sacred Poems.
Wilderbosch, Odea.
Kluits. Hi< of Holland.
Wesiendorp, Histoiy.
Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist.
De .longe, Antiquities.
Hamaker, Orieutalist.
Vander Palm, Literature.
SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND.
S., Sweden; D., Denmark ; Ic, Iceland.
IMAGINATION.
PACT,
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC
Ic. 900 Hjalti, Poems.
900
900
Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads.
1100
Ic. Aro, d. 1148, Annals of Ice-
land.
D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d.
1204, Hist, of Northern
Nations.
D. Sueno, Hist, of Denmark.
1100
D. Sunesen, .Turist.
D. Axel, Theology.
Ic. Saemund, b. 1156, The
Elder Edda.
Ic. 1200 Snor.Sturleson,d.l341,
Younger Edda, Hist,
of No'rway.
Ic. Suerron, Tales.
1200
D. Sturla Thoridsen, History
of Norway.
1200
1400
1400
1400
S. Eric Olai, History of Goths
and Swedes.
S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430,
Instruction to Kings and
Princes.
1500
1500
1500
S. John Magnus, d. 1544,
Hist, of Sweden.
S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of
Northern Nations.
S. P. Lagerloof, 1538—1599,
History North of Europe.
Ic. Am. Jonas, 1545—1640,
Hist, of Iceland, &c.
D. Tycho Brahe, 1546—1601,'
Astronomy.
D. Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy.
1600
D. Anders Arrebo, b. 1587,
Religious Poetry.
D. Anders Bording, b. 1619,
Poems.
B. Stierahjelm, Epic Poem,
'Hercules.'
1600
D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591-1640,
Danish Hist.
1600
S. P. Kirsten, 1577—1640,
Orientalist.
D. G. Barthnline, 1585—1629
Anatomy, Theology.
D. Oie Worm, 1588-1654, An
tiquities, Philo.
LITERAR-X CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND ICEr^AND. 641
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC
Ic.
Torfseus, 1639—1720, Hist.
s.
01. Rudbeck, 1630-1702,
Botany, Anat., &c.
of Norway.
D.
1700 Thos. Kingo, b. 1634.
Hymns.
170C
170C
S.
John Penngskiold, 1654—
1720, Histoiy.
D.
J. C. Sturmius, 1635-170a
Phys., Mathem-
D.
Arne Magnassen, b. 1663,
Collec. Hist.
D.
Albert Thura, Hist.
D
L. Holberg, 1684—1754,
Drama, Satire, Hist.
D.
Hans Gram, d. 1748, His-
tory.
D.
Ch. Falster, 1690—
1762, Satirist.
D.
Langebek, d. 1775, Collec.
Danish History.
S.
Linnaus, 1707—1778,
Botany.
S.
OlofDalin, 1708—1763,
Poetry, History.
D.
S.
Pontoppidan. d. 1764, Ori-
gines Havnienses.
Lagerbring, d. 1781, His-
tory.
D.
Sneedorf, 1724—1764,
Poems.
S.
Wallerius, d. 1785,
Mineralogy.
D.
P. T. Suhm, 1720—1798,
D.
Oeder, Flora Danica.
D.
TuUin, I-yrics.
Hist, of Denmark.
S.
Ihre, Dictionary.
D.
John Ewald, 1743—
1781, Tragedy, Lyrics.
D.
J. H. Wessel, Humor-
ous Poems.
S.
Bellerman, 1741-1796,
Lvrics.
D.
H. tode, 1736-1806,
Dramas, Fables.
D.
Samsoe, 1759-1796,
Tragedies.
D.
P. A. Heiberg, b. 1758,
Drama.
S.
S. Elgsirom, d. 1810,
Poems.
Ic.
1800 Thorlacksen, d. 1819,
1800
1800
Transl. Milton
D.
Malta Brun, d. 1826, Geog-
D.
C. L. Sander, Dramas.
raphy, in French.
D.
Jens. Basrgesen, d.
1826, Lyrics.
S.
Thorild Travels.
D.
Oehlensclilager,
S.
Berzelius, Chemistry.
Poems.
D.
Rask, Orientalist.
D.
B. S. Ingermann,
S.
Wodderstadt, 'OnYelloil
Lyrics.
S.
Afzelius, Iceland Records.
Fever.'
S
Atterbone, Poems.
s.
Hallenberg, History.
S.
Liliegren. Northern An-
S.
Tegner, Romances, &c.
F. Bremer Novels.
s.
Granberg, Statistics.
tiquities.
K.
s.
Blexell, Topography.
S.
Norberg, Orientalist.
J. F. Blumenbach,
1840, NatuiaUst.
642
THE world's progress.
POLISH.
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE ANE SCIEHTIWO
1200
1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226,
History of Poland.
Boguphalus, d. 1253,
Chronicle of Poland.
Martin Polonus, d. 1278,
Chronicle of Popes and
Emperors.
1200
Vitellio. Optics.
14O0
1400 Dluglossus, 1415-1480,
History of Poland.
1400
1500
Kochanonski, 1530— 15S4,
1500
Cawalezewski, Chronicles.
Bieiski, Chronicles.
Stryjkowski, Chron. of Po-
land and Russia.
1500
N. Copernicus, 1472-1543,
Astronomy.
Lucas Gornicki, Ethics.
Rey of Naslowic, 1515—
1568, Ethics.
1600
Sarbiewski, 1595—1640,
Latin Poetry.
1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567—1637,
Ecclesiastical Annals.
Lubienetski, 162.3—1675,
History of Reformation.
1600
John Maccov, d. 1644, Th&
Pi°zi°p"coV, 1590-1670, The.
ology.
1700
Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Po-
etry and History.
1700 Dogiel, Coll. Hist. Poland.
Mizler, Do.
1700
ISOO Krasicki, Poems, Roman-
ces.
Boguslawski, Drama.
Bronikowski, Novels.
Bernatowicz, Novels.
Bulgarin, Novels.
Mickiewicz, Poems.
Odyniec, Drama.
1800
Lach Szmyrna, Travels.
Potocki, Travels.
1800
Linde, Lexicon.
RUSSIAN.
(The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. A Imo«
r\\ books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly
differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the
other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-office in Russia was established
in 1553.]
IMAGINATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIPIO
lOOU
1000
Nestorof Kiew, 1056-1115,
C ronicles of Russia,
1000 Yaroslaf, Code of Laws,
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — RUSSIAN.
643
UeAGlNATION.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SClENTIPia
1100
The Expedition of Ighor, a
celebrated Poem, author
Unknown.
1100 Theodosius,(i.ll20, Annals.
Sylvester, d. 1123, Chro-
nicles of Russia.
Simeon of Susdal, (Z. 1206,
Chronicles of Russia.
1100
12()0
1200 John of Novgorod, History
of Russia.
1200
[The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held RuRsi«
from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit oi
knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Ru3*fa.]
1500
1600
Simeon of Polotsk, Poems,
Spiritual Dramas.
1700
Cantemir, 1708—1744, Sati-
rical Poems.
Lomouosoff, 1711—1765,
Poetry, History, Science.
Tredianoffski, Poems.
Popofski, Transl. Pope.
Sumarokoff, 1718—1777,
Drama.
Kheraskoff, 1733—1807,
'The Russiad.'
Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl.
the Iliad.
Petroff, 1736—1799, Transl.
the Eneid.
Kniajnin, 1742—1794,
Drama.
J. Khemnitzer, 1744—1784,
Fables.
Klushin, Comedies.
Ephimieff. Comedies.
Ablesimoff, Operas.
G. R. Derjavin, 1743—1816,
Lvric Poetry.
H. Bogdanovitch, 1743—
1803,' Dushenka,' Poems
Vizin, 1745—1792, Come-
dies, Tales.
Nicoleff, Tragedies.
1800 Maikoff, Comic Poems.
Dmitrieff, Lyrics, Fables.
Ozeroff, d. 1816. Tragedies.
P. Sumarokoff, Poems,
V. A. jukofski, b. 1783,
Poems.
Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires.
Batiushkoff, Transl. Tibul-
lus.
Gneditch, Transl. Iliad,
Odes.
Kryloff, Fables.
1500
1 1500 Sudebuek, Code of Laws.
1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia.
V. Tatischeff, d. 1750.
Chronicles of Russia.
Cherbatoff, History.
Golikoff, History.
Muravieff, 1757—1816, His-
tory, Didactics.
Eugenius, History.
1800 Karamsin, b. 1765, History
of Russia.
Kachenofski, History.
G. Glinka, History.
Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis
covery.
Gretch, History of Russian
Literature.
Timkowski, Journey to
China.
1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, The-
ology, Spiritual Dramas.
1700 Theophanes, Se-mons.
Plato, 1737—1812, Sermont
P. S. Pallas, 1741— ISlli
Natural History.
1800 Shishkoff, Criticism.
Augustin, SermoiML
644
THE world's progress.
AR.VBIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH.
P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian.
IMAGUI1.TI0N.
PACT.
SPECULATIVB AND BC^SJITIV a
80C Mahomet. Koran.
Lebid, 6?2-757, Poems.
500
500
Zohair, Poems.
Aharun, Medicine.
Kais E. Ameri, or Amrul-
kais, Poema.
700
700
700 Jafar, Chemistry.
Abu Hanifah,699— 767,Th».
ology.
Abun Massab, Poems.
Abunowas J62— 810, Poema.
Rehashi, Poems.
A.u Obeid, d. 838, Fables.
Muham. ben Omar, History.
BOO
800
800 Asmai, 740-830. Theology.
Kendi, Philosophy.
J. ben Serapion, Medicine.
Almamon, Astronomical
Tables.
Bahali, d.835. Etymology.
Allragan, Astronomy.
Nasir Khosru, Metaphys.
A.Temain, 804—845, Poems.
Albumazar, 805—885, Ma-
thematics, Astronomy.
Wahab, Travels.
Bochari, 810—870, ' Tha
Abuzeid, Travels.
Sahih,' Traditions.
I. Kotaibali, d. 889. History.
Abu Jafar, 838—922, Hist.
Bochteri, 821—882, Anlhol.
Honain ben Isaac, d. 874,
Translations from Greek.
Geber, Chemistry.
Abu Mohammed Abdallah,
Literatuie.
900 Iba Doraid, d. 931, Poems.
900
900 Albategni, Astronomy.
Rases, d. 922, Medicme.
Ben Musa, Mathematics.
Almotanabbi, d. 965,
Poems
Azophi, Astronomy.
Said ben Batrik, 876-937,
General History.
Eutychius, History.
Massudi, d. 957, History
and Geography.
Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo-
telian Philosophy.
Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo-
telian Philosophy.
Ibn Haukal, Geography.
F. 1000 Ferdusi, 932—1020,
1000 Almuyadad, History of
1000 Achmet, Treatise on
'Shah Nameh,' Epic
Saracens in Sicily.
Dreams.
Poem.
Ibn Mesua, Medicine.
Avicenna,9d0-1038,
Philosophy, Medicine.
Abul Ola, 97^-1057,
Poems.
Abulcasis, Medicine.
Jelaleddin, Correction of
Calendar.
Arzachel, Astronomy.
LITERAEY CHRONOLOGY— ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 645
IMAGINATION.
1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems.
Hairi, 1054—1121, Moral
Poems.
P. Feleki, d. 1181, Poems.
P. Khakani, d. 1186, Poems.
P. Anwari, d. 1200, Poems.
Jaafar ebn TofaU, d. 1198,
'Hai ben Yokdan,' a
Novel.
I. Eifaredh,d.l234, Poems.
1100
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Algazel, Antiquities, &c.
Ben Idris,&, 1099. Geog.
1100 Gazali,lC58— 1112, Aristo-
telian PhUosophy.
Alhazin, Optics.
Tabrizi, d. 1136, Commen-
taries.
Alchabit, Optics. Astron.
A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic.
Averroes, d. 1206, Aristo-
telian Philosopiiy.
1200
P. Saadi, 1193—1291, ' Gulls-
tan,' 'Bostan.'
Elfaragi, Poems.
1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin.
Abdollatif, Topography of
Egypt.
Abuldem, d.l244. History,
El Harawi, Travels.
Abulfarage, 1226—1286,
Universal History.
Elmacin, d. 1302, History
of Saracens.
1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm.
Caswin d. 1274, Natural
History.
Beithar, d. 1246, Botany,
Medicine.
P.
P.
FadlaUah, History of Mo-
guls.
Nasireddin, 1201—1273,
Astronomy.
1300
P. Hafix, d. 1395, Odes.
1300 Abulfeda, 1273—1333,
Geography, History.
Novairi, (Z.1331, Universal
History.
Mohammed Ibn Batuta,
Travels.
Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358,
Geography.
Abu Shameh,6.1299, Hist.
P. Turan Shah, d. 1377. Hist.
Jafei, d. 1368, Biography.
140C
f. Jami, d. 1486, Poems.
1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran.
P. 1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin,
Life of Tamerlane.
Makrizi, 1367—1438, Hist.
Arabshah, d. 1450, Life of
Timur.
Baccai,d.l480, Biography
P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond
Gen. Hist, to A. D. 1474
T. Baber, d. 1530, Autobio-
graphy.
Fimzabadi, 1329—1414,
' The Camoos.'
1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan,
Dictionary.
Ulug Beg, 1393—1444,
Astronomy, Chronology.
Babacushi, d. 1481,
Politics.
1500 Alhassan, Description of
Africa.
Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni-
versal History.
I5ri
Jabacushi, d. 1566, Morals.
646
THE world's progress.
IMAGIWAT.DN.
FACT.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIfl
leoo
1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India.
Abulgazi, 16U5— 1663, Hist,
of Tartars.
T. Haji Khalifeh, d. 1675,
History.
P. 1600Nured.Shirazi,Metaphi.
Moham. Hossain, ' Borhani
Kata,' Dictionary.
iroc
P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An-
nals of Hindostan.
1700 Gholam All, Grammar.
UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA.
IMAGINATION.
1600
1700 John Adams, 1705—1740,
Poems.
Benj. Church, 1739—1776,
Poems.
Wm. Livingston, 1723—
1790, Poems.
John Trumbull, 1750-1831,
'McFinsal,' «fec.
Joel Barlow, 1755—1812,
'The Columbiad.'
John Blair Linn, 1777—
1804, Poems.
T. Dwight, Conquest of Ca-
naan, &c.
1800 Cliaa. B. Brown, d. 1810,
Novels.
Robt. Treat Paine, 1773—
1811, 'Invention of Let-
ters,' 'The Ruling Pas-
aion, and other Poems.
1600
Wm. Hubbard, 1704, Hist,
of Massachusetts.
1700 Inc. Mather, 1723. ' History
of War with Indians.'
Thos. Prince, d. 1757, Hist.
of New England.
Cadwallader Golden, 1688-
1776, History of the Five
Nations of Indians.
John Bartram, d. 1777,
Botany, Travels.
Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780,
Hist, of Massachusetts.
David Rittenhouse, d. 1796,
Astronomy.
Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His-
tory of N. Hampshire,
Amer. Biog. &c.
Geo. R. Minot, 1802, ' Hist.
of Massachusetts Bay.'
Isaac Backus, 1806, Church
History of N. England.
1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist.
of Maine. .
David Ramsay, d. 1812,
' Life of Washington,'
'American Revolution,'
'Universal History.' i
SPECULATIVE AND SCIEMTIPIC.
1600 Thomas Hooker, d. 1627,
Sermons, &c.
John Cotton, (Z. 1652,Theol.
Cotton Mather, 1662-1728,
Sermons, ' Magnalia,'«fec.
1700 Benj. Colman, d.
Theology.
Jona. Edwards, d.
Theology.
Samuel Davies, d.
Sermons.
John Clayton, d.
Botany.
1747,
1757,
1761,
1773,
Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790,
Theology.
Benjamin Franklin, 1706—
1790,Natural Philosophy,
Politics, &c.
Jas. Otis, d. 1783, Politics.
John Hancock, 1793,
Politics.
John Witherspoon,cf. 1794,
Theology, Politics.
Patrick Henry, d. 1796,
Politics.
Samuel Adams, 1803,
Politics.
Samuel Hopkins, 1721—
1803, Theology.
Fisher Ames, d. 1808,
Politics.
1800 Thos. Paine, 1737-18'J9,
Politics, 'Age of Reason,'
' Rights of Man,' &c.
Jos. S. Buckminster, d
1812, Theology.
Alex. Hamilton, 1757—
1801, Politics.
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY U. S. OF NORTH AMERICA.
647
IMAGINATION.
1800 Paul Allen, 1775—1826,
< Noah,' (a poem,) [Hist,
of Adx Re vol.]
1800 Alexander Wilson, d.. 1813,
'American Ornitholoo^y.'
Hugh Williamson, d. 1818,
Hist, of" N. Carolina.
Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815,
Botany.
J. G. C. Brainard. d. 1826.
PoejrvB
Wm. Wirt, 1772-18.34,
'British Spy.'
Robt. C. Sands, d. 1832,
Foeiiis.
J. Q. Adams, 1767-1847,
Poems.
Washington Allston, 1779-
1843, Painter, Poet, and
Novelist.
Timothy Flint, 1780—1840
Novels.
Jas. A. Hillhouse, 1789—
1841, Poems.
Wm. Lcggett, 1802—1840,
Poems. Miscellan., Polit.
R. H. Wilde, 1789— 184T,
Poems, Researches on
Tas?'3, &c.
E. A. Poe, l81M849,Poen- 3,
Tales.
J. F. Cooper, 17S9— 1851,
Novels, &c.
Wm. Bartram, d. 1823,
Botany, Travels.
Jedediah Morse, d. 1826,
Geog., Statistics, &c.
Nathl. H. Carter, 1788-
1830, ' Letters from Eu-
rope.'
Edmund D. Griffin, 1804-
1830, Travels in Europe
Lectures on Literature,
&c.
John D. Godman, d. 1830.
Anatomy, Natural Hist.,
&c.
John Marshall, 1755—1835
Life of Washington. &c,
Jno. Armstrong, 1758-1843
'War of 1812.'
Abiel Holmes, 1763—1837
Annals of America.
Timothy Flint, 1780—1340,
Hist, of Mississ. Valley.
A. S. Mackenzie, — 1349,
Travels in Spain, &;.
SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC.
180C
Gouverneur Morris, \'IZ~-
1816, Politics.
Timothy Dwight, 17t;2--
1817, ' Theology Explain-
ed and Defended.'
Levi Frisbie, 1784-1822,
Moral Philo«ophy.
Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822,
Law, Politics.
Jno. Marshall, 1755—1835,
Law
W. E. Channing, 1780-
1842, Sermons, Criticism.
Thomas Jefferson, 1743—
1826, Potitics, Philos.
John Adams. 1735— 182r>,
Politics.
John M. Mason, D. 1).,
1770—1829, Divinity,
Sermons, &c.
John H. Hobart, D. D.,
1776-1830, Sermons, &c.
Jos. Story, 1779—1845,
Law.
Henry Wheaton, 1782-
1848, Law. History.
Edw. Livingston, 1764—
1836, Criminal Code, &c.
David Hosack, 1769—1835,
Medicine.
Jas. Madison, 1751—1836,
Politics.
Alex. H. Everett, 1790—
1847, Essays.
R. Harlan, .796—1843,
Natural History.
James Kent, 1763—1847.
Comment, on Am. Law'.
Hugh S. Legare, 1797-
1843, Miscellanies.
Jas. Marsh, 1794-1842, Me-
taphysics.
Albert Gallatin, 1761-1849,
Ethnolotry, Philolrgv.
J. C. Calhoun, 1782 -IBS'!
Politics, Speeches,
HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER F^UiULOUS PEKSONS,
HEROES AND HEROINES OF ANTIQUITY.
Ab'aris, a Scythian, priest of Apollo.
Abeo'na, a goddess of voyages, <fec.
Abretu'nus, a surname of .fupiter.
A'hron, a very voluptuous Grecian.
Abij'la, a famous mouriiain in Africa.
Acattftha, a nymph beloved by Apollo.
Acas'ttts, the name of a famous hunter.
AceHuz. one of the priests of Bacchus.
Achcb'nipnes^ the first king of Persia.
Acha'tes, a trusty friend of jEneas.
Ach'eron, a son of Titan and Terra, changed into
a river of hell for assisting the Titans in their]
war against Jupiter.
Achil'les, son of Peleus, king of Thrace, and'
Thetis, a goddess of the sea, who, being dip-
ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in-
vulnerable in every part except his right
lieel, by which she held him; after signafiz-
ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor,
as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by
Paris with an arrow.
Acid'alia and Arma'ta^ names of Venus.
Acida'lus, a famous fountain of Boeotia.
A'cis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus,
because he rivalled him in the affections of
Galetea.
Achnon, a famous king of the Titans.
Ac'ratus, the genius of drunkards at Athens.
A -'tcbon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally
discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned
into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds.
Adme'tus a king of Thessaly.
Ado'nis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and
Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by
Venus and Proserpine.
Adras'tea, the goddess Nemesis.
JE'ncus, one of the infernal judges.
jE'ga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus.
JEgc'us, a king of Attica, giving name to the
^gean sea by drowning himself in it.
^ei'n'a, a particular favorite of Jupiter.
^'gis, a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew.
JE'gle. one of the three Hesperides.
^'gon, a wrestler famous for strength.
JEgyp'tus, son of Neptune and Lybia.
^I'lo, one of the three Harpies.
^ne'as, son of Anchises and Venus.
^oflus, the god of the winds
uEo'us, one of the four horses of th» #00.
JSsculu'nus, a Roman god of richea.
jEscula'pius, the god of phys#»x
JSthal'ides, a son of mercury.
jE'thon, one of the four horses of the sun.
uEt'ncbus, a title of Vulcan.
jEtoHos, a son of Endymion aud Diana.
Agamem'non, a brother of Menelaus^ cbosiea
captain-general of the Greeks .«. t^* ~>.>ege
of Troy.
Aganipl'pe, daughter of the river Permesaus,
which flows from mount Helicon.
Age'nor, the first king of Argos.
Ageno'ria, the goddess of industry.
AgelasHua and Agesi'laus, names of Pluto.
Agla'ia, one of the three Graces.
AJjax, one of the most distinguished piinc«8 and
heroes at the siege of Troy.
Alhu'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli.
Alci'des, a title of Hercules.
Alci'nous, a king of Corcyra.
Alct'oneus, a giant slain by Hercules.
Alci'ope, a favorite mistress of Neptime.
Alcme'na, the wife of Amphitryon.
Alec'tn, one of the three Furies.
AlecHryon, or Gal'lus, a favorite of Mara.
Al'mus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter.
Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres.
Alcb'us, a giant who warred with Jupiter.
Amalthcb'a, the goat that suckled Jupiter.
Ambarva'le, a spring sacrifice to Ceres.
Ambro'sia, the food of the gods.
Am'mon, a title of Jupiter.
Amphiara'us, son of Apollo and Hypermnestrai
a very famous augur.
Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Penelope.
Amphi'on, a famous musician.
Amphitri'te, the wife of Neptune.
Amyntor, a king of Epirus.
Ana'tis, the goddess of prostitution.
Anccb'us, a king of Arcadia.
Andro'geus, the son of Minos.
Androm'acke, the wife of Hector.
Androm'eda, the daughter of Cepheus and Ca»
slope, who, contending for the prize of beauty
with the Nereides, was by them bound to a
rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea
monster; but Perseus slew the monster, and
married her.
Ange'rona, the goddess of silence.
HEATHEN DEITIES, El-
649
An'na, the sister of Pygmalion and Dido.
AutOi'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra; he
was squeezed to death by Hercules.
An'teios, one of the names o\ Cupid.
Antever'ta, a goddess of women in labor.
An'thia, and Argi'va, titles of Juno.
An'ubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head.
Aon'ides, a naiiie of tli« Muses.
Apatu'ria, and Aphrodi'tis, titles of Venus.
A}pis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also,
Serapis, and Osiris : he first taught the
Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines;
alter his death tliey worshipped him in the
form of an ox, a symbol of husbandry.
A I ach'ne, a I.ydian princess, turned by Minerva
into a spider, lor presuming to vie with her
at spinning.
Arethu'sa, the daughter of Nereus.
Argenti'nus, and Jkscula'nus, gods of wealth.
Arfgo, the ship that conveyed Jason and liis com-
panions to Colchis, and reported to have been
the first man-of-war.
Ar^gonauts, the companions of Jason.
Ar'gus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun-
dred eyes ; also an architect, who built the
ship Argo.
Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love,
gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him
out of the Cretan labyrinth : bemg after-
wards deserted by him, she was married to
Bacchus, and made hi? priestess.
Arirnas'pi, a warlike people of Scythia.
Arvon, a .yric poet of Methymna.
Aristcb'us, son of Apollo and Cyrene.
Aristome'nes, a cruel Titan.
Aristuph'anes, a comic poet, born at Lindus, a
town of Rhodes.
Arte'inis. "he Delphic sybil; also Diana.
Asde'pia festivals of .^Esculapius.
AscoHia, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated in Attica.
Aste'ria, daughter of Ceus.
Asti'apcb'us, and Ataby'rus, Jupiter.
Astrcb'a, the goddess of justice.
Astroi'ogus, a title of Hercules.
Asty'anax, the only son of Hector.
Astypala'a, daughter of Phoenix.
AHe, the goddess of revenge.
Atlan'ies, a savage paople of Ethiopia.
AtHas, a king of Mauritania.
At'ropos, one of the three Fates.
Aver'nus, a lake on the borders of heu
Averrunc'us. a god of the Romans.
Auge'as, a king of Elis, whose stable oi 3000
oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her-
cules cleansed it in one day.
A'vistuper, a title of Priapus.
Au'rea, a name of Fortuna.
Auro'ra, the goddess of morning.
Auto'leon, a general of the Crotonians.
Autum'nus, the god of fruits.
Bac'chus, the god of wine.
Bap'ta, the goddess of shame
BarbaHa, a title of Venus and Fortuna.
Bas'sareus. a title of Bacchus.
Bat'tus, a herdsman, turned by Mercury mto a
loadstone.
Bau'cis, an old woman, who, with her husband
Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury,
travelling over Phrygia, when all others re-
fused.
28
BeUero'phon, son of Glaucus, kiig "»f Ephyra,
who underwent numberless ti. rdships frt
refusing an intimacy with Sthenoboea, the
wife of PrcEtus, kmg of Argos.
Bello'na, the goddess of war.
BerecynUhia Ma'ler, a title of Cybele.
Bereni'cs, a Grecian lady, who was ths only
person of her sex permitted to see the Olym-
pic games.
Ber'gion, a giant, slain by Jupiter.
Bib'lia, the wile of Duillius, who first instituted
a triumph for naval victory.
Bi'ceps, and Bi'frons, names of Janus.
BiauLHor, a naine of Mars.
Bi't/wn, a remarkably strong Grecian.
Boli'na, a nymph rendered imirortal for loc
modesty and resistance of Apoilo.
Bo'na De'a, a title of Cybele. and Fortuna.
Bo'nus Dcb'mun, a title of Priapus.
Bo'reas, son of iEstrseus and Heribeia, generally
put for the north wind.
Bre'vis, a title of Fortuna.
Bri'areus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and
Terra : the poets feign him to have liad a
hundred anns and fifty heads.
Bri'mo, and Bu'bastis, names of Hecate.
Brise'is, daughter of Brises, priest of Jupiter,
given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyr-
nessus, a city of Troas, by the Greeks.
Bmn'tes, a maker of Jupiter's thunder.
Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himself
into mount .^Etna. on account of his de-
formity.
Bruma'lia, feasts of Bacchus.
Bubo'na, the goddess of oxen.
Busi'ris, a son of Neptune, and a most cruel
tyrant ; he was slain by Hercules.
Byb'Lis, the daughter of Miletus.
Cabar'ni, priests of Ceres.
Cabi'ri, priests of Cybele.
Ca'bi'us, a god of the Phaselitae.
Ca'cus, a son of Vulcan.
Cad'mus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, Who,
searching in vain for his sister, built the oity
of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of the
Greek alphabet.
Cadu'ceuSy Mercury's golden rod or wand.
Ccb'ca, and Conserva'trix, titles of Fortima.
Coic'ulus, a robber, son of Vulcan.
Ccb'neas^ a title of Jupiter.
Cal'chas, a famous Greek soothsayer.
Ccdis'to, the daughter of Lycaon.
Cclli'ope, the muse of heroic poetry,
Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, who
reigned in the island of Ogygia, where she
entertained and became enamored of Ulys-
ses, on his return from Troy.
Cam'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia.
Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of the
Medes and Persians.
Camcb'na^ and Carna, goddess of infants.
Ca'nes, a title of the Furies.
Cano'pus, an Egyptian god.
Cm-fdua, a household goddess.
Carmen'ta, a name of Themis.
Car'na, a Roman goddess.
Carya'tis, a title of Diana.
Cas'pu, a people of Hyrcania,who were s/iidto
starve their parents to death when 70 years
old, and to train up dogs for war.
650
THE world's progress.
Ccissan'dra, a ilavghter of Priam and Hecuba,
endowed wiih the gilt of propiiecy by Apollo.
Castal'idcs, ilie Muses, from lite fountain Cas-
lalius, ai the foot of Parnassus.
Cas'toi; son of Jupiter and Leda, between whom
and iiis brother Pollux anmortaliiy was al-
ternately shared.
Ca'tius, a tutelar god to grown persons.
Ce'crops, ihe first king of Athens.
CelOi'HO, one ol the three Harpies.
Cen'laurs, children of Ixion, half men, half
horses, iuhabiiing Thessaly.
Oepha'lus, the son ol" Mercury and Hersa.
Ctplieusy a pri'ice of Arcadia and Ethiopia.
\Jcrau'/iiHs, a title of Jupiter.
Vet'berus, a dog with three heads and necks,
who guarded the gxas of hell.
CercaUia, festivals in honor of Ceres.
Ce'res, the goddesf of agriculture.
Ce'riis, or ISe'rus, the god of opportunity.
Chul'cea, festivals in honor of Vulcan.
Char'ites, a name of the Graces.
Cha'ion. the ferryman of hell.
Chi'nieia, a strange monster of Lycia, which
was killed by Bellerophoti.
Chi'run, ilie preceptor of Achilles.
Chro'iiiis, a cruel son of Hercules
Cliryaao'iius, a surname of Jupiter.
Chry'sis, a prieste.«s of Juno and Argos.
Cir'ce, a famous enchantress.
Ci--';7/a,acavernof Phocis, near Delphi, whence
the winds issued which caused a divine rage,
and produced oracular responses.
Cithch' rides, a title of the Muses.
Clait'sina, a name of Venus.
Cluu'sius, or Clu'sius, a name of Janus.
Cleu'niedes, a famous wrestler.
CU'o, the Muse presiding over histoiy, and pa-
troness ol heroic poets.
Clo'tho, one of the three Fates.
Clytenmes'tra, daughter of Jupiter and Leda,
killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her
adu»;icry with ^gisthus.
Cocy'lus^ a liver of iiell, flowing from Styx.
Cotli'na, the goddess of hills.
CompitaHia, games of the household gods.
Co'inus. the god of festivals and merriment.
Concor'dia, the goddess of peace.
Co7iserva'lui\ an"d Cus'tos, titles of Jupiter.
C'un'sus, a title of Neptune.
Curii'na, the covering of Apollo's tripos.
Coryban'tes, and Curc'i'is, -"riests o'^ Cvbele.
Cre'un, a king of Thebes.
Cri'nis, a priest of Apollo.
Cri7us'sus, a Trojan prince, who could change
himself into any shape.
Cicb'sus, a rich king of Lydia.
Cro'nia, festivals in honor of Saturn.
Ctes'ibus, a famous Athenian parasite.
Cu'iiia, the goddess of new-born infants.
Cuspid, son of Mars and Venus, the god of love,
smiles, <kc.
Oy'clojjs, Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye
in the middle of their forehead.
Cyb'ele, the wife of Saturn.
Cyc'nus, a king of Liguria; also a son of Nep-
tune, who was invulnerable.
Cylle'nms, and Camit'lus, names of Mercuiy.
Cynoceph'ah, a people of India, said to have
heads resembling those jf dogs.
Cyii'thia, and Cyn'thius, Diana, and Apollo.
Cyparisscb'a, a title of Minerva.
Cyp'ria, Cylfiei-e a, titles of Venus.
Doida'lion, the son ol ^ucifer.
JJcsd'alus, an artiticer of Athens w ho formed th«
Cretan labyrinth, and invented the anger,
axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts and
sails Ibr ships.
Da'vton, the sincere friend of Pythias.
Dcb'nion, Bu'nus. Dit/iyram'bus, and Diony^-
ius, titles of Bacchus.
Dahiae, the daughter ol Acrisius, king of Argoa,
seduced by Jupiter in the form of a golden
shower.
Duna'ides, or Be'lides, the fifty daughters \f
Danaus, king of Argos, all of whom, excepi
Hyperrnnesira, killed their husbands, the sons
of their uncle iEgyptus, on the marriige
night: tliey were "therelbre condemned to
draw water out of a deep well with sieves,
so that liieir labor was without end or suc-
cess.
Dap/i'/ie, a nymph beloved by Apollo.
Dardu'nus, the lounder of Troy.
Da'ies, a very ancient historian who wrote an
account ol the Trojan war.
De'a ^'yi-'ia, a title of Venus.
Dec'iinn, a title ol Lachesis.
Deiaiiiira, the wife of Hercules.
Deida'mia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king of
Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus,
while he lay concealed in woman's apparel
in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to
the Trojan war.
Deinpe'u, a beautiful attendant on Juno.
Deip/i'ube, the Cumean sybil.
Deipli'obus, a son of Priam and Hecuba.
De'Lia, DeL'ius, Diana and Apollo.
Ut'lus, the island where Apollo was born.
Del'jjlu\ a city of Phocis, lamous for a temple
and an oracle of Apollo.
Dcl'phicus, Didymo'Jus, titles of Apollo.
Dein'ades, an Athenian orator.
Deribices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who
punished all crimes with death.
Deuca'lion, son of Prometheus, and king of Thes
saly, who, with his wile Pyrrha, was pre
served from the general deluge, and re-peo
pled the world.
Deverha, the goddess of breeding women.
Diag'oras, a Rhudian, who died for joy, because
his three sons had on the same day gained
prizes at the Olympic games.
Diahia, the goddess of hunting, &c.
Di'do, daughter of Belus, the founder and queen
of Carthage, whom Virgil fables to have
burnt herself through despair, because .^ne-
as left her.
Di'es, and Bies'piter, titles of Jupiter.
Bin'dyme, Dindyme'ne, titles of Cybele.
Diom'edes, a king of iEtolia, who gained greoJ
reputation at Troy, and, accompajiied by
Ulysses, carried off the Palladium; also, a
tyrant of Thrace.
Di'one, one of Jupiter's mistresses.
Dionys'ia, feasts in honor of Bacchus.
Dioscu'ri, a title of Castor and Pollux.
Di'reb, a title of the Furies.
Dis, a title of Pluto.
Discor'dia, the goddess of contention.
Doviidu^ca^ a title of Juno.
Domidu'cus, and Domi'iius, nuptial gods.
DoinHna, a title of Proserpine.
JJry'ades, nymphs of the woods and foresi*
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC.
65 i
Echi'on, a companion of Cadmus.
Ec'ho. daughter ol" Aer ami Tellus, who pined
away Ibr love of Narcissus.
Edo7i idts, priestesses of Bacchus.
Edu'ca, c: gci'dess oi'nevv born infants.
Egii'ria, a litle cf Juno; also a goddess.
ElecUra, the daughter of Agamemnon and Cly-
temnestra. who instigated Orestes to revenge
their father's death on their mother and her
adulterer ^gisthus.
E'leus, and Eleuthe'rise^ titles of Bacchus.
Eltusiji'ia, feasts in honor of Ceres and Proser-
pine.
EloHdes, nymphs of Bacchus.
Empu'scb, a name of tl;ie Gorgons.
Endyni'ion, a shepherd of Caria, who, for inso-
lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a
sleep of 30 years ; Luna visited iiim by night
in a cave of mount Latmus.
Enia'Uus, a title of Mars.
Eri't/o, the same as Bellona.
Epe'us, the ariistof the Trojan horse.
Epig'ones, the sons of the seven worthies who
besieged Thebes, a second lime.
Epileb'nea, sacrifices to Bacchus.
Epistro'phia; and Eii/'cina, titles of "Venus.
Epizeph'rii, a people of Locris, who punished
those with death that drank more wine than
physicians prescribed.
Era'lo, th3 mu?e of love-poetry.
Er'ebus, an infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox
a river of hell.
Er'eane. a river whose waters inebriated
Eriothu'nhis, a kins of Athens, who, being lame
and very deformed in his feet, invented
coaches to conceal his lameness.
E)'in'ni/s, a common name of the furies.
E'ros, one of the names of Cupid.
Eros' tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his
name, set fire to the celebrated temple of
Diana at Ephe.sus.
Ete'ocles^ and Poly'nices, sons of CEdipus, who
violently hated, and at last killed each other.
Evad'ne, daughter of Mars and Thebe, who
threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus-
band Cataneus, from aflection.
JEuc'rates, a person remarkable fa shuffling, du-
plicity, and dissimulation.
Euvun'ides, a nan.e a' 'he Furies.
E'lvhros'yne, one of the three Graces.
E-iro'pa^ the daughter of Agenor, who, it is said,
was carried by Jupiter, in the form of a white
Duil. into Crete.
Eury'ale, one of the three Gorgons.
Euryd'ice. the wife of Orpheus.
Eurym'une, an infernal deity.
Euler'pe, the muse presiding over music.
Euthy'mus, a very famous wrestler.
H
Fab'ula, the goddess of lies.
FahuWnus, a god of infants.
Fahna, the goddess of report, «fcc.
Fizs'cinum, a title of Priapus.
Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus.
Cloihos, I.achesis, and Atropos, intrusted
with the lives of mortals, &.c. Ha'des, a title of Pluto
Fau'na, and Fat'ua, names of Cybele. \Hamnxo>hii, a people of Scythia, who hved in
Fauhius, the son of Mercury and Nox, and la- cans, and removed from place to place aa
thiir of the Fauns, rural gods. I necessity required.
Feh'rua, Flor'ida. Fluohiia, titles of Juno
Feb'rua, a goddess of purification.
/"■e^'/'M?/.?, a. title of Pluto.
Feli'citas, the goddess of happiness.
Fer'culus, a household sjod.
Fere'trius, and Fulmina'tor, titles of Jupiter,
Feio'nia, a goikless of woods.
Fesso'nio, a goddess of wearied persons.
Fid' ins, the god of treaties.
Flam'ines, priests of Jupiter, Mars, «fcc.
Flo'ra, the goddess of flowers.
F.'uvia'les, or Pdamides, nymphs of rivers.
For'nax, the goddess of corn and bakers.
Forta'na, or For'lune, the goddess of happinesSi
&c., saitl to be blind.
Fu'ries, or Eimien'ides, the three dat^hters o(
Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, ^Megrera,
andTisiphone, with hair composed of snakes,
and armed with whips, chains, &c.
Galate'a, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passion-
ately beloved by Polyphemus.
Gal'ii. castrated priests of Cybele.
Gal'lus, or Alec'hi'on, a favorite of Mars, and
changed by him into a cock.
Ganie'lia, a title of Juno.
Gan'ges. a famous river of India.
Gany'mede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter.
Gelusi'nus, the god of mirth and smiles.
Gelo'ni, a people of Scythia, who used to paint
themselves in order to appear more teiTible
to their enemies.
Ge'nii. guardian angels.
Ge'mus', a name of 'Priapus.
Ger'yun, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with
human flesh, and was therefore killed by
Hercules.
Glauco'pis, a name of Minerva.
Glau'cus, a fisherman made a sea god by eating
a certain herb : also the son of Hippolochus,
who exchanged his arms of gold for the bra-
zen ones of Diomede.
Gnos'sis, a name of Ariadne.
Gor'dius, a husbandman, but afterwards king of
Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords
on which the empire of Asia depended, in so
very intricate a manner, that Alexander the
Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces.
Gor'o-o)is, the three daughters of Phorcys and
Ceta, Medusa, Euryaie, and Siheno, who
could change into stone those whom they
looked on ; Perseus slew Medusa, the prin-
cipal of them.
Gorgoph'orus, a title of Pallas.
Gra'ces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, t!vo
daughters of Jupiter and Eurynomb; attei:-
dants on Venus and the Muses.
Gradi'vus. a title of Mars.
Gy'ges, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king of
Lydia, showed his queen naked, which so
incensed her that she slew Candaules, and
married Gyges ; also a shepherd, who by
means of a "ring could render himself invi-
sible.
652
THE world's progress.
ffarm.}'nts, a famous artist of Troy.
Harpal'ycu, a very beauiilul maid of Argos.
Hai'pies, three monsters, Aello, Celano, and
Ocypete, with the laces of virgins, bodies ol
vultures, and hands armed with monstrous
claws.
Harpoc' rates, the Egyptian god of silence.
He'bt, the goddess oi youth.
He'hius, a river in Thrace.
He'calius, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus.
Hec'ate, Diana's name in hell.
.Hec'ior,a. son ol Priam and Hecuba, and the
most valiant of all the Trojans.
Hec'uba, the wiie of Priam.
Hege's/us, a philosopher of Cyrene, who de-
scribed the miseries of lile with such
gloomy eloquence, that many of his auditors
killed themselves through despair.
HeVena, the wife of Menelaus, the most beauti-
ful vvoma:.- in the world who, running away
with Paris, occasioned the Trojan war.
Hel'enus, a son of Priam and Hecuba.
Hel'ico/i, a famous mountain of IJoeotia, dedi-
cated to Apollo and the Muses.
Heru'ia, sacrifices to Juno.
Her'cules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, re-
markable for his numerous exploits Jind
dangerous enterprises.
Heribe'ia, the wile of Astreus.
Her'nicb, statutes of Mercury.
Her'mes, a name of Mercury.
Hermi'une, a daughter of Mars and Venus, mai"-
ried to Cadmus ; also a daughter of Mene-
laus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus.
tfe'ro. a beautiful woman of Sesios, in Thrace,
priestess of Venus; Leander, of Abydos,
loved her so tenderly that he swam over the
Hellespont every night to see her; but being
at length unfortunately drowned, she threw
herself into the sea, through despair.
Herod'otus, a very famous historian of Halicar-
nassus.
Heroph'ita, the Erythraean sybil.
Hersili'a, the wile of Romulus.
Hes'perus, or Vesper, the evening star.
Hes'perides, the daughters of Hesperus ; .SJgle,
Areihusa, and Hesperethusa, who had a gar-
den bearing golden apples, watched by a
dragon, which Hercules slew, and bore away
the fruit.
He'sus, a name of Mars among the Gauls,
Hip'pias, a philosopher of Elis.
Hippocain'pi, Neptune's horses.
Hip'pocrene, a fountain at the botton" Df mount
Helicon, dedicated to Apollo.
HippoVylus, the son of Theseus and Aniiope or
Hyppolite, who refused intimacies with his
stepmother Phaedro. At the request of
Diana, jEsculapius restored him to life,
alter he had been thrown from his chariot^
and dragged through the woods till he was
tern in nieces.
Hipp'^'na, the goddess of horses and stables.
Hiilc'ria, the goddess of history.
Btrrt^n'sis, a name of Venus.
Ho'ris, a title of the sun.
Hosfili'na, a goddess of corn.
Hy'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and
iEthra; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi-
thoe, Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They
were changed by Jupiter into seven stars.
Hy'bla, a mountain in Sicily, universally famous
.'ar its thyme and bees. I
Hy'dra, a serpent, which had seven heads, or at
some say nine, others fifty, killed by Hcrcu
les in the lake Lerna,
Hyge'ia, the goddess ol health.
Byl'lus, the son of Hercules and Dejanire.
liy'inen, the god of marriage.
Uype'rion, a son of Coelus and Terra.
Hypsip'yle, a queen of Lemnos, who w!is ban-
ished for preserving her father when all the
othei- men of the island were murdered by
their kindred.
lac'chus, a name of Bacchus.
lan'/he, the beautiful wife of Iphis.
lape'tus, a son of Coelein and Te);ra.
lur'bas, a cruel king of Mauritania.
Ica'rius, the son of Oebalus, who, *,aving re-
ceived from Uacchus a bottle of wine, went
into Attica, to show men the use of it : but,
making some shepherds drunk, they tiiought
he had given them poison, and therefore
threw him into a well.
Ica'rus, the son of Diedalus, who, flying with his
father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring
too high, melted the wax of his wings, and
fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian
sea.
Pda, a mountain near Troy.
IdaJa Mater, a name of Cybele.
Ida,H Dacl'yii, a priest of Cybele.
Ida'lia, a name of Venus.
Id'inon, a faiuous soothsayer.
ido'thea, Jupiter's nurse.
lli'one, the eldest daughter of Priam.
llis'sus, a river in Attica.
I'lus, the son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whum
Troy was called Ilium.
ImperaHor, a name of Jupiter.
In'achis and I'ses, naines of lo,
I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and
wife of Athamas.
Inter cidohia, a goddess of breeding women.
Interdu'ca, and Ju'ga, names of J uno.
In'uus, and Inc'ubus, names of Pan.
I'o, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupi-
ter into a white heifer; but afterwards re-
suming her former shape, was worshipped
as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the
name of Isis.
Iph'idus, the twin brother of Hercules.
Iphige'nia, daughter of Agamemnon and Cly-
temnestra, who, standing as a victim ready
to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana,
was, by that goddess, transformed into a
white hart, carried to Tauris, and made her
priestess.
I'phis, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himself
for love ; also a daughter of Lygdas.
Iph'itus, son of Praxonides, who instilutcil
Olympic games to Hercules.
Pris, the daughter of Thaumas ; she was J uno' a
favorite companion, and her messenger on
affairs of discord, «fcc.
I'tys, the son of Tereus and Progne, murdered
and served up by his mother at a banquet
before Tereus, in revenge for hi<3 having vio-
lated her sister Philomela.
IxVon, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened ife
hell to a wheel perpetually turning round,
for boasting that he had lain with Juno.
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC.
653
Jan^itoT, and Juno'nius, titles of Janus.
j'a'nus, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and
Creusa.
Ja'son, a Thessalian prince, son of ^Eson, whx)
by Medea's help brought away the golden
fleece from Colchis.
/o'casta, ihe daughter of Creon,who unwittingly
married her own son, Oedipus.
Ju'no, the sister and wife of Jupiter.
Ju'no, Iftfer'na, a name of Proserpine.
Juno'ness, guardian angels of women.
Ju'piter, a son of Saturn and Ops — the supreme
deity of the heathen.
Ju'piter Secun'dus, a name of Neptune.
Ju'piter Ter'tius, InJ'er'nus, or Sly'gius, seve-
ral appellations given to Pluto.
Juven'ta, a goddess of youth.
La'chesis, one of the three Fates.
Lacin'ia, and Lucil'ia, titles of Juno.
Lactu'ia, or Lactuci'na, a goddess of corn.
Lcbstrig'ones, cannibals of Italy, who roasted
and ate the companions of Ulysses.
La'ius, a king of Thebes, killed unwittingly by
his own son, O^.dipiis.
La'micB, a name of the Gorgons.
Laoc'oon, a son of Priam and high-priest of
Apollo : he and his two sons were killed by
serpents for opposing the reception of the
wooden horse into Troy.
La'pis, or Lapid'eus, titles of Jupiter.
La'res, sons of Mercury and Lara, worshipped
as household gods.
Latera'nus, a household god.
Laver'na, a goddess of thieves.
Lean'dcr, see Hei"o.
Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and wife of Tyn-
darus, seduced by Jupiter in the shape of a
swan.
Lemoni'ades, nymphs of meadows, «&c.
Le'ncK, priestesses of Bacchus.
Ler'na, a marsh of Argos, famous for a Hydra,
killed there by Hercules.
Le'the, a river of hell, whose waters caused a
total forgetfulness of things past.
Leva'na, a goddess of new born infants.
Libiti'nu^ the goddess of funerals.
Li'nus, son of Apollo and Terpsichore.
Luben'tia^ the goddess of pleasure.
Lu'cifer^ son of Jupiter and Aurora, made the
morning star.
Zjuhia, Diana's name in heaven.
Luper'calia, feasts in honor of Pan.
Jjyper'ci, priests of Pan.
jLyca'on, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiter
into a wolf.
M
Ma'ta, loved by Jupiter, and by him turned into
a star to avoid Juno's rage.
Manas-enc'ta, a goddess of women in labor.
Mantu'ra, a goddess of com.
Mantur>na^ and Me'na, nuptial goddesses.
Mari^na^ Met'anis, Mer'etrix^ Migoni'tis, and
MuT'cia^ titles of Venus.
MarSi the god of war.
Mauso'his, a king of Caria, who had a most
magniticent tomb erected to him by hia wife
Artemisia.
3Iede'a, daughter of iEtes, king of Colchis, a
famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob
tain the golden fleece.
Meditri'na, a goddess of grown peiKons.
Medu'sa, the chief of the three Gorgons.
Mtgcb'ra, one of the three Furies.
Megalen'sia, festivals in honor cf Cybele.
Megu'ra, ihe wife of Hercules.
Meiani'ra, a name of Venus.
Me'licb, nymphs of the fields.
Me'lius, a name of Hercules.
yielohia, the goddess of honey,
Melpmn'ene. the muse of tragedy.
Mem'non, a king of Abydos.
Menala'us, a famous Centaur.
Menela'us^ the husband of Helena.
Men'thci, a mistress of Pluto.
Mcn'tor, the governor of Telemachus.
Mer'cury. the'messenger of the gods, inventor ot
letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise,
and robbers.
Mero'pe, one of the seven Pleiades.
Mi'das, a king of Phrygia, who entertained Bac-
chus, or, as some say, Siienus, had ihe power
given him of turning whatever he touched
into gold.
Mi'lo, a wrestler of remarkable strength.
MimalHones, attendants on Bacchus.
Miner'va, the goddess of wisdom.
Mi'nos^ a king of Crete, made, for his extraordi-
nary justice, a judge of hell.
Min'otaur, a monster, half man, half beast.
Min'ycb^ a name of the Argonauts.
Mnemos'yne, the goddess of memoiy.
Moh?ius, the god of raillery, wit, &c.
Mone'ta, a title of Juno.
Mor'jjheus, the god of sleep, dreams, «&c.
Mors, the goddess of death.
Mul'ciber^B. title of Vulcan.
Mu'ses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo-
syne, born on mount Pierius, mistresses of
all the sciences, presidents of musicians and
poets, and governesses of the feasts of the
gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Mel-
pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia,
and Urania.
Mu'ta, the goddess of silence.
If
NcBTiia, the goddess of funeral songs.
Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c.
Narcis'sus. a very beautiful youth, who, falling
in love with his own shadow m the water,
pined away into a daffodil.
Na'tio, and Nundi'na, goddess of infants.
Namob'a, a country of Elis, famed for a terrible
lion killed there by Hercules.
Nem'esis, the goddess of revenge.
Nep'tiine, the god of the sea.
Ne'reides, sea hymphs.
Ne'rio, the wife of Mars.
Niceph'onxs, a title of Jupiter.
Ni'nus, ihe first king of the Assyrians.
Ni'obe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am-
phion, who, preferring herself to Latona.
had her 14 children killed by Diana wai
Apollo, and wept herself into a statu©.
Nofmius, a name of Apollo.
f>5i
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
A'bar, the most ancient ol the deities; she was
even reckoned older than Chaos.
Ob'sequens, a title of Fortuna,
Occa'ior, ihe god of harrowing.
Oce'anua, an ancient sea god
Ocijp'eic, cr.e of ihe three Harpies.
(Ed'ipu.i. son of Laius and .locasta, and king of
Thebes, who solved (he riddle of the Sphinx,
iinwiitingly killed his father,, married his
mother, and at last ran mad, and tore out
his eyes.
Om'phae, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her-
cules was so enamored, that .she made him
submit to spinning and other unbecoming
offices.
0} tr'ius, a name of Pluto.
Opi'gena, a name of .luno.
Ops. a nime of Cybele.
Orbohia, a goddess of grown persons.
O'/'s'tcs, the son of Agamemnon.
Ori'oii, a great and mighiy hunter.
Or'pheiis, son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had
great skill in music, and was torn in pieces
by the Mrenades, for disliking the company
oi women afier the death of his wife Eury-
dice.
Onjihi'a, a queen of the Amazons.
Os'i'ris, see Apis.
Pac'lohis, a river of Lydia, with golden sands
and medical waters.
Pcb'an, arid Phon'bus, names of Apollo.
Pa'/es, the goddess of shepherds.
Palil'ia, feasts in honor of Pales.
PaUu'di7im, a statue of Minerva, which the
Trojans imagined fell from heaven, and that
their city could not be taken whilst that re-
mained in it.
Pal'las, and Py'lotis, names of Minerva.
Pan. the god of shepherds.
Pando'rd", the first womin made by Vulcan, atid
endowed, with gifts by all ihe deities ; Jupi-
ter gave her a box containing all manner of
evils, war, famme, &c., with hope at the
bottom.
Pan' ope, one of the Nereids.
Pa'phia, a title of Venus.
Par'ccb, a name of the Fates.
Par'is, or Al'exander. son of Priam and He-
cuba, a most beautiful youth, who ran away
with Helena, and occasioned the Trojan
war.
Parnas'siis, a mountain of Phocis, famous for
a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite
residence of the Muses.
Pa'>'!u>iiia. a nuptial goddess.
Pastoj)h'uii, pi- tests of I.'is.
Pa/iareiis, a title of Apollo.
Pateli'na, a goddess ol coj-n.
Patuld'ciii.s, a name of Janus.
Patule'ms, a name of Jupiter.
Paven'tia. and Poli'na, goddesses of infants.
Pffj,'-'osMS, a winged horse belonging to Apollo
and tbi Muses.
Pdlo'nia. a goddess of grown persons.
f*ena'tea »mall statues or household gods.
Penel-'ope, daughter of Icarus, celebraiod for het
chastity and fidelity during the long absenct
of Ulysses.
Per'scus. son of Jupiter and Danae, who per-
formed many extraordinary exploits by
means of Medusa's head.
Phftcctsia'ni, ancient soils of Greece.
P/ia'eton, son of S>)l (Apollo) and Climene, wha
. asked the guidance of his father's chariot
for one day, as a proof of his divine descent;
but unable to manage the horses, set the
world on fire, and was iheiefore struck by
Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river Po.
PhaVlica, feasts of Bacchus.
Pliilain'mon, a skilful musician.
Pailoins'la. daughter of Pandion, king of Athens,
who was ravished by her brother-in-law,
Tereus, and was changed into a nightiii-
gale.
Phin'eas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla-
gonia, who had his eyes tern out by Boreas,
but was recompensed with the knowledge
of futurity; also a king of Th.'-^ce, turned
into a stone by Perseus, by the help of Jle-
dusa's head.
Phlcff'elhon. a boiling river of hell.
Phle'gon, one of the four horses of Sol.
Pfdeg'i/cn, a people of Boeotia, destroyed by
Neptune, on account of their piracies and
other crimes.
Phcb'bas., the priestess of Apollo,
Phce'bus. a title of Apollo.
PhcK'nix, son of Amyntor, who being falsely ac-
cused of having attempted the honor of one
of his father's concubines, was condemned
to have his eyes torn out ; but was cured by
Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege
of Troy.
Picum'nus, a rural god.
Pii'um'nus, a god of breeding womei*,
Pin'dus, a mountain in Thessaly.
Pi'tho. a goddess of eloquence.
Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and
Pleione; Mala, Electra, Taygete, Asterope,
Merope, Halcyone, andCeloeno; they wero
chaneed into stars.
P/m'/o, the god of hell.
Plu'fus, ihe god of riches.
Pol'lux. See Castor.
Polyd'amas., a famous wrestler.
Polyd'tus, a famous prophet and physician.
Polyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric.
Polyphe'mus, a monstrous giant, son of Nep-
tune, with but one eye in the middle of his
forehead.
Pomo'na, the goddess of fruits and autumn.
Pose'/don, a name of Neptune.
Prcunesti'na, a name of Fortuna.
Prois'tes, a title of Jupiter and Minerva.
Praxit'eles. a farnous statuary.
Pri'am, son of Lanmedon, and father of Paris,
Hector, &c. ; he was the las: king of Troy.
Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, and
sister of Philomela ; she was turned inio a
swallow.
Prorne'theus, son of lapetus, who animated a
man that he had formed of clay, with fire,
which, by the assistance of Minerva, he stole
from heaven, and was therefore chained by
Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vulture
continually preying upon his liver.
Propy'lcea, a name of Hecate.
Prcs'erpme, the wife of Plu^o
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC.
65^
ProHtus^ a sea god, who could transform himself
into any shape.
Psy'che., a goddess of pleasure.
Py'l'ad'js, the constant friend of Orestes.
Pyr'ainus. and This'be, two lovers of Babylon,
who killed themselves with the same sword.
and occasioned the turning the berries of the
mulberry-tree, under which they died, from
white to red.
Pryoi'tis, one of the four horses of the sun.
Pyr'rhus^ son of Achilles, remarkable for his
cruelty at the siege of Troy.
Py'thufi, a huge serpent, produced from the mud
of the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in
memory thereof, instituted the Pythian games.
Pythonis'sUf the priestess of Apollo,
Qjiad'rifrons, a title of Janus.
Qui'e,i, a goddess of grown persons.
Quieta'hs. and Qiiie'ius, names of Pluto.
Quinqua'tria, feasts of Pallas.
R
Rect'us, a litle of Bacchus.
Re'dux, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune.
Regi'na, a title of .Tuno.
Rhudaman'lhus, one of the three infernal
judges.
Rhe'a, a title of Cybele.
Rhe'a-syL'via. the mother of Romulus.
Robi'gus, a god of corn.
Rom'utus, tlie first king of Rome.
Rumi'na, a goddess of new-born infants.
Runci'na, the goddess of weeding.
Rusi'na, a rural deity.
Saba'zia, feasts of Proserpine.
Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars.
Salmone'us, a king of Etis, struck by a thunder-
bolt to hell for imitating .Jupiter's thunder.
Sa'lus^ the goddess of health
Sane' us, a god of the Sabines
Sator, and i^orri'tor, rural gods.
SaturnaHia, feasts of Saturn.
Satm'nus, or SaL'uni, the son of Coelus and
Terra.
Sat'yrs. the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon-
sters, half men, half goats.
Scy'ron, a famous robber of Attica.
Se'ia, and Sege'tia, goddesses of corn.
Sel'li^ priests of .lupiter.
Sen'ta, a goddess of married women.
Sera'pis. See Apis.
Si:2'nus, the foster-father and companion of Bac-
chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass,
and was drunk every day.
Si'}?u's, a famous robber, killed by Hercules.
Sis'ypfius, the son of ^olus, killed by Theseus,
and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone
up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and
numerous robberies.
Sol, a name of Apollo.
Soin'nus, the god of sleep.
Sphinx., a m.ohster, born of Syphon, and Echidna,
who destroyed herself because GSdipus
solved the enigma she proposed.
StaHa, a goddess of grown persons.
Sten'tor, a Grecian, whose voice is reported to
have been as strong and as loud as the voices
of 50 men together.
Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons.
Styx, a river of hell.
Sua'da, a nuptial goddess.
Summa'nus, a name of Pluto.
Sylva'nus, a god of woods and forests,
Sy'rens, sea monsters
Ta'cita, a goddess of silence.
Tanta'Lu-s, a king of Paphlagonia, -who, serT»
ing up to table the limbs oi his son, Pelopg,
to try the divinity of the gods, was plunged
to the chin io a lake of hell, and doomed to
everlasting liiirst and hunger, as a pimish-
ment for his barbarity and Impiety.
Tarta'rus, the place of the wicked in hell.
Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupiter"
carried av>ray Europa.
Telchi'/ies, priests of Cybele.
Telema'chus, the only son of Ulysses.
7'em'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the
resort of the gods.
Ter'minus, the g"od of boundaries.
Terpsidio're^ the muse of music, &c.
Ter'ror, the god of dread and fear.
Tha'lia, the muse of comedy.
The'mis^ tlie daughter of Coelum and Terra, the
goddess of laws, oracles, &c.
Thes'pis, the first tragic poet.
The'tis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god-
dess of the sea.
Thyr'sus, the rod of Bacchus.
Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo.
Tisipk'one, one of the three Furies.
Ti'tan., son of Coelum and Terra, and the elder
brother of Saturnus, or Saturn.
Tma'rius, a title of Jupiter.
Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter.
Tri'tonia, a name of Minerva.
Tro'ilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba.
Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding out
a siege often years against the Greeks, but
they at last captured and destroyed it.
Tuteli'na, a goddess of corn.
Ty'ro, one orthe Nereids.
U
Ulys's-es, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king
of Iihaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence,
was eminently serviceable to the Greeks ii
the Trojan war.
Unx'ia, a title of Juno.
Ura'nia., the muse of astronomy.
Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persons.
Vagifa'nus, a god of little inftmis.
Vai/uma, a gotldess of valleys.
Veni'lia, a wife of Neptune.
Ve'nus, the goddess ol love, and beauty.
Vergil''cb, a name of the Pleiades.
VeTticor'dia, a name of Venus.
Vertum'ntiSf the god of spring.
656
THE world's progress.
Ves'ta, (Tie goddess of fire.
Viailei, deities of the highways.
Vtbil'ia, the goiidess of wanderers.
Virgmen'sis, a nuptial goddess.
Vii^go, a name of Astrea and Fortune.
Viri/is, and ViscaUa, titles of Fortune.
Viri'ptaca, an niferior nuptial goddess, who re-
conciled husbands to their wives; a temple,
at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the
married couple repaired after a quarrel, and
returned together friendly.
Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth.
Volu'sia, a goddess of corn.
Vul'caiif the' god of subterraneous fire.
San^tkiu, one of the horses of Achillea, born of
the harpy Celtieno, a river neix Troy, calM
also Scamander.
Z
Za'greus, a title of Bacchus.
Zeph'yrus, son of ^olus and Aurora ■wuo pas
sicnately loved the goddess Flora, and is put
for the west wind.
Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia,
who accompanied the Argonauts, anil drove
the Harpies Ironi Thrace.
Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiopc, very expert
in music.
Ze'its, a title of Jupiter.
THE ¥OELD'S PEOGRESS.
PART I.
TABULAR VIE¥S OF TJFIVERSAL HISTORY.
I. Ancient Chronology — from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years.
il. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1850 years
I. ANCIENT CHRONOLOaY.
DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS.
B. C.*
1. From the Creation, 4004
to the Deluge, 2348.
2. From the Deluge, 2348
to the Call of Abraham, 1921 .
3. From the Call of Abraham, 1921
to the Exode from Egypt, 1491 .
4. From the Exode, 1491
to the Kingdom of Saul, 1095.
5 From Saul, 1095
to the Captivity of Israel, 588.
, 1656 years The Antediluvian Period.
, 427 years The Dispersion Period.
. 430 years The Patriarchal Period.
, 396 years The Theocratic Period.
. 507 years The Monarchical Period.
. 258 years ..The Persian Period.
to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 184 years. The Grecian Period.
. 146 years The Roman Period.
6. From the Captivity,
to Alexander the Great,
7. From Alexander,
588
330.
330
8 From the Subjugation of Greece, 146
to the Birth of Christ, 0
^rom the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned B.C.
BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to a. D.—the Year of our Lord.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
FIRST PERIOD— (z^A^ AntedilvA^icm)-
-1656 yem^s.
B.C.
i004
THE CEEATION OF THE WOELD-(Zre&rew PentaUudi.)*
The fall of man and the promise of a Saviour.
The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman— a husbandman.
0875
The death of Abel, the first subject of
death. He was a shepherd.
8S74
Seth born, the third son of Adam.
Enoch born, the first son of Oain.t
3769
Enos born.
Cam builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He In-
troduces the use of weights and measures. — «7o-
sephus. Tytler.
8679
( -ainan bom.
Irad.
361)9
Mahalaleel born.
Mehujael.
3544
Jared "
Methusael.
33S2
Enoch "
Lamech — polygamy introduced.
3317
Methuselah " (lived 969 years.)
Jabal,
Jubal,
Tubal-cam,
Naamah.
3180
Lamech "
The first to
He invent-
He discover.
She intro-
3074
Death of Adam, aged 930 years.
build a Tent
ed the Harp
ed the mode
duced the
3017
Enoch translated.
for habita-
and the Or-
of preparing
axts of Spin-
2948
Noah born.
tion, and to
gan, or wind
and using
ning and
2468
The building of the Ark commenced.
use cattle for
and stringed
iron, brass?
Weaving.
2348
THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 3154
purposes of
instruments
and other
B.C.]
husbandry.
of music.
MetaU.
* See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa-
maritan Pentateuch places the Creation b. c. 4700 ; the Septuagint, 5872 ; Josephus, 4658 ;
the Talmudists, 5344; Scaliger, 3950 ; Petamus, 3984; and Dr. Eales, 5411. The last named
enumerates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and re-
motest date of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is
here adopted as the most generally received standard.
t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column. They
are, however, contemporary with those in the other column.
Remarks.— The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed
since the birth of Christ. Of the progress of knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing
is known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, caulking, and the use of pitch, or
paint, of measui-es by cubit, etc., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in their
adaptation to the use of man, other arts, and a considerable advance in science and the mechan-
ical powers.
The Tabttlar Views are oontinxxed across two pages at the same time; so that
contemporary events in dtffeeent nations may be seen at a glance
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
SECOND TEB.10J)— (Dispersion of Mankina.y
SACRED HISTORY.
Progress op Society and the Arts.
2317
2247
2234
Wine raade by Noah from the grape.
Bricks made, and cement used to &nite them.
Confusion oi languages at Babel.
Astronomical observations begun at Babylon.
2122 Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics.
2100 Sculpture and Painting employed to com-
memorate the exploits of Osymandyas.
2095 Pyramids and Canals in Esrypt. The science
of Geometry begins to be cultivated.
im
Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of
Husbandry, and the method of making
Bread from wheat, and wine from rice.
2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed
ilirou^li the earth : those of Sliem probably
in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Ja^ het )b
Euioiie,
2347. The curse pronounced upon the descend-
ants of Iliun.
2247. The building of Babel.*
224.5. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of
Cush, and Grandson of Ham.
NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son ol
Shem.
1996. Abraham bora.
1921. The call of Abraham.
* The ctiroDoIogy here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan jdacei
jiabel 531 years after the deluge. Our knovvledge of Grecian chronology begins in 776 b. Oi
—the first recorded Olympiad. Till then we give the most approved mythological dates.
THE world's progress.
427 years. — The Deluge to Abraham.
PROFANE HISTORY.— (/7i this ■period traditional and uncertain.)
Asia.
2207 CmNA. The first imperial
dynasty of Hia begins. Fohi
(who is perhaps Noah him
self) is mentioned as the first
Chmese monarch.
2124
2069
2059
EUROPB.
Belus reigns in BABYLON.
[Some suppose Belus to be
the Nimrod of Scripture. If
so, there is a discrepancy of
121 years befween the sacred
and profane chronologies.]
The origin of the kingdoms
of Babylon and Nineveh, and
of tlie Assyrian empire, is
variouslystated by the chron-
ologists. See Sacred Hist.]
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns m
Nineveh.
He establishes the ASSYRIAN
EMPIRE.
2188. Misraim (Menes), the son
of Ham, builds Memphis, in
EGYPT, and begins the E-
gyptian monarchy.
2111. THEBES founded by
Busiris.
2100. Osymandyas, the first
warlike king, passes into
Asia, and conquers Bactria.
2035. Egypt conquered by the
sheph^erd kings of Phenicia,
who hold it 260 years.
2017 Semiramis enlarges and embel-
lishes Babylon^ and makes it
the seat of empire. [By others
placed 2107 B. c]
19T£ Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi
I opia, and India.
1937 The Arabs seize Nineveh. (1)
1938. Lake Moeris constructed.
2039. SICYON, the first king-
dom of GREECE, founded
by Egialus, or Inachus.
2048. A colony of Phenicians
land in Ireland. 0)
2042. Uranus arrires in Greece*
Revolt of the Titans
War of the Qiantii
THE world's progress.
THIED PEKIOD— (T^ Abrahamic or Patriarchal)-
:920
1891
1822
Pkogress op Society and the Arts.
15S8
1582
1580
1534
1506
1497
14W
Gold and silver first mentioned as money.
Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoaa.
Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet.
Atlas, the astronomer.
The chronology of the Arundelian marbles
begins.
The cymbal used at the feaats of Cybele.
Dancing to music introduced by Curetes.
Book of Job written about this time. (?)
Thejlute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian.
Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams
and draws prognostics from omens.
Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry.
SACRED HISTORY.
The Jews.
1921. Abraham called.
1920. —goes into Egypt.
1912. — delivers Lot from captivity, and r©-
ceives the blessing of Melchizedec.
1909. Ishmael born.
1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed.
God renews his covenant with Abraliam.
1896. Isaac born.
1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in
sacrifice.
1856. Isaac married.
1836. Jacob and Esau bom.
1824. Abraham dies, aged 172.
1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel,
1739. His name changed to Israel.
1729. Joseph sold into Egypt.
1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh.
1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt.
1702. End of the seven years' famine.
1699. Death of Jacob.
1635. Death of Joseph.
1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt
1574. Aaron born.
1571. Moses born.
1531. Moses flees into Midian.
1513. The supposed era of Job.
1491. God appears to Moses m a burning busb
at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to delivei
the Israelites.
The Ten Plagues in Egypt.
Institution of the Passover.
The EXODUS of the Israelites from
Egypt.
THE world's progress.
Abraham to Moses. — (430 years.)
PROFANE mS>TOKY.— {Still fiibulous or uncertam.)
Asia.
1766
China. The 2d Imperial dy-
nasty begina.
Africa.
1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt.
1558. Rameses-Miamum reigns
in Egypt.
Europe.
1856. Inachus, the Phenicia?
plants a colony in ARGOS.
1807. Phoronoiw reigns ii
Argos.
1764. Ogyges reifpi,^ m Boeotia.
1707. Apis, king ot Argos.
1732. The Ogygeaa Deluge in
Attica.
1711. The city of Argos built
by Argus, the son of Niobe.
1710. A colony of Arcndiana
emigrate into Italy under
CEnotrus. — CEnotria after-
wards called Magna Grecia.
1641. Criasus succeeds hsn
father, Argus.
1556. ATHENS founded ly
Cecrops.
1552. Triopas. king of Argos
The kingdom divided, Poly-
caon reigning in Messenia.
1546. TROY founded by S&%-
mander.
1529. Deluge of Deucalion ii\
Thessaly.
1520. Corinth founded.
1516. Sparta founded, and tha
kingdom of Laconia, or La-
cedemon.
1507. The Areopagus establish-
ed in Athens.
1506. Crotcpas succeeds to th()
throne of Argos.
1504. Deucalion arrives in At
tica.
The kingdom of Mess*
nia co'Tiinenced by Polycaon
1493. THEBES in Boeotia
founded by Cadmus, a Phe
nician, who introduc««! th»
alphabet intv» Gteea.
THE world's progress.
FOURTH PERIOD.— (T/^e Mosaic or Theocratic.)^
SACRED HISTORY.
B.C.
Proorkss of Society and the Arts.
The Jews.
1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt,
The law given at Mount Sinai. ,^
1490
Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks.
1486
Ericthouius introduces liie first chariot.
The fabulous or traditionary Hermes-Tris-
megistus placed about this period.
1471. Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram
1453. Aaron dies.
1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and diea
1451. Israelites enter Canaan urder Joshua.
Bacchus, god of wine.
1453
Olympic Games first celebrated m Greece.
Apollo, god of nitisic and poetry.
1443. .Joshua dies.
1405. Othniel judges Israel.
1390. The tribe of Benjamin f Imost ext net.
1370
Bucklers used in single combat invented by
PrcEtus and Acrisius of Argos.
1356
Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol-
pus.
1343. Eglon, kin? of Moab, enslaves Israel.
13-25. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel.
1317. Sliamgar kills 6U0 Philistines with an
ox goad.
1305. Israel subdued by Jabin,kingof Canaan.
1285. De'jorah and Barak defeat the Canaan-
ites— Sisera killed by Jael.
1284
Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled
in music.
1263
The temple of Apollo at Delphi b>iilt by the
council of Amphictyons.
1263
Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the
first naval expedition on record.
Mus(zus, a poet.
1252. Israel enslaved by the Midianfea,
1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats t'lie Ms
dianites.
1240
The are wedge, tcimble and lever, also masts
and sails for ships invented by Daedalus of
Athens.
1224
Ihe game of Backgammon invented by Pala-
m ides of Greece,
1209. Abimelcch judges Israel
1206. Tola judges Israel.
.
1183. Jair, judge of laraeL
THE world's progress.
396 years. — Moses to Saul.
PROFANE HISTORY.-(,S7i7Z uncertainA
14^ ; l>ardariU3, kiag of Troy, builds
Dardania.
Ericthonius reigns in Troy.
CiKhanrishathaim, kiiig of
Mesopotamia. (See Scrip-
tu^s.)
Teucer, king of Troy.
Troas, king of Troy.
II us, son of Troas, foimder of
Ilium.
Laomedon, king of Troy.
Phenicia : TYRE founded.
Second Assyrian Dynasty :
Mithreaus or Ninus II.
Troy taken by the Ai'gonauts.
Hercules arrives in Phrygia.
Argon, a descendant of Hercu-
les, first king of LYDIA.
Priam, king of Troy.
Tautanas, king of Assyria.
The TROJAN WAR begins.
Troy -taken, 408 years before
the 1st Olympiad.
Teutaeus, king of Assyria.
Trojans migrate into Italy,
Africa.
1491. Pharaoh and his army
drowned in the Red Sea.
1485. Egyptus reigns, and
gives name to the country.
1376. Sethos reigns in Egypt,
1233. Carti
Tyrians.
age founded by the
Sthenelus reigns ixt Argoa,
1474. Danaus usurps the king-
dom of Argos.
1463. Damuonii invado Ire-
land.
1457. The kingdom of Mycene
begins under Perseus, late
king of Argos.
1453. "Olympic games first ce-
lebrated at Elis.
1438. Pandion begins to reign
at Athens.
1400. Minos reigns in Crete.
1397. CORINTH becomes a
kingdom under Sisyphus.
1383. Ceres arrives in Attica,
1376. The Isthmian games in-
stituted.
1356. Eleusinian mysteries in-
troduced.
1283. ^geus reigns in Attica.
1266. (Edipus, king of Thebes.
1263. Tlie Argonautic Expe-
dition.
1257. Theseus unites the cities
of Attica under one govern-
ment.
1243. The Arcadians conducted
by Evander into Italy.— Mu-
SEBUs, a poet.
1239. Latinus reigns in Italy
1225. First Theban War.—
Euristhenes and Procle*
kings of Lacedemon.
1222. Hercules celebiates the
Olympic Games.
1216. War of the Epigonii, or
2d Theban War.
1213. Helen carried off by
Theseus, is recovereJ by
Castor and Pollux, and mar-
ries Menelaus.
1204. Helen elopes with Paris.
1182. .Eneas lands in l.aly.
1176. Salamis founded by
Teucer.
1170. Epirus: Pyrrhus Neop-
lolemus.
10
THE world's progress.
Fourth Pei'iod. — (The Mosaic or Theocratic.) —
1115
HOC
Progress of Society and the Arts.
Mariner's compass said to be known in
China. (7)
A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain-
ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out-
8he. Q)
SACRED HISTORY.
The Jews.
1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines and
Ammonites. — Samson born. — Eli judges a
portion of Israel.
1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and
becomes judge of a part of Israel.
1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the
jawbone of an ass.
1117. Death of Samson and Eli.
1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel.
1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer.
1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO-
NARCHY.—Saul anointed king of Israel.
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul.
11
PROFANE HISTORY.— aStill fabulous or uncertain.)
1141
1139
X122
1109
Temple of Ephesus burnt by
the Amazons,
rhinaeus, king of Assyria.
China :— 3d dynasty;— Tchcoo.
Dercylus, king of Assyria.
Europe.
1152. Alba-Longa built bj
Ascanius.
1124. ^olian migration.
THEBES, the Capital ol
Boeotia, founded.
1104. Return of the Heradide.
—End of the kingdois fcl
Mycene.
12
THE WORLD'S PE OGRESS.
FIFTH 'P:E^U10J).—{T/ie Monarchical.)-'
SACRED HISTORY.
B.C
Progrbss op Society and thk Arts.
The Jews.
1095. Saul, Kins of Israel.
1085. David bom.
1062. David kills Goliath.
1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron
overJudah; Ishbosheth reigning in Muha-
naim, over eleven tribes.
lOiS. Ishbosheth slain. David made king
over all Israel.
1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab-
ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to
the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, on
the South, and Lebanon, on the North.
I
1036. Solomon born.
1023. Revolt and death of Absalom.
1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah.
1015
Mrnos givcB his latoa to Crete.
1015. Solomon crovsrned in the presence of
David.
1016. David dies.
1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the
temple.
1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S
TEMPLE.
1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con-
nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India,
via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atlan-
tic, via Straits of Gibraltar : builds Tad-
mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, and
other cities.
985. He is seduced mto idolatry by his wivea
975. —dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam.
JuDAH. Israel.
97.5. Rehoboam, king, Jeroboam, king.
971. Shishak plunders
the temple.
958. Abijah. king.
955. Asa, king.
954. Nadab, king.
953 Baasha, king.
THE world's progress.
507 years. — Saul to Cyrus.
13
PROFANE HISTORY.
Asia.
1044
The Ionian emigrants settle
in Asia Minor.
Alliance between Solomon and
Hiram, Ijing of Tyre.
Samoa built.
97^
SLl^liak plunders Jerusalem,
Africa.
Europe.
1088. End of the kingdom ol
Sicyon.
1070. Hereraon, from Gallicia,
conquers Ireland.
1069. Codrus devotes himsell
for Athens.
1060. Athens governed by
Archons.
Alliance between Solomon and
Pharaoh.
986. Utica built.
978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip-
ture, and supposed Sesos-
tris,)king of Egypt.
976. Capyf
Longa.
reigns in ilba
14
THE world's progress.
Fifth Period.— (The Monarchical)-
937
884
800
786
776
T72
r21
710
Progress of Society and thb Arts.
llreastplates invented by Jason.
Homer^s poems brought into Greece.
Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta
Gold and silver coined by Phidon, tyrant of
Argos.
Prophecies of Jonah.
Carpets in use for tents.
The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels
with three banks of oars.
First recorded Olympiad and beginning of
authentic chronology In Greece.
Sculpture first mentioned in profane history—
an Egyptian art.
Tf ic first eclipse of the mx)on observed by the
Chaldeans at Babylon.
The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama
into India.
Rom,an Calendar reformed. The year divided,
12 months instead of 10 as before.
Augurs instituted b-y Numa.
Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr-
\ toius, and Bvander, poets.
GPiO . Ckess invented
SACRED HISTORY.
The Jews.
JUDAH.
942. Asa defeats Ze-
rah, king of Ethio-
pia, with a million
of men.
941. — makes a league
with Benhadad, king
of Syria.
Israel.
930. Elah, king.
929. Zimri, king.
Omri, king.
918. A.iab, king.
914. Jehoshaphat,
king.
907. Benhadad, king ol
^ ^ , ^ Syria, besieges Sa-
Jehoshaphat as- maria. but is re-
pulsed.
sists Ahab
894. War with Moab
889. Jehoram, king.
897. Ahaziah, king.
896. Jehoram, king.
895. Elijah translated.
884. Ahaziah, kmg. 884. Jehu, king.
Athaliah, queen ;
usurps the throne. 856. Jehoahaz, king.
878. Jehoash, king.
The Prophet Jo- 841. Jehoash, king,
nah 825. Jeroboam, king.
839. Amaziah, king. 784. Interregnum.
810. Azariah, king. 7^3- Zachanah, kmg.
Shahum, kmg.
772. Menahem, king.
770. Pul invades Is-
rael, and is bribed
to depart with 1000
talents.
762. Pekahiah, king.
759. Pekah, king.
Interregnum.
Hoshea, king.
721. CAPTIVITY 01
ISRAEL.
758. Jotham, king.
742. Ahazjking.
717. Hezekiah, king.
712. Sennacherib in-
vades Judah.
711. His army (185,-
000) destroyed by a
pestilence.
6. Manasseh, king.
THE world's progress.
6^1 yeais. -Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.)
15
PROFANE HISTORY.
Asia.
flB
717
710
709
680
Homer bom. (?)
Jonah preaches to the Nine-
vites.
Arbaces, king of Assyria.—
Media revolts.
Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA.
Pul, king of Niaeveh,
Sardanapalus, king of Nine-
veh.
Media subjected to Assyria.
Alyattes, king of Lydia.
ERA OF NABONAZZAR.—
Assyrian empire destroyed.
— Meles, king of Lydia.
rharnaces, king of Cappado-
cia.
Tiglath-Pileser conquers Sy-
ria and part of Israel.
Candaules, king of Lydia.
Shalmanezer king of Nine-
veh, takes Samaria, and car-
ries the Ten Tribes into
captivity.
Gyges usurps the throne of
Lydia.
Sennacherib, king of Nineveh.
MEDIA becomes a kingdom
under Dejoces.
Ecbatana founded by Dejoces.
Babylon and Nineveh under
Esarhaddon.
869. Dido arrives in Africa,
and builds Byrsa.
825. The dynasty of the Ta-
nites in Egypt ; begins with
Peterbastes.
781.
in
The dynasty of the Saites
Egypt.
737. Sebacon invades Egypt.
Europe.
935. Bacchus, king of Coriclh
916. Calpetus, king of Alba.
903. Tiberinus, king of Alba.
895. Tiberinus drowned in ths
river Albula, which is thence
called the Tiber.
864. Romulus, king of Alba
Longa.
815. Aventinus, king of Alba.
814. The kingdom of MACE-
DON founded by Caranus.
808. Procas, king of Alba.
794. Numitor, " "
794. Amulius, " "-
Olam Fodla, king in Ire-
land. C?)
769. Syracuse founded by
Archias of Corinth.
753. BUILDING OF ROME
Catania founded by a co-
lony from Chalcis.
747. Union of Romans and
Sabines.
743. 1st Messinian War.
716. Romulus murdered by th«
senators.
715. Numa Pompilius.
713. Gela in Sicily founded.
703. Corcyra built by the Co
rinthiaro.
685. 2d Messinian War
16
THE world's progress.
Fifth Period. — (TJie Monarchical.) —
Progress op Society and the Arts.
Attempt to discover the primitive language of
mankind; Interpreters instituted by Psam-
meiicus ; children educated in the language
and manners of Greece.
Se-Matsien's history of China begins.
The Spnerical form of the earth and the true
cause of lunar eclipses taught by Tholes^
who discovers the electricity of amber.
Periander encourages learning at Corinth.
Draco frames his bloody code of laws at
Athens.
Pharaoh-Necho oegins a canal between the
Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of
120,000 men lost in the attempt. He send.''
out a Phoenician fleet which, sailing through
the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the
third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus
circumnavigating Africa.
Sappho, Alceeus, Pittacus, Bins, Chilo, My-
son, Anacharsis, JEsop, Ilychis, Theognis,
Stesichorus, Phocylides, and Cadmus (of
Miletus), flourish at this time.
Thales' prediction of a solar eclipse accom-
plished.—(See Asia.)
Solon^s legislation in Athens, supersedes that
of Draco.
The Pythian Games at Delphi.
SACRED HISTORY.
The Jews.
677. Mat.asseh carried to BaLylon,
wards restored.
10 after-
640. Animon, king of Ju^iah.
641. Josiah. king of Judah.
Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Pharaoh-No-
cho.
609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried to
Egypt.
Jehoiakim, king.
606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM bj
Nebuchadnezzar.
598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three montlU;
and is carried captive to Babylon.
Zedekiah, king.
591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea.
588. CAPTIVITY OF .) UD AH comp.eted.
.JERUSALEM DESTROYED-the te»B
pie burnt.
Ohadiah prophesies.
nE world's progress.
507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.)
17
PROFANE HISTORY.
Asia.
§76
Ardysus 11., king of Lydia.
Holofernes, Assyrian general.
Phraortes, king of Media.
Saracus, king of Babylon and
Nineveh.
Pliraortes conquers Persia,
Armenia, &c.
Cyaxares, king of Media.
Sadyattes, king of Lydia.
Nabopolassar revolts from Sa-
racus.
The Scythians invade Lydia
and Media.
Alyattes II., king of Lydia.
Nnieveh a second lime destroy-
ed.
Nabopolassar, king of Baby-
lon.
Pharaoh-Necho defeated by
Nebuchadnezzar at Circe-
sium, on the Euphrates.
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba-
bylon.
I)aniel interprets the king's
dream.
A solar eclipse predicted by
Tliales — separates the Medes
and Lydians in battle. (^New-
ton's Chron.,5So.)
60) \ B.rthof Cyrus.
Astyages of Media drives out
the Scythians.
660. Psammeticus, king of
Egypt. — Memphis becomes
the capital of the kingdom.
Europe.
678. Argaeus, 1st king of Ma-
cedon.
672. Tullus Hostilius, king ol
Rome.
668. Messina in Sicily founded
665. Alba destroyed.
664. Sea fight ' between the
Corinthians and Corcyreans.
658. BYZANTIUM founded.
640. AncusMartius.— The port
of Osiia built.— The Latins
conquered by the Romans. —
Philip, 1st king of Mace-
610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of
Egypt.
600. Psammis, king of Egypt.
M. Pharaoh-Hophra, kiig of
Egypt.
don.
629. Periander rules at Co--
rinth.
616. Tarquinius Pnscus, king
of Rome.
602. ^fopus, king of jfafC'
don, conquers lilyrib.
1. Solon, Archor «f At^iesia
18
THE world's progress.
SIXTH PERIOD.— (T^«Per«m/t.)-
1.0 Progress of Society.
522
Mone]/ coined aX Rome by Ser-
vjus Tullius,
Depcenus and Scyllis open a
school of statuary at Alliens.
Naucrales given to the Greeks
by Egypt as a factory.
Egypt "possesses 20,000
bited cities.
inha-
First comedy acted at Athens
on a cart, by Susaiion and
Dolon.
Dials invented by Anaximan-
dei' of Mile'us.
Anaximenes, Cieobulus.
The Corinthian order of ar-
chitecture invented by Cali-
machus.
Zoroaster^ the Persian Pliilo-
sopher.
Simonides, Anacreon, poets.
Thespis performs the first
trugedy at Athens.
Learning encouraged at Ath-
ens.—Firet public library
founded.
Confucius the Chinese philo-
sopher.
The Doric issued by Darius,
Jews.
559. Handwriting on the wall
at Belshazzar's feast.
536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re-
turn of the Jews.
Joshua, Zerubbabel.
535. Rebuilding of the tem-
ple begins.
Zechariah, Haggai.
516. Dedication of the second
tenaole.
582. Nebuchadnezzar mvader
Elam— takes Susa.
572. Tyre taken by Ncbucim<|.
nezzar.
569. Nebuchadnezzar losinj
his reason is deposed.
New Tyre foimded.
562. Croesus, king ot Lydia.
Solon and jE?op at his court.
561. Evil-Merodach, king of
Babylon.
559. Nerigiissar or Belshazzat
killed in the night.
Cyaxares H. (Darius)
king of Media.
Cyrus the Persian assists
him.
Asia Minor subjected to Croe
sus.
546. Sardis taken oy Cyrus.—-
Crcesus made prisoner. —
The Lydian Kingdom end-
538. BABYLON TAKEN by
Cyrus.
536. PERSIAN EMPIRE
founded by CYRUS, com-
posed of Assyria, Media and
Persia.
Cambyses, king of Per-
522. Darius Hystasp«a, \ax4
of Persia.
THE world's progress.
258 yems. — Cyrus to Alexander the Great.
19
581
571
Egypt invaded by Nebuchad-
nezzar.
Apries taken prisoner, and
strangled in his palace.
Amasis, king — coiinectioa be-
tween Greece and Egypt,
Pythagoras visits Egypt.
Psammenitus, last king of
Egypt. — Invasion of Cam-
byses, who defeats the
Egyptians at Pelusium, and
takes Memphis.
Egypt becomes a Persian
Province.
Greece.
585. Death of Periander, tyrant
of Corinth.
582. Corinth becomes a repub-
lic.
560. Pisistratus, tyrant ol Ath-
ens.
549. Temple of Apollo at
Delphi burnt by the Pisis-
traiidffi.
547. Amyntas, king of Mace-
don.
539. The Phocians emigrate to
Gaul and build Massilia
(now Marseilles).
527. Pisistratus dies.
522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa-
mos.
514. Hipparchus killed.
510. The Pisistratidae expelled.
— Democracy established at
Athens — Statues erected to
Harmodius and Aristogiton,
leaders m the revolution.
Rome, etc.
rs. Servius Tullius, king of
Rome.
567. Conquest of the Etruriacj
by Rome.
565. First census of Rome:
84,700 citizens.
534. Tarquinius Superbue,
kinsc of Rome.
530. Cadiz built by the Car-
thaghiians (near the ancient
Tarshish).
20
THE world's progress.
Sixth Period. — {Tim Persian.
507
500
483
479
4-7
473
463
460
Frjgress of Society.
Abolition of the Regal Govern
iTiPiii, and establishment of
Republic at Rome.
HeracUtus, Theano. Prota-
goras, Annxagoras, philoso-
phers.— Corinna, poetess.
The Phoenician letters carried
10 Ireland fiom Spain.
Pythagoras teaches the doc-
trine o( celestial motions.
The temple of Minerva built.
The Etrurians excel in music.
the drama and architecture^
^schylus, Pindar,, poeta.
Simonides, of Cos, obtains the
prize at Olympia. for teach-
ins a system of Mnemonics,
which he had invented.
Empirics instituted by Acron,
of Agrigentum.
Thucydides born.
The Jews.
483. Joachim, High Priest.
Sophocles, the tragic,
Plato, the comic poet.
and
Voyage of the Carthaginians
to Britain for tin
508. Darius conquers India
500. The lonians revolt from
Persia and burn Sardis.
490. Darius sends an army of
500,000 rnenmto Greece.
487. Artabazes, king of Pon-
tus.
6. Xerxes, king of Persia.
481 Tlie expedition of Xerxea
irito Greece.
480. The family of Archean-
actes, from Mytilene, settle
in Bosphorus (now Circas-
sia.)
478. Death of Confucius.—
China distracted by internal
458. Esther.
457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem,
collects the Jewish Scrip-
tures: and
463. —writes the Chronicles.
466. Persians defeated by sea
and land.
46,5. Xerxes a.'isassinated.
464. Artaxerxes I. (Longima.
nus,) king of Pe^ia.
THE world's progress.
21
258 yeo.rs. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.)
Africa.
487
480
4S0
Egypt revolts — is subdued by
Xerxes.
Hamilcar killed in battle.
Egypt, under Inarus, revolts
from Persia.
455 All Egypt reduced by Megaby-
Greece.
505. Lacedemonian War.
504. Lemnos taken by- Milti
ades.
497. Alexander 1st, king
Mace don.
Hippocrates, tyrant of
Gela.
490. Invasion of the Persians
under Daiis and Artapher
nes.
Battle of MARATHON.
489. Miltiades imprisoned.
484. Herodotus born.
483. Aristides banished.
480. Battle of Thermopylae.
Athens burni by Xerxes.
Battle of Salamis.
479. Mardonius a second time
takes Athens.
Defeat of the Persians at
Platea and Mycale on the
same day.
(?)
476. Themistocles rebuilds
Athens. — The Piraeus built.
470. Cimon son of Miltiades. —
Themistocles banished. —
The kingdom of the Odrysae
extends over the most of
Thrace.
466. The Pei'sians twice de-
feated at the Eurymedon by
Cimon.
465. 3d Messinian War.
461. Ostracism of Cimon.—
Pericles rises to great
power.
459. Athens assumes to be the
head of Greece.
456. Cimon recalled.
Rome and Italy.
509. The Tarqums expelled
fiom Rome.
Brutus and Collatinus
first Consuls oi' Rome.
507. Second census of Rome,
130,909 citizens.
The Capiiol finished.— War
against (he Tarquins and
their ally Porsonna.
498. Titus Lartiiiv^ fiiiit Dicta-
tor.
Tribunes of the people.
496. Posthumius, Dictator.
491. Coriolanus darished.
488. At the request of hia
mother, Coriolanus with-
draws the Vulsci from Rome.
485. Galon, tyrant of Syracuse.
483. Quaestors appointed.
480. The Carthaginians de-
feated by Gelon.
479. Syracuse governed hy
Hiero.
477. The 300 Fabii slain.
467. Thrasybulus succeeds
Hiero, and is expelled foi
his cruelty.'
Democracy m Syracuse.
461. Earthquake at Rnme.
456. Cincinnatus Dio'^t >i
22
THE world's progress
Tlw. Sixth Period.—iThe Persian.)—
BO PllOGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC.
The Britons inflict punish-
ment of death by drowning
in a quagmire.
Empfi.dncles, Parmenides,
Aristippus, and Antis-
t/ienfifi, philosopliers. —
P/iidias the finest xcnlp-
tor of antiquity.— ffwvi-
pide.% pains the first prize
in tragedy.
The Battering Ram invented
hy Artemones.
Aristophanes, prince of an-
cient comedy.
Meton begins his lunar cycle,
ocrates, the gr(
then moralists.
Socrates, the greatest of hea-
• eye
ol^h
Hippocrates, of Cos, the father
ol mediciTie.
Thucydides, Ctesias, histo-
rians.
Deviocritus, \he laughing phi-
losopher.
An eclipse of the sun causes
the defeat of the Athenians
at Syracuse
Thucydides' history ends, and.
Xenophon'e begins.
The Jews.
445. Walls of Jerusalem built
by Nciiemiah.
Soot of Samariuns.
Asia.
449. Persians defeated at St
lamis in Cyprus.
Peace with Greece.
438. Spartacus takes poses*
siua of tlie Bosphoruf.
425.
424.
Xerxes TI. k. of Persia
Darius II. k. oi Persia.
M. ArtaxenesII. (Shix«ni kl.}
king of Persia.
THE world's progress.
23
158 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.)
4U
407
Amyrtseus, king of Egypt,
shakes off the yoke of Per-
sia.
The Carthaginians send 300,.
000 men into Sicily.
Greece.
454. Perdiccas, II., king of Ma-
cedon.
449. Cimon dies.
448. First Sacred War.
447. Athenians defeated at Che-
440. Pericles takes Samos.
437. Amphipolis planted by
Athenians.
436. Corinth at war with Cor-
cyra.
432. Revolt of Potidsea from
the Athenian confederacy.
43i. The Peloponnesian War.
Invasion of Attica.
430. The Plague at Athens.
429. Pericles dies, having gov-
erned Athens 40 years.
425. An earthquake separates
the peninsula of Euboea
from the main land.
424. Exile of Thucydides.
Campaign of Brasidas in
Thrace.
420. The 90th Olympiad.
Alcibiades effects a treaty
between the Athenians and
Argives.
416. Nicias, general of the
Athenians.
War in Sicily .
413. The Athenians alarmed by
an eclipse. — Their army in
Sicily destroyed.
413. Archelaus, king of Mace-
don.
411. Athens governed by the
400. — Alliance of Sparta
with Persia.
411. Alcibiades at the court of
Tissaphernes.
410. Alcibiades defeats the
Spartans.
408. Capture of Byzantium.
405. Lysander defeats the
Athenians, 404. takes Athens,
and establishes the SO ty
rants
End of the Peloponnesian
War.
Death of Alcibiades.
451. Deceiifiviri— the laws oi
the 12 tables.
Virginia killed by hei
father.
6. Syracuse reduces Agri-
gentum.
445. INIilitary Tribunes.
444. Office of Censor insti-
tuted.
440. Famine in Rome.
437. The Veii defeated.
434. War with the Tuscans.
433. The temple of Apollo in-
dicated.
431. The Equi and Vo.eci d*
feated.
24
THE world's FROGRESS,
Tlte Sixth Teriod. — {The Fersian.)-*
Progress of Society, etc.
Catapulted invented by Diony-
sius.
C>/7iics, sect of philosophers
IbundecJ by Antitsthenes.
Plato, the philosopher.
Philoxenes, the poet.
Treatise on conic sections by
Aristcbus.
Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates
and Iscbus, orators.
The Jews.
A celestial globe brought into
Greece from Egypt."
Philippics of Demosthejies.
Commerce of Rhodes with
Africa aiid Byzantium
366. Jeshua slam by Johan-
nan m the inner court of the
temple, for which a heavy
fine is laid on the daily sacri-
fices.
Asia.
401. Cyrus the younger de-
feated.—Retreat ol ihe lU,Ol)fl
under Xenophon.
400. The city of Delhi found
ed.
387. The Greek cities of A.sia
tributary to Persia.
383 BITIIYNIA becomes a
kinsdom.
Miihridates 1st, king p/
PONTUS.
362. Ariobarzanes king of Pon-
tus. — Revolt of the Persian
governor in Asia Minor.
361. Darius Ochus. or Artax-
erxes III. king of Persia.
360. CAPPADOCIA becomes
a kingdom under Ariarathes I
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
25
258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.)
Africa.
379
362
The Carthaginians land in
Italy.
Tachog, king of Egypt.
Agesilaus, the Spartan,
aids The Egyptians.
Voyages of the Carthaginians
under Hanno.
401. Thrasybulus expels the
30 tyrants.
Death of Socrates.
?9. Amyntas II., king of Ma
cedon.
396. Agesilaus goes into Asia
395. Corinthian War begun.—
Battle of Coronea.
382. Thebes taken by Phoebi
380. Thebes delivered by Pelo
pides and Epaminondas.
100th Olympiad.
377. Spartan fleet defeated at
Naxos.
372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe-
loponnesus, swallowed up
by an earthquake.
371. Battle of Leuctra.
Alexander II., king of Ma-
cedon.
Predominance of Thebes.
370. Perdiccas III., king of
Macedon.
364. Pelopidas killed inbattle.
362. Battle of Mantinea, death
of Epaminondas.
Decline op Grecian
Republics.
360. Philip II., king »>f Mace-
don. defeats the Athenians
at Methone.
The Macedonian phalanx.
War of the allies against
Athens.
358. Philip takes Amphipolis
and loses his right eye by an
arrow from Astor.
357. The 2d Sacred War.
356. Philip conquers Thrace
and lUyria.
The Temple of Diana at
Ephesus burnt.
ALEXANDER«th«
Great" born.
RoME AND Italy.
400. Siege of Veil begun.
Lake Alba draicei
391. Camillus, Dictator, takes
Veii, after a siege of teo
years.
390. Rome taken and burnt by
the Gauls, under Brennua
— The Capitol besieged.-—
Caraillus delivers his coun-
try.
386. Damon and Pythias.
384. M. Manlius Capitolinua
thrown from the Tarpeian
rock.
379. The Volsci defeat
Romans.
376. Lucius Sextu^, first ple-
beian consul.
Camillus, the fifth time
Dictator.
371. The curule magistrates
appointed.
362. Curtius leaps into a gulf
in the Forum.
357. Dionysius, the younga*
expelled from Syracua*.
26
THE world's progress,
SEVENTH PERIOD.— (T/^e Grecian.)--
1.0 Progress of Society, etc-
aao
Aristotle, the logician and phi-
iosoplier, founder of the Pe-
ripatetics; Jb'acMnes, ora-
tor.
Detnosthcnea ; Icetas, of Syra-
cuse.
The Lyceum built in Attica.
Alexander spares the house of
Pindar.
The revolution of eclipses first
calculated by Calippus, the
Aihenian.
Caustic painting or the art
of burning colors into loood
or ivory, nivented by Gau-
sias, a painter of Sicyon.
Tlie voyage of Nearchus from-
the Indus to the Euphrates.
Apeiles, the painter ; Calis-
thenes, philosopher.
Menander, the inventor of the
new comedy.
Lysistratus invents moulds
from which to cast wax
figures.
First work on mec?ianics, writ-
ten by Aristotle. — Diving
Bdl first menticned.
The Jews.
Alexander enters .Jerusa-
lem.— On seeing .Jaddus, the
High Priest, clad in his
robes, he declares he had
seen him in a vision, invit-
ing him to Asia, and pro-
mising him the Persian em-
pire. He goes to the Tem-
ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho-
vah, and departs.
320. Ptolemy carries 10(>,000
Jews into Eypt
Onias I.
336. Mithriddtes II., lOEg 3l
Pontus,
334. Battle of the Cfranicus.
333. Battle of 7ssms.— Parthia,
Bactria, Hyrcania,Sogdiana,
and Asia Minor, conquered
by Alexander.
332. Tyre subdued after seven
months' sieg«.
Damascus taken. —Gaza
surrenders.
331. Battle of Arbela.— The
Persian army totally defeat-
ed.
330. CONQUEST of the PER-
SIAN EMPIRE.
329. Thalestris, queen of the
Amazons, visits Alexander,
with a train of 300 women.
8. Alexander extends hia
conquest to the Ganges.
323. Alexander dies at Balit/'
Ion.
322. Peidiccaa takes Cappa-
docia.
320. Eumenes lefeatsd by ,
tigonus.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
27
184 years. — Alexander to tJie Fall of Gi-eece.
319
340
332
Darius Ochus conquers Egypt,
and pillages its temples.
The Carthaginians defeated by
Timoleon.
Egypt conquered by Alexan-
der.
Alexandria built.
Ptolemy L
£U&)
(Soter, son of I,a-
Greece — Macedon.
353. The Phociaos defeated by
Philip.
348. End of the Sacred War.
Philip takes Olyiuhus.
346. Philip ailmii'ed to the
Amphictyonic Council.
34.5. Duias buried by an earth-
quake.
343. Thrace tributaiy to Mace-
don.
Aristotle appointed tutor
to Alexander.
341. Philip makes war upon
Athens.
•340. —lays siege to Byzantium.
Timoleon recovers Syra-
cuse, e.xpels Dionysius, the
tyrant, and defeats the Car
thaginians at Agrigentum.
338. Philip defeats the Greeks
at Cheronea.
336. Philip is murdered by
Pausanias.
ALEXANDER m.. sur-
named the Great. — He rava-
ges Greece, destroys Thehes,
sparing the house of Pindar.
335. — is chosen generalissimo
of Greece against Persia.
334. — invades Persia, and after
several great battles (see
'■'•Asia'''') subdues the Per-
sian empire and Egypt, and
marches into India.
Rome, etc.
330. ^schines,
banished.
the orator,
325. Demosthenes banished.
323. Death of Alexander.—
Tile Grecian cities revolt
from Macedon. — Demosthe-
nes recalled.
322. The Greeks defeated by
sea and land near Cranon.
Death of De7noslhenes.
32L Antipater, regent.
319. Polysperchon succeeds
Antipater, and proclaims
liberty to the Grecian cities-
354. Dion put to death, an«
Syracuse usurped by ty-
rants.
345. Twelve cities ir Campa-
nia buried by an earth [Uttke.
343. Samnian War, whi :h con-
tinues 53 years.
340. P. Decius devotes him-
self for his country.
All Campania is suMued.
332. The Caledonian mo-
narchy (Scotland) founded
by Fergus L
325. Papirius Cursor, Dictatct.
32L The Samrdtes make tha
Romans pass under the yoke.
320. The Samnites defeated aJ
Luceria.
28
THE world's progress.
The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)-
I.e. Progress of Society, etc
317
212
310
300
293
200
885
Commerce of Macedon with
India, through Egypt.
The Appian Way constructed.
— The Gnomon invented to
measure altitudes.
Aqueducts and baths in Rome.
Euclid, of Alexandria, the
celebrated mathematician. —
Zeno, founder of the Sloics ;
— Pi/rrho, of the Skeptics;
Epicurus, of the Epicu-
reans.— Bion, of Borysthe-
nes, philosopher.
The great Chinese Wall built.
The first sun-dial erected at
Rome by Papirius Cursor,
and the time first divided
into hours.
Fabius mixoAazes painting at
Rome.
Tiie Colossus of Rhodes
built by Chares, of Lindus.
Theocrites, the father of pas-
toral poetry.
DionyrAus, the astronomer at
Alexandria, begins his era.
He found the solar year to
consi.st of 365 days, 5 hours,
and 49 minutes.
The Septuagint translation of
the Old Testament, begun at
Alexandria, by order of Pto-
lemy Phil idelphus.
The Jews.
311. Judea subject to Ar.tigo-
nus.
301. Judea under the domi-
nion of the Ptolemies.
284. The sect of the Sadduceea.
312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator
311. Seleucus Nicator retakes
Babylon.
Era of the Seleucidce.
310. Eumdes usurps the
throne orBo.«phorus, putting
to death all his brothers.
After a reign of six years, is
murdered.
).5. War in India, against
Sandrocottus.
301. Battle of Ipsus.—Aniigo-
nus killed.
ALEXANDER'S EM-
PIRE DIVIDED in four
parts. — Ptolemy, Seleucus,
Cassander. Lysimachus.
Miihridates III., king oi
Pontus.
291. Seleucus founds Antioch
Edessa, and Laodicea.
285. The Scythians invade
Bospnorus.
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
29
184 years. — (Continued.)
307
Afirathocles is defeated by the
Carthaginians.
Peace between Sicily and Car-
thage.
Greece.
318. Phocion put to death by
the Athenians.
317. Cassander assumes
the government of Macedon.
Demetrius Phalerius gov-
erns Athens.
315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes,
and founds Cassandria.
312. Epirus : P y r r h u s II.,
the greatest hero of his time.
306. Demficracy established at
Athens by Demetrius.
304. Athenians repulsed from
Rhodes.
303. Demetrius Poliorcetes,
genera] of the Grecian States.
300. Resfration of Democracy
at Athens.
291. Death of Cassander.—
Alexander and Antipater
succeed.
296. Siege of Athens, by De-
menius.
294. Demetrius murders Alex-
ander, and seizes the throne
of Macedon.
37. Athens revolts from De-
metrius.
36. Pyrrhus expelled from
Macedon.
284. The Achaean Republic.
Rome, etc.
317. Syracuse and Sicily usurp-
ed by Agathocles.
312. War with the Etruscans.
310. The Carthaginians defeat
Aga[hoc!es, and besiege Sy-
racuse.
30S. Fabius INIaximua
defeats the Samnites.
303. Establishment of
Tribus Urbancb.
the
300.First Plebeian High Priest.
290. End of the Samnite War.
36. Law of Hortensius, by
which the decr'^es of tha
people had the force of thoae
of the senate.
30
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
The Seventh Period. — ( TJie Grecian.)-^
».c. Progress of Societv, etc.
The Pharos built at Alex;ui-
ilria, the first, light-house on
record.
Philetaenis, of Pergamus, pa-
tron of the arts, especially
Archiiectnre.
Alexandria, the resort of the
learned, and centre of trade.
Chariots armed with scythes,
and fortijied cai?ips, in use.
First society of ci-itics formed.
Ptolemy makes a :anal from
the Nile to the Red Sea.
Silver money first coined.
The Parian Chronicle com-
posed.
Gladiators first exhibited at
Rome.
Berosus, the historian of Ba-
bylon.
The armillary sphere invented
by Erastosthenes, who made
the first attempt to determi'ie
the length of a degree.
Greece instructs the Romans
in the arts and sciences.
213. Oaias II. high prie?t.
Asia.
28'2. The kingdom of PER-
GAMUS founded by Phile-
l*rus.
281. Lysiraachus defeated anc
killed by Seleucus.— Antio
chus Soter succeeds Seleu-
cus.
56. Ariobarzanes III., ki.ig Qi
Pontus.
262. Antiochus Soter defeated
at Sardis.
256. Kingdom of PAR] HIA
founded by Arsaces.
255. The fourth imperia. dy
nasty of China begins
252. Mithridates IV., bes egej
in his capital by the G&uls.
THE world's PEOGRESS.
31
184 years. — (Continued.)
256
2&J
Africa.
Ptolemy PhUadelphus king of
Egypt.
Egypt first sends ambassadors
10 Rome.
Regulus invades Africa, and is
defeated by Xantippus. a
Spartan general.
]VI rivsllus defeats Asdrubal.
Greece.
Rome, bto.
283. Lysimachia destroyed by 283. The Gauls and Etrw
an earthquake. rians subdued.
I
281. Lysimachus defeated and
slain by Seleucus,
The Achaean League of
12 states, under Aratus, of
Sicyon.
279. Irrruption of the Gauls
under Brennus.
278. — they are defeated near
Delphi.
277. Antigonus Gonatus, king
of Macedon.
274. Pyrrhus invades Mace
don, defeats Antigonus, and
is proclaimed king.
272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta
and Argos— is slain, and An-
tigonus is restored.
268. Athens taken by Antigo-
nus Gonatus.
Second incursion of the
Gauls into Macedon.
255. Antigonus liberates
Athens.
Athens joins the Achaean
league.
251. Sicyon joins the Achaean
league.
250. The Romans begin to re-
sort to Greece for improve-
ment in know^ledge. — Par-
thia revolts from Macedon.
281. The Tarentine War.
280. The Tarentines seek the
alliance of Pyrrhus, who
conquers the Romans at
Pandosia, and at
279 — Asculum.
278. Sicily conquered by Pyrr-
hus.
275. Curfus defeats Pyrrhus,
and compels him to leave
Italy.
272. Fall of Tarentum.
266. Rome mistress of all Italy :
census of the city 292.,224.
264. The first PUNIC WAR.
— Appius Claudius drivea
Hiero from Syracuse.
260. D u i 1 1 u s gains a vic-
tory over the Carthaginiaa
fleet.
256. Regulus gains ano-
ther victory.
255. The Lacedemonians as
sisting Carthage. — Xantip-
pus defeats Regulus, and
takes him prisoner.
254. Palermo besieged by the
Romans. — About this time
the Huns are first heard of,
governed by Teuman.
249. Naval fight at Drapanum,
32
THE world's progress.
The Seventh Period. — (The Grecian.)-^
>. c Progress op Society, etc.
Agrari'anism attempted
Sparta, but is put dovm.
l/omedies first acted at Rome^
lliose of Livius Andronicus.
The oriffinal MSS. of JEschy-
lus, Euripides and /Sopho-
cles, lent by the Athenians
to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15
taleuts.
Fabius Pictor, the i!rst Roman
historian.
Appollonius Rhodius, poet. —
Chrysippus, Stoic philoso-
pher.
Archimedes, the mathemati-
cianj denKM^strates the pro-
perties of the lever, and
other mechanical powers,
also the art of measuring
solids and surfaces,and conic
sections— cMkstructs aplane-
tarium.
The art of Surgery introduced.
An eclipse of the moon ob-
served in Asis Minor.
The Jews.
237. Simon II., High Priest.
246. Antiochus IT. poisoned bj
his wife.
241. Attalus I., king of Peig»
mus.
226. Seleucus HI., k. of Syria.
234. The Colossus of Rhsdei
thrown down.
21.3. Chi Horg Ti destroys xh»
records of the Chinese em-
pire.
211. Antiochus the
Great, king of Syria.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
33
184 years. — (Continued.)
'227
Hamilcar Barcas, general of
the Carthaginians.
Ptolenny Eurgetes subdues Sy-
ria.
End of the Libyan War.
Hamilcar with Hannibal, pass-
es into Spain.
Carthagena in Spain, built by
Asdrubal.
221
219
Ptolemv Philopater, king of
Egypt.
Conquests of Hannibal,
the Carthaginian, ii Spain;
He crosses the Alpj.
243. Corinth taken by Aratus.
242. Demetrius H., of Mace-
don.
241. Agis, king of Sparta, put
to death for attempting to es-
tablish an Agrarian law.
240. Cleanihus, the Stoic,
starves himself.
232. Philip ni., of Macedon.
228. Roman ambassadors first
appear at Athens and Co-
rinth.
The fortress of the Athe-
naeum built.
226. Cleomenes, king of Spar-
ta, defeats the Achseans. —
Lyscades killed. — The Agra-
rian law restored.
225. The Romans send another
embassy to Greece. They
are admitted to a share in
the Isthmian games, and
granted the freedom of Ath-
223. Cleomenes takes Megalo-
polis.
222. Battle of Sellasia.
220. The S o ci a 1 W a i
— Philip, of Macedon, as-
sists the Achaeans. — Cleome-
nes dies in Eyypt. — Agesi-
polis and Lycurgus elected
kings of Sparta.
218. Acanania ceded to Philip.
21.5. Aratus poisoned
Mgmm.
214. First Macedonian War.
211. Alliance of Philip with
Hannibal.
Rome, etc.
247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro-
mans at LilibcEum.
241. End of the first P^jLi«
War.
231. Sardinia and Corsica con-
quered by Rome.
225. The Gauls repulsed in
Italy.
224. The Romans first cross
the Po.
223. Colonies of P 1 a c e n -
t i a and Cremona.
222. Insubria (Milan) and Ligu-
ria (Genoa) conquered by
Rome.
219. Hannibal takes Sagun-
turn, and crosses the Alps,
218. The Second P u N i a
War .—The Romans de-
feated by Hannibal at T i •
c i n i s and T r e b i a .
217. F 1 a m i n i u s defeated
at Thrasymene.
216. Varro at C a n n ae to-
totally defeated by Hannibal.
Fabius Maxim us,
Dictator.
212. Syracuse and Sicily con-
quered by M a r c e 1 i u s .
—Archimedes killed.
211. The Carthaginians dnrei
from Capua.
34
THE world's progress.
The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)-
e.c. Progress of Society, etc,
Ennius, of Calabria, poet
Sotion, of Alexandria,, a
grammarian.
Plautus, of Umbria, the co
mic poet; Appollonius, of
Perga, mathematician; Ze-
710, of Tarsus, the philoso-
pher.
Goid coined at Rome.
The art of printing in China,
Aristonymus 4th, librarian of
Alexandria.
Caius Lelius, the Roman
orator.
Books, with leaves of vellum,
introduced by Attalus, king
of Pei-gamus, in lieu of rolls.
A total ecHp&t of the sun at
Rome.
Asiatic luxuries brought to
Rome.
A comet visible 80 days.
Bion and lyloschus, comic
poets.
Statius Ccecilius, comic poet.
The Jews.
203. .TUDEA Congluered 3Y
Antiochus the Great.
201. Onias III., High Priest.
200 Jesus, the son of Sirach,
writes Ecclesiasticus.
198. The Jews assist Antio-
chus in expelling Scopas and
the Egyptian troops from
Jerusalem.
First mention of a Senate or
Sanhedrim,.
Asia.
206. The dynasty of fl « n ii
China.
197. Eumenes, king of Perga-
mus.
196. Hannibal joins Antiochus,
who seizes the Thracian
Chersonese.
192. Syria at war with Rome.
190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats
Antiochus at Magnesia.
187. Antiochus killed in the
temple of JupitA- Bel us. —
Syria becomes a
Roman province.
16. The city of Artaxata (in
Armenia) built.
185. Seleucus IV., king of Sy-
ria.
133. Phamaces I., king of Poh
tus, conquers S i n o f e .
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
35
184 years. — (Continued.)
•21)5
2£M
202
180
Africa.
Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of
Egypt.
The Roman general Scipio be-
sieges Utica, and takes in
one day the camps of Asdru-
bal and Syphax.
Hannibal recalled.— Sophonis-
ba poisoned by Masinissa.
Hannibal defeated at Z a m a .
—End of the 2d Punic War.
Treaty of Carthage with Ma-
sinissa, king of Numidia.
Egypt loses her Syrian posses-
sions.
Masinissa harasses the Cartha-
ginians, and injures their
commerce.
Ptolemy PVilometer, king of
Egypt.
Greece.
208. Battle of Lamia, near Elis,
— Philip, of Macedon, de
feats the .^tolians.
206. Battle of Mantinea
Philopcemen, the Pras
tor of Achaia, defeats the
Spartans.
200. The Rhodians defeat the
Macedonian fleet near Chios.
—Siege of Abydos.— Second
Macedonian War begins.
19S. The Achaeans and Spar-
tans join the Romans against
Macedon.
197. Philip in. defeated at Cy-
nocephalae by the Romans,
under Flaminius.
195. Flaminius, the Roman,
quarrels with Nabis, king of
Sparta.
189. Epirus declared free by
the Romans.
188. Philopcemen abrogates
the laws of Lycurgus in
Sparta.
183. Philopcemen defeated and
killed by Dinocrates, king of
Messinia.
Rome, etc.
210. Scipio takes New
Carthage, and conquer-i As-
drubal."
207. Nero and Livy defeat As-
drubal at Metaurus — Asdru-
bal killed.
206. The Carthaginians driven
out of Spain.
204. Scipio carries the wai
into Africa.
201. Scipio carries Syphax is
triumph to Rome.
197. Flaminius victorious in
Macedon.
195. C a t 0 in
190. War with Antiochus, of
Syria, who is totally defeat-
ed by L. C. Scipio, and
188. Syria is made a Roman
province.
187. Scipio Africanus banish-
ed from Rome.
183. Cato, the elder, censor.
181. Plague at Rome.
180. Death of Scipio Afrie**
nus.
179. Numa's books foun.i in a
stone coffin at Rome.
36
THE world's progress.
The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)—^
». 0. Progress op Society, etc.
167
162
161
159
Paper invented in China.
Polybms, historian of Greece
and Rome.
The comedies of Terence per-
formed.
An eclipse of the moon, which
was predicted by Q. S. Gal-
lus.
The first library opened at
Rome, consisting of books
brought from Macedon.
The Roman treasury is so rich
that the citizens pay no
taxes.
Hipparchus of Nice fixes the
first degree of longitude and
latitude at Ferro, whose
most western point was
made the first general meri-
dian—lays the foundation of
Trigonometry.
Philosophers and rhetoricians
banished from Rome.
The clepsydra or water clock
invented by Scipio Nascia.
150
Hipparchus, of Rhodes, astro-
nomer. — Aristarchus, of
Alexandria, grammarian.
The Jews.
176. HelJodorus in Jerusalem.
175. Jason obtains the high
priesthood by corruption.
172. Jason defeated by Mene-
laus.
170. Jerusalem and the temple
plundered by Antiochus
Epiphanes, who attempts to
abolish the Jewish religion,
and commits great cruelties.
167. Matthias, Jligh Priest.
165. Judas Maccabeus ex-
pels the Syrians, and puri-
fies the temple.
161. Judas kills Nicanor — is
succeeded by Jonathan.
First treaty with the Ro-
mans.
158. Jonathan compels the Bac-
chides to withdraw — is mur-
dered by Tryphon.
150. Jews take Jopfa.
172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha
nes) king of Syria.
171 — declares war against Pto-
lemy Philomater."
170. An irruption of Tartan
into China.
166. Prusias, kirgof I; ithyma.
164. Antiochus Epiphanes
died.
162. Demetrius Soter, king of
Syria.
Mithridates Philopater,
king of Cappadocia.
157. Mithndates V.
Pontus.
king of
153. Ariaraihes VII., king o
Cappadocia.
150. Alexander Bala kills De
metrius,and takes the throne,
149. Prusias, of Bithynia, if til-
ed by his son NicomeoM
r
THE world's progress.
184 years. — (Continued.)
37
174
Ca',5 e embassy to Carthage.
14G
178. Perseus, king of Mace-
dou.
171. Third Macedonian War.
168. Perseus defeated at Pyd-
na, by Paulus Emilius. —
Macedon becomes a Ro-
man Province.
165. Romans enter Achaia.
155 Embassy of Diogenes,
Carniades, and Critolaus to
Rome.
M issinissa defeats the Cartha- 152. Andriscus usurping the
ginians. government of Macedon, is
J( (int reign of Philomater and conquered by Meiellus
Pliysojn in Egypt.
CARTHAGE TAKEN
destroyed.
and
147. Metellus defeats the Ach-
aeans in Greece.
148. Corinth taken and de-
stroyed by Mummuis. —
GREECE becomes a RO-
MAN PROVINCE under
the name of Achaia.
RCiMi, ETC.
170. Tiberius and Caiua
Gracchus.
167. Census 327,03g.
155. Romans unsucces&ful
Spain.
151. Defeat of Galba.
49. Third Punic War.
Conquest of Cartha^« and
of Corinth.
Greece annexed to the
Roman empire.
38
THE world's progress.
EIGHTH TEniOD.— {The Roman.)-
B.C.
Progress op Society, etc.
The Jews.
Asia.
116
Alexandria, the centre of com-
merce.
143
HipparcJius begins his new
cycle of the moon.
142. Simon, High Priest.
140
Toothed tchcels applied to the
clepsydra by Ctesibius.
137
Learning and learned men
137. Antioclius IV., (Sidstes,)
liberally patronized by Ptol-
king of Syria.
emy Pbyscon.
Diodorus and Satyrus, peri-
patetics; Nicander. physi-
cian and poet ; Lucius Ac-
13.5. End of the Apocrypha.—
cius, tragic poet ; Aristobu-
Jerusalem besieged by An-
lus, the Jewish peripatetic.
tiochus IV.
134. Antiochus invades Judea.
133
Equestrian order, a distinct
class.
130
Revival of learning in China.
130. John Hyrcanus delivers
130. Antiochus IV. defeated
Judea from the Syrian yoke :
and killed in a war with Par-
—reduces Samaria and Idu-
thia.
mea.
129. Demetrius II. (Nicator)
regains Syria.
' ^
123. Mithridates the Great,
120
The theory of eclipses known
to the Chinese.
kir.g of Pontus.
116
L. Coslius Antipater., histo-
rian ; Lucilliies, the iirst
Roman satirist; ApoUodo-
rus, of Athens, chronologist ;
Castor, of Rhodes, chrono-
logist; Anthemon, philoso-
pher.
HI. Bfithridates conquers gcy^
110
Firsi: sumptuary law at Rome.
thia, Bo.5phorus, Coi -Jii*
108. Hyrcanus destroys Sama-
&c.
ria.
107. —succeeded by his son
Aristobulus, who first as-
sumes the title of king.
lOo. Alexander Jarmeus at
war with Esypt— takes Ga-
za.—Rebellion excited by
'
the Pharisees.
'
THE world's progress.
146 years. — Fall of Greece to the Christian Era.
39
Africa.
Commerce of tlie world ccri'
tres at Alexandria.
Ptolemy PJiyscoii becomes
soie king oY Egypt by the
death ol" Fn.ioniater.
129 Ptolemy Physcon driven from
his throne for his cruelty.
128 Pestilence in Egypt,
123 CarJiage rebuilt
118 Death of Micipsa, king of
Numidia, and the assassina-
ti'in of lliempsal by Jugur-
tha.
Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of
Eeypt
]12lJugurthineWar,
n/ Alexander I., king of Egypt.
Wo
Jugurtha is defeated and sur-
renders Is'umidia to tlie Ro-
RowAN Empirb.
In the East.
133. Pergamus,
Province.
Roman
118. Dalmatia,
Province.
Roman
In Europe.
141. Numantian War.
140. The Picts from the north
of England settle in thr south
of Scotland.
135. Servile ivar in Sical/.
13.5. Nu.mantia de.'stroyed by
Scipio : Spain becomes a
Roman PiioviNCE.
Death of Tiberius Grac-
chus.
123. Tribunate of 0 a i u 8
Gracchus.
113. Eirst great migration of
the German nations.
109. War of tlie Teutoni and
Cimbri.
105. Numidia becomes a Ro-
man j)rovince by the dcfmt
of Jus:urtlia.
104 The Teutoni defeat SOi>00
Romans on 'he banks of li.a
Rhone.
102. M a r i u s victorious
over the Teutoni and Ambro-
nes at Aquae Sexiae.
101. Marius and Catullus de-
feat the Cimbri.
100. Marius buys his .sixth con«
sulate.
Banishment of Metellua
40
THE world's progress.
The Eighth Teriod, — {The Koman^-
B. c Progress of SoaisTY, etc.
The Jews,
Libraries of Athens sent to
Rome by jjyiia.
Decline of Agriculture in
Italy; corn supplied from
the provinces.
Posidonius calculates the
heisiit of the atmosphere to
be about SOO stadia.
Zeno, of Sic1on,thc Epicurean ;
Apclliain of Atlien^^; Alex-
ander Pul!/j)/>is'ur,[he gram-
marian ; Phulius Gidlus.
rhetorician ; Q. Valerius
Antias^ Roman historian ;
Q. Hortensius, orator.
The cherry tree brought to
Europe from Asia by Lu-
cullus. — Tercntius Varro
writes three books on agri-
culture.
The Romans possess gold
mines in Asia Minor, INIace-
doni;i., Sardinia and Gaul ;
and productive silver mines
in Spain.
The first water mill described
near a dwelling of Mithri-
dates.
Ebony introduced at Rome by
Pompey.
Vikraninditya king of Ozene,
in India, patron of literature
— at his court flourish Ame-
ra iSinkn, le.vicograiiher :
Vararuchi, grammarian ;
Kalidasa^ poet.
79. Alexandra, widow of Jan-
neus, governs Judea.
70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest,
deposed by his brother Aris-
tobulus.
67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus
appeal to Pompey, who en-
ters Judea and takes Jerusa-
lem, and restores Hyrcanus
to the priesthood.
63. JUDEA A ROMAN FitO
VINCE. 1
98. China sti' eubmits to tha
II a n dynasty ; S e m a t -
z i n , Emperor.
97. Mitliridates conquers Cap-
padocia.
95. Cappadocia declared fre«
by Rome. — Ariobarzanea
elected king.
94. AniiocJius, king of Syriaj
defeated ly Seleucus.
93. Tigranes, king of Arme-
nia.
Pontus at war with Rome.
86. Mithridates takes Bythi-
nia and several Roman'pro-
vinces.
83. Tigranes made king of
Syria.
75. By the death of Nicome-
des Bythinia becomes a
province.
70. Damascus possessed by
the Romans.
09. Mithridates and Tigranes
defeated by Lucullus.
GO. Mithridates defeated by
Pompey.
'. Antiochus XII. defeated
by Pompey.— The race of
the Seleucidae becomes ex-
tinct. — Arinbarzanes II.,
king of Cappadocia. — An
earthquake in Bosphoriw
lays in ruins several town.s.
6-1. Dejotarus, kingof Galatia,
seizes Armenia Minor.
53. Pharmaces, king of Fontu*
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS,
41
146 years. — (Continued.)
Africa.
97
82
By the death of Ptolemy
Apion, Cyrene becomes a
Roman province.
Revolt in Upper Egypt.—
Thebas destroyed.
Alexander II., king of Egypt.
Roman Empire.
In Asia and Africa.
97. Annexation of Cyrene.
Ptolemy Auletea, king of
Egypt
89. Mithridatic War; Sylla
commands the Roman army.
88. The Athenians seek as-
sistance from Mithridates
against Rome.
. Athens, reduced by famine,
is taken by Sylla.
83. Second Mithridatic War.
82. Svlla plunders the temple
of JDelphi.
79. P 0 m p e y defeats Do
mitius in Africa.
75. Bythinia a Roman
Province.
74. Third Mithridatic War
under Lucullus.
In Europe.
99. L u s i t a n i a conquered
by Dolabella, and becomes
a Roman province.— Birth
of Julius Caesar.
66. Metellus subdues Crete.
P o n t u s becomes a
Roman Province.
65. Syria, a Roman
Province.
91. Social War in Italy.
88- Sylla defeating the
Marsi and Peligni, puts aa
end to ihe Social VVar.
Civil War between Ma-
rius and Sylla.
82. Sylla defeats Marius, and
is CYealed perpetual dictator,
SO. JULIUS CESAR'S First
Campaign.
77. Sertorius revolts in Spain
and defeats Metellus and
Pompey.
73. War of Spartacus, the gla
diator.
71. Spartacus defeated by Cras
sus.
70. Pompey and Craa-
sus Consuls.
69. Census 450,090.
65. M. T. Cicero, ConeuL
63. Cataline'g Conspi
racy detected
pressed by Cicero,
I racy detected and sup-
42
THE world's progress.
The Eighth Period.— [The Roman.)-
s. c. Progress op Society, etc
45
43
Magnificent houses of the,
nobles; viarble theatre of
Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spec-
tators.
Cicero, statesman and orator ;
Sallust, historian; Lucre-
tius and Catulius, poets;
Apollonius, of Rhodes, I'he-
torician ; Aristomcdes, of
Crete, grammarian ; Andro-
nicus, of Rhodes, peripate-
tic philosopher.
Iron chain cables used by the
Veneti.
A water mill on the Tiber at
Rome.
The Alexandrian library (400,-
000 vols.) burnt.
The year of confusion — so
called becau>e the calendar
was altered by Sosigenes.
Casar reforms the Calendar
by introducing the solar in
siead of the lunar year.—
First Julian year. — VitJ-u
vius. the greatest Roman ar-
chitect.
Cornehu.s Nepos, historian
DialoTUS Siculus, hisio-
riaa.
The Jews.
Asia.
53. Crassus plunders the tem-
ple of 10,000 talents.
48. Antipater, the Idumean, is
made lieutenant in Judea by
Cajsar.
43. Judea oppressed by Cras-
sus.
Malichus poisons Anti-
pater.
40. Herod the Great, son of
Antipater, defeats his rival,
AUtigonus, and Parcorus,
the Parthian — takes Jerusa-
lem— marries Mariamne — is
made king by the Romans.
53. Parthian War.— The To-
mans defeated. — CrasC'.'*
slain.
3. The era of Antioch.
47. Battle of Zela.— Phai^
conquered by Cassar.
44. A comet seen in China
39. The Parthians, under I'ai
corns, defeated by Venll
dius.
Darius, king of Pontua.
38. Ariobarzanes dethroned by
Marc Antony.
THE world's progress.
43
146 years. — (Continued.)
68
46
43
Ptoiemy goes to Rome, Bare-
lice reigns in iiis absence.
Tlie African War. — Scipio
a v' Juba defeated at Thap-
sns — Cato kills liimself at
I. iica.— Ptolemy Dionysius
Crowned in the Nile.
CfEsar rebuilds Carthage.
Cleopatra ])oisons her brother
a', d reigns alone
Roman Empire,
East.
53. Crassus defeated and killed
in Parthia.
48. Thessaly becomes the seat
of war. — The Athenians de-
clare for Caesar against Pom-
pey.
Battle of Pharsah'a: — Pom-
pey. defeated by Cassar, flees
into Egypt, and is slain there.
47. Caesar takes Alexandria,
and conquers Egypt. — Cae-
sar victorious at Zeja, in
Asia.
45. Corinth rebuilt by Caesar.
Weal.
60. First Triumvirate : —
Pompey, Crassus, and Julius
Caesar.
Scinld. first king of Den-
mark. — Boh, a fierce son
of Odin.
58. Clodius procures the ban
ishment of Cicero. — The
Helvetii defeated by Juliua
Caesar.
57. Cicero recallec — S a 1 ■
lust expelled from the
senate.— Gylf, king of Swe-
den.
55. Caesar passes the
Rhine, defeats the Ger-
mans and Gauls, and In-
vades Britain.
54. Caesar's second invasion
of Britain.
52. Pompey, sole consul.
51. Caesar completes the con-
quest of Gaul, which be-
comes a Roman province.
49. Cssar passes the
Rubicon, and in sixty
days makes himself master
of Italy— marches into Spain
and forces Pompey's troopa
to surrender.
48. Battle of Dyrrhachium.
45. Caesar perpetual
dictator — he subdues
the two sons of Pompey, and
acquires the sole power.
44. Caesar assassinated in the
Senate House.
43. Second Tritcmvirate : —
Octavius Caisar, Marc An-
tony, and Lepidus. — Cicero
proscribed and murdered.
42. 7 Vie Battle of Ph ilippi :~
Antony and Octavius defeat
Brutus and Cassius.
u
THE world's progress.
The Eighth Period. — {The Roman.)-
B. c. Prooress of Society, etc.
Golden age of Roman lilera-
ture.
The revenue of the empire
amounts to about 40 milhuns
sterling.— First sfayidhzg ar-
my in Rome. — Direct trade
of Rome with India. — Silk
and linen manufactories
in the empire.
Temple of Janus at Rome
closed— there being now a
general peace.
Treasures of Egyptian art
brought to Rome. — The Pan:
theon built.
Horace, Virgil, Tibullus,
Pi-opertius, poets; Varrus
and Tucca, critics; Livy,
historian ; Mcbcenas, minis-
ter of Augustus, patron of
literature;" Strabo, geogra
pher; JEmilius Macer, of
Verona, poet ; Agrippa, war-
rior, and patron of tlie arts.
Worship of Isis at Rome.
Pantomimic dances intro-
duced on the Roman stage.
Aqueducts constructed by
Agrippa.
Dedications of botiks first in-
troduced.
The legions distributed over
the provinces in fixed camps,
which soon grew into cities
! — among the'm were Bonn
and Mayence.
The calenda'" corrected by
Augustus.
Diunysius. of HalicarTuissus,
historian ; and Diunysius.
geographer.
BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be-
fore the Vulgar Era.
3. Archelaus succeeds Herod
with the title of Etlmarch,
30. Ilerc^d kills Mariamne.
19. The Temple rebuilt by
Herod — he also builds Cy-
pron, Antipatris, Pharsaelis,
and the to'wer of Phasael in
Jerusalem.
5. Cyrenius taxes Judea.
34. Antony Ukes possession
of Armenia, which S«comofl
a Roman province — leads
an inglorious expeiitior
asainst Parthia.
29. E p h e s u s , next to
Alexandria, the chief place
of trade in the Romau em-
pire.
20. Porus, king of India, soli-
cits an alliance with Rome.
Parthians defeated by Ti-
berius.
14. Polemon conquers 3i.«
porus.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
45
146 years. — (Continued.)
31
30
Cleoj »tra obtains from An-
tony a grant of Phoenicia,
Cyrene and Cyprus.
—receives all Asia from the
Mediterranean to the Indus.
Ci.eopatra and Marc Antony
deleated by Octavius, ai
Actium.
Alexandria taken by Octavius.
—Antony and Cleopatra de-
stroy themselves.
Egypt beconiee 4 Bo-
man province.
Roman Empire.
East.
21. Athens finally subjected *o
Rome.
20. CXCth Olympiad.
Tiberius at Rhodes.
5. Q. Varrus appointed gcv-
emor of Syria, and Cyre-
nius governor of Judea.
West.
36. Sextus Pompey defeated
in Sicily.
32. Antony quarrels with Oc-
tavius.
31. By the BATTLE OF AC-
TlUiM Octavius acquires
the empire.
30. THE REPUBLIC BE
COMES A MONARCHY.
29. Octavius's 3 days triumph
at Rome.
Temple of Janus shut
,Rome contains 4,101,017
citizens.
27. The titles of Augustus and
Emperor conferred on Octa-
vius for 10 years.
23. Agrippa in
22. Conspiracy of Muresna.
21. Augustus visits Greece
and Asia.
16. Lollius defeated by the
Germans.
15. Cantabria, Austria, Rhoe-
bia, Vindelencia and Moesia
become Roman provinces —
being conquered by Dru-
sus.
13. Augustus assumes the
title of Pontifex Maximus.
12. Pannonia, conquered by
Tiberius, becomes a Ro-
man province.
11. Germany subdued c v Ger
manicus.
4. Cymbeline, king of Britain,
PA]IT II.
MODERN CHRONOLCGY,
FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME.
Epochas or Periods.
t From the Christian Era ) Period of the Ten Persecution* ft
to the Reigii of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 \ Christians.
°' « Extinction of the Western Empire, « 476 ( " Northern Invasions.
^' « Flight of Mahomet, « 622 ( " Justinian and Belisarius.
^ «' CrowningofCharlemagneatRome, « 800 ( " Saracen Umpire.
^' « Battle of Hastings, « 1066 ^ " ^ew Western Empire.
VI. }
« Founding of the Turkish Empire, « 1299 \ " ^^* Crusades.
VII ?
" Taking of Constantinople, « 1453 ^ " Tamerlane, Wickliffe, and Hms
'^m } « The Reformation; Discoveriet
" Edict of Nantes, « 1598 J and Inventions.
IX. I " The English Commonwealth
" Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, « 1718 ( and Wars of Louis XIV.
X. ? " American and French Rewlw-
" Battle of Waterloo, " 1815$ tions.
XI. t " European Revolutions, Littra
•• present Ume (1865.) t tute and the Arts.
48 THE world's progress.
MODERN CHRONOLOGY.— PERIOD 1st.— {The Ten Persecutions.)—
37
£0
Progress of Society, etc.
Celsus the physician; Phcedrus, the fabu-
list ; VeUius Faterculus, Roman histo-
rian.
Sacred.
The BIRTH OF CHRIST :-<see p. 44.)
Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch
of Galilee.
/
8. Christ reasons with the doctors.
The Druids in Germany.
Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato.
Seneca, moral philosopher.
Valerius Maanmus, historian.
Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called
the "Trumpet of the World."
A census being taken by Claudius, the em-
peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome
are found to amount to 6,900,000.— ( [/"m-y.
Hist.)— [Moi-e than three times the number
of London at present. 1
Columella, born in Spam ; left twelve books
on husbandry.
25. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea.
26. John the Baptist begins his ministry.
27. Christ baptized by John
23. —at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew
called.
29 Twelve disciples sent abroad, "two and
two."
30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri-
day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrection,
Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday,
May 4.
33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius.
34. St. Paul converted to Christianity,
.39. St. Matthew writes his gospel.
40. The disciples first called Christians at
Antioch.
41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned.
44. St. Mark writes his gospel. — Death of
<S'^ James.
4.5. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus.
50 Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at A ther%
52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem.
55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at CjBsa-
rea.
57. — pleads before Felix.
" —pleads before Festus, emd appaaUi ta
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
49
yean. — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constanttne.
Roman Empire.
East.
Caius Cesar makes peace with the Parthlans.
26
Germanicus conquers Cappadocia.
Germanicus poisoned at Antioch.
Thrace becomes a Roman province.
West.
Tiberius returns to Rome.
3. Cinna's conspiracy detected.
— Caius Cassar dies.
6. Q. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov-
erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro-
vince.
9. The Germans, under Arminius, defeat and
kill Varrus.
Ovid is banished to Tomos.
14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is
succeeded bv
Tiberius
J 9. The Jews banished from Rome. — The
Marcomanni conquered by Drusus.
21 . The theatre of Pompey destroyed by 5re.
26. Tiberius retires to Caprsea.
3L Sejanus disgraced and put to death.
33. Conquest of Mauritania.
c7. Tiberius dies, aged 78.
-Caligula
(noted for his profligacy and folly.)
41. Caligula assassinated by Chereao.
ud
succeeds to the throne.
43. — invades Britain with his general, Plan-
tins.
45. Vespasian, general in Britain.
48. Census of the city, 6,900,000.
51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, i
quered and brought to Rome.
N e ro ,^
a profligate and bloody tyrant.
55. — poisons Briianicus.
56. Rotterdam built.
59. Nero's mother, Agrippina, put to (laatk by
Us order.
50
THF WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Modern : Period /.— 30G vcari>.
Progress of Society, btc.
Nsro's golden palace built; of great extent,
inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in
Rome more regular after the fire.
Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural
history ; Quintius Curtius, historian ; Fer-
sius, satirist.
Tosiphua, the Jewish historian.
rhe Coliseum of Vespasian.
The Capitol rebuilt.
Circumnavigatiort of Scotland.
Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of
Titus ; the group of the Laocoon.
Quintillian, orator ; Valerius Maccus, poet
Martial , Epigrammatist; Apollonius, Py
thago:ean philosojiher ; Epictetus, stoic
Dio Chrysostom, Greek rhetorician and phi
losopher ; P/iilo By'^ 'US ; Ignatius and Pa-
pias, two of the fathers of the church.
Tacitus, historian; Juvenal, satirist; Sta-
tius, poet ; Aul. Gellius, Latin gramma-
rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ;
',he younger Pliny.
The Ulpian library; Public schools in all
the provinces ; Jurisprudence flourishes ;
the city adorned with the Forum; Pillar
of Trajan, and hatha; bridge built over
the Danube.
Sacred and Ecclesiastical.
59. Paui is shipwrecked on the l8;ajid of
Melita (Malta).
60. Paul imprisoned at Rome
63. Paul set at liberty.
64. The first persecution of Christiana by
Nero.
63 to 66, Paul visits Jerusalem, and travela
through the greater part of the known
world.
66. Pope Linus.*
The Jews at war with the Romans, and
Paul beheaded
SI. Peter crucified.
67. The Jews massacred by Florus. — JoscphuB,
governor of (ialiiee.
Pope St. Clement. — Gamaliei,
63. Vespasian invades J udea.
'0. The destruction of Jerusalem, by T.tut.
77. Pope St. Cletus
83. Pope Anacletua.
95. Second persecution of the Clirlstians fay
Domitian.
St, John writes his Gospel and Apooa«
lypse, and is banished to the iele of Fatmos.
95. Pope Evaristus.
97. Timothy stoned.
St. John returns from exile.
98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajut
* The word Pope is used in accordance
with the Roman Catholic usage, though tha
name was not adopted by their Pontiun UH
•everal centuries after.
•Christian Era to Constanthie.]
THE world's progress.
51
Roman Empire.
60
G5
Ea^t.
Corbul-) subdues Armenia.
Tiridates placed on the throne of Armenia by
Nero.
Judea subdued and .Jerusalem destroyed by
Til us.
Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace,
Cilicia. Byzaniium and Samos.
Revolt of the Panhians.
West.
61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boa-
dicea ; they burn London. The queen, de-
feated by ii'uetonius^ poisons herself.
64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses th9
Christians of the crime.
—persecutes ihe Christians — Seneca, Lu-
cian, and others put to death.
63.-
G al b a .
reigns 9 months, and is [)ut to death by
Otho,'
(2 months) defeated and killed by
Vitell
who is defeated by the army of
70. Vespasian. ^^
77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in
one day.
79.
Titus,^ .
(beneficent.)
Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed
by an irruption of Vesuvius.
80. Julius Agricola, conqueror and governor
of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia.
8L D 0 m i t i a n , '^
( a cruel tyrant.)
3. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes,
defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a
yearly tribute.
3'. Capitoline and secular games.
War with Dacia 15 years.
96. Domitian put to death by Stephanua.
N e r V a ,
(well intentioned but enfeebled by age.)
■Trajan
(a great sovereign and a warrior.)
The Roman Empire at its greatest eitenti
J. SeveruSf general in Britain.
52
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Modern: Period I. — Z0& years.
m
12C
132
If. 6
ISC
Progress of Society, etc.
7*^8 fi^st credible hist man among ihe
Chinese.
The great buildings of Palmyra.
the Sun at Baalbec.
The Roman mosaics.
■Temple of
Jurisprudpnce improved by the publishment
of Adrian's perpetual code.
Ptolemy, liie celebrated Eizypiian astronomer
and geo'jrapher —Arrinn, Appian, Maxi-
vius, Lysius and Puusanius, Greek histo
rians ; Liicifiyi, a satirical writer ; Hermo-
geneSf rhetorician of Tarsus.
Tschang Heng, the Chinese astronomer.
Cfalen, Greek physician ; Athaeneus, a gram-
marian; Diogenes Laertius, Greek histo-
rian.
The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius.
Ecclesiastical.
100. St. John dies at Ephesus, aet. 9-1.
107. Third persecution of the Christians by
Trajan.
l^-i. St. Ignatius devouied by wild beasts.
Pope Alexander I.
118. Fourth persecution of the Christiar.g by
Adrian.
119. Pope Sixtusl.
126. Quadratus, bishop of Athens.
127. Pope Telesphorus.
130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Adc
mites.
134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledges
three Gods.
1.3.5. Polycarp and Aristides, Christian fathers
139. Pope Hygenua.
142. Pope Pius I.
Heresy of Valentine.
150. Pope Anicetus.
Canon of Scripture fixed about this time
154. Justin Martyr publishes hia apology (o
the Christians.
162. PopeSoter.
167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Ann
171. Pope Eleutherus.
177. The Christians persecuted at Ly w.
Theophilus, Tatian^ and Montanaa.
185. Pope Victor I.
St. IreruBua.
— Christian Era to Conslantine.]
THE world's progress.
53
Roman Empire.
Ill
120
132
East.
Pli' y, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his
account of the Christians. — Great victories
of Trajan.
Trajan's expeditio-i against the Parthians.
Seizure of Ctesiphon.
Armenia Major again governed by its own
kings dependent upon Rome.
Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an
earthquake.
Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years.
Adrian i-ebuilds Jerusalem, under the name of
iElia Capitolina, and erects there a temple
to Jupiter.
The rebellion of the Jews crushed after a war
of five years. — The Jews banished from
Judea.
Til?*/.
100. The Huns emigrate westwar i.
101. Trajan reduces Dacia.
115. Massacre of the Greeks and Rorc&m by
the Jews of Gyrene.
117.
Adrian
IGO Embassy sent by Antoninus to China,
168
War with the Parthians, lasts 3 years.
120. —makes t progress through all tha
121. provinces -visiis Britain, builds there
a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith.— A
wall built from the Rhine to the Danube.
133. — Antoninus Pius, ^g •
(eminent for his virtues and love ol peace.)
140. Lollius Urbicus extends the Roman do-
minion in Britain, and erects a second ram-
part, called the Wall of Antoninus.
14-5. Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans,
and Dacians.
146. —introduces the worship of Serapis into
Rome.
152. —stops the persecution of the Christians.
161.— Marcus Aurelius,® (Ad» v
ninus,)
(the stoic philosopher.)
Escape of the thundering legion.
158. Plague over the whole known world.
The Marcomanni at war with Rome.
180. The emperor dies at Sirmium;
ceeded by
SUC'
C o m m 0 d u
(profligate and
witn tne
GOTHS in Dacia.
1 o a u s , -^
a..u cruel;) makes peace
ith the Germans.
54
THE world's progress.
[Moder7i : Period I. — 306 yean.
208
235
»i2
240
250
Progress of Society, etc.
Ecclesiastical.
Paptnian, the greatest civil lawyer of anil
quuy — Julius A/ricanus, chronologer.
Caracalla grants the ric^ht of Roman citizen,
ship to all, the provinces, that they may be-
come liable to the taxed, inheritances, &c.
Ammonius, founder of a new school of Pla-
tonic philosophy at Alexandria.
Dio Cassius, Greek historian.
Censorius, a critic and grammarian.
Herodian, Greek historian.
Longinus, philosopher and ;ritic
197. Pope Zephyrinua.
202. Fifth persecution of the Christians undel
Severus. — Tertuliian, an able defender of
Christianity. — Clemens, of Alexandria, and
Minuiius Felix, C. F.*
217. Pope Calixtus I.
The Septuagint found in a cask.
228. Pope Urban x.
234. Pope Pontianus.
235. Anterus.
Origen, C. F.
Sixth persecution of the Christians, under
Maximinus, in which Leonirfus, IrencBua,
Victor, Perpetua, and Felicitas are mar-
tyred.
244. Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Dionyiitis
of Alexandria, C. F.
250. Pope St. Cornelius.
Seventh persecution of the Christiani.
* Christian Father.
— Christtan Era to Constantine.]
THE world's progress.
55
Roman Empire.
1S9
East.
The SARACENS defeat the Romans.
223
PERSIA ; the new kingdom begun by Artax-
erxes ; (the dynasty of ilie Sassasidae).
Parthia tributary to Persia.
2i2 Gordia!\ defeats the Persians under Sapor
West.
189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by light
ning.
191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire.
192. Commodus assassinated by JVIartia ant
Laetus.
193.
Pertinax
proclaimed by the Prsetonan guards —
murdered alter a reign of 3 monihs. — The
empire bought by Didius Julianus, who
is put to deatli by order of the seriate.
Septimus Severus,^^
(governs fr\\\\ vigor.)
— defeats his competitors, Niger and Albi-
nus.
194. — be.?ieges Byzantium.
202. — persecutes"the Christians.
203 —his sons Caracalla and Ge a go to Bri-
tain, wiiere 50,000 Roman troops died of.
plague.
The wall of Severus between the Forth
and the Clyde buili.
211. Severus dies at York, in Britain.
-Caracalla and Geta.@
Caracalla murders Geta.
212. — visits the provinces along the Danube.
— Wars with the Catti and Alemanni.
217. Caracalla is assassinated.
M a c r i n u s
put to death by the soldiers.
218. Heliogabalus, ^
(a monster of vice and cruelty.)
222.- Alexander Severus ,^J
(a beneficent and enlightened prince.)
The Roman? agree to pay an annual tri-
bute to the Goth.=!, to prevent them from
molesting the empire.
226. The victory of Severus over the Persians
at Tadmor.
235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of the
army ; succeeded by
'- M a X i m i n u s , .^
who defeats the Dacians and Sarmatians.
236. Maximinus assassinated by his troops
near Aquilea.
— Balbinus and Gordian, ^g —
241. The FRANKS first mentioned in hi»
tory ; they invade Gaul.
244. —are repulsed at Moguntiacum.
Gordian put to death by
•Philip .^§'(the Arabian,''
who makes makes peace with Sapor.
247. The secular games restored.
249.
D e ci u s
persecutes the Christians.
250. —slain by the Goths, who iavada th«
empire by crossing the Danube.
56
THE world's progress. [Modem : Period /.— 306 years
PROaRESS OF SOCIETV, ETC.
Pl0tt7lUS.
Odin in Scandinavia.
Ecclesiastical.
Paulas, a Roman poet.
Lon.srinus at the court of Zenobia,
Rome surrounded with a wall.
Lonsinus dies.
Porphyry^ the Greek philosopher and opposer
ol Christianity!
Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thra-
cian Franks in tjs Mediterranean and
Northern Seas.
Diocletian's Oriental form of government —
the monarchy considered hereditary— nomi-
nation of Csesars as co-rulers.
Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches
of white marble, while the walls were
adorned with paintings.
251. St Cyprian, bishop of Carthage.— Mo>
nastic life originates about this tune.
Dispute between the churches of Rome
and Africa about baptism.
259. Pope Dionysiua.
262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, dei ies th*
divinity of Jesus Christ
269. Pope Felix I.
272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian.
274. Pope Eutychianes.
Manes originates the heresy of the Mani'
chaeans — rejects all thesacramen's ; refuses
allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c.
283. Pope Caius.
The Jewish Talmud and Targum com
posed.
Paul, the Theban, the first hermit.— Reli
gious ceremonies multiplied. — Pagan ritea
imitated by the Christians.
36. Ilierax, chief of the Hieraxians ; asserts
that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and
denies the resurrection.
— Ckristian Kra to Constantine.]
THE n^ORLD'S PROGRESS.
57
Roman Empire.
251
259
264
273
East.
HUNS o>i the Caspian Sea.
The Persians victorious in Asia Minor.
Persia :— Sapor's victory over the Roman
arms.
The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt.
Sapor, tlie Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and
Caesarea.
Odenatus, king of Palmyra — he is succeeded
by his wife.
Z e rt 0 6 2 a, who reigns vfith the titles of
'Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.'
Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia,
and Asia Minor.
Zenobia tiefeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who
destroys her magnificent capital, and carries
her to Rome.
280
The Persians iefeated by Probus.
251.-
Wesi.
G a 1 1 u s W
purchases a peace with ihe Goilis.— (Con-
federacy of the Franks beiwcen the Rhine
and Elbe.
—a great pestilence prevails in the empira
253.-
254.-
E m 1 1 1 a n u 9
Valerian.
— is successful against the Germans and
Goths.
256 -()9. Four great piratical expeditions cf the
Goths into Asia Minor and Greece.
259. Valerian deCeated anil taken prisoner and
flayed alive by the Persians.
G a 1 1 i e n u
Period of the 30 tyrants.
The Persians penetrate to Ravenna.
264. Alliance with Odenatus.
2G7. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Gotha
and Scythians.
268. Gall'ienus killed at Milan.
-Claudius II
defeats an army of 320,00U Goths.
269. —dies at Sirmium.
270.-
-Aurelian, ^
(a great warrior.)
271. —defeats the Goths and Alemanni.
273 —reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist-
ance, and lakes queen Zenobia prisoner.
274. Fiance, Spain, and Britain reduced to
obedience.
The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt. —
Dacia given up to the barbarians.
275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium.
An interregnum of 6 mxmths.
Tacitus
(a descendant of the historian,)
reigns with wisdom 6 months.
277.-
P r o b u s
(a v/arlike prince.)
— obtains several victories over the barba-
rians.—The Franks permitted by Probus to
settle in Gaul.
282. Pi-obus slain by his soldiers.
C a r u
killed by lightning.
Carinus and Numerianus,
(effeminate and cruel.)
288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies.
284.-
Diocletian
sends ambassadors to China.
"The Era of Diocletian," or of "the
martyrs," August 29.
287. Britain usurped by Carausius, who reigna
7 years. The empire attacked by the r orih-
ern barbarians, and several provmcea
usurped by tyrants. — Maximianua, a col-
league of the Emperor.
58
THE world's progress.
[Modern : Period /.— 306 years.
290
304
312
Progress of Society, etc.
The Gregorian code.
Gregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; Elius,
Sj>artianus, and Vopiscus, historians ; Tre-
beUius Polio.
Ecclesiastical.
296. Monks in Spain andEgypL
Pope Marcellinus
303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians.
30-1. Ar7iobius, of Africa, C. F., converted
'"rom idolatry.
MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.— 170 years
The prcBtorian guard broken up by Constan-
tine.
323 , Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine
the Great.— Celebrated dome of St Sophia :
the splendor of the court so great that it
cost more than the legions.
330 Constantinople becomes the seat of art and
literature.
357
Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to
have flourished about this time.
Eutropius and Marcellinus, historians ; Jain-
blicus and Eunapius, Greek historian.
306. Persecution of the Chiistians stopped by
Constantius.
310. Pope Eusebius.
Arius excommunicated.
311. Pope Malchiades.
314. Pope Sylvester!.
319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantine
the Great.
325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th,
325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops,
who condemn Aiian'ism. —Eusebius, bishop
of Ca?sarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo-
rian. — Lactantius, Athanasius, Arius,
Ephraim and Basil, C. T., flourish in the
reign of Constantine.
335. Pope Marcus.
337. Pope Julius.
Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked,
the cross reverenced, and incense used by
the Christians.
341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by
Frumaintius.
356. Pope Felix II.
St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, ol
Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. F.—
Elius Donatus, bishop of Carthage.—
Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem. — Monasteries is
Thebais.
— Ckristian Era to Conslanhne.\
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
59
Roman Empire.
East.
Narses, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso-
potamia, and Assyria.
Alexandria taken by Diocletiein.
Hormiadas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus.
From Constantine to Odoacer.
325
328
333
334
337
340
350
354
The first general council a . Nice.
The seat of government removed to Constan-
tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on
May 11th, 330.
Great famine and pestilence in Syria.
Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis-
persed over the empire.
Death of Constantine, and the accession of
291. The Franks make themselves masters ol
Batavia and Flanders.
293. The Franks expelled from Batavia.
296. Britain restored to the emperor.
304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em
pire to
Constantius and Galerius.
306.— Constantine thk Great, ^m
(first Christian emperor.)
Licinius, Maximian., and Maxentius, his
three colleagues.
Constantine defeats the Franks.
312. Maxentius defeated and killed.
314. Civil war with Licinius.
319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris-
tianity.
321. — appoints the observance of Sunday.
322. — defeats and banishes Licinius, and be-
comes sole emperor.
325. —abolishes the combats of gladiators and
assemblies.
33L Constantine orders all the heathen tem-
ples to be destroyed.
his three sons,
Constantius, Constans,and Constantine.^
150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an
earthquake.
Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an
extensive empire.
Gallus put to death by Constantius.
Constantius dies at Tarsus.
A disadvantageous peace with the Persians.
EASTERN EMPIRE
extending from the lower Danube to the con-
fines of Persia.
340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and
killed by Constans at Aqullea.
350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius.
357. Six German kmgs defeated by Julian at
Strasburg.
361.— Julian, the Apostate, ^J
—attempts in vain to rebuild the temple
at Jerusalem.
363. —is slain in a war with the Persians.
J o V
364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of
Valentinian and Valens, under whom the
ExMPIRE is DIVIDED :
WESTERN EMPIRE,
extending from the Caledonian rampartl
to the fo^ of Mount Atlas.
60
THE world's progress.
[Modern: Period II. — 170 ycary
Progress of Society, etc.
380
392
412
425
435
Attrelius Victor, author of lives of celebrated
Romans.
Prudentius and Ausontus, Latin poets;
Pappus and Theoii, of Alexandria, mathe-
maticians.
Claudian, Latin poet.
Macrobius, Platonic philosopher.
Theodosius establishes public schools, and at-
tempts the restoration of learning.
Tile Theodosian code published.
Ecclesiastical.
373. The Bible translatea into the Gothic Ian
guage.
379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much
enlarged.
381. The .second general Council of Constan-
tinople.
334. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate
for Paganism against St. Ambrose.
385. Pope Syricius.
392. St. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constan
tinople; Si. .4wi?-ose, archbishop of Milan ;
St. Jerome, St. Mai-tin, and St. Augustine,
' Christian Fathers.'
Image worship.— The Christian hier-
archy begins.
101. Pope Innocent
412. Cyn7, bishop of Alexandria ; Isidore ani
/Socra/es, ecclesiastical historians; Orosiua,
a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine; ana
Pelugius, a British monk, who denied origi-
nal sin, &c.
41(5. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the
African bishops.
417. Pope Zozimus.
418. Pope Boniface L
422. Pope Celestine
429. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, ao
knowledges two persons in Jesus Christ.
431. Third general Council at Ephesus.
432. Pope Sixtus III.
St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in Ira
land.
435. Nestorianism prevails in the East.
440. Pope Leo I. (the Great).
443. The Manichczan books burned at Rom«
415. Flavian, patriarch of Constan tinopla,
■From Constantine to Odoacer.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
61
364
376
378
379
Eastekn Empire.
V al e ns
#-
333
392
394
103
i20
IIUNGAR Y, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by
the Huns, I'rom whom it is named. — The
Goths expelled by ihe Huns, are allowed by
Valens lo settle in Thrace.
Valeria defeated and slain by the. Goths near
Adrianople.
Theodosius the Great
a zealous supporter of Chrisnanuy.
Theodosius defeats Maxiraus,the tyrant of the
western empire.
Western Empire.
3G4. Valentinian 1. ^ «
elected by the army.
3G8. The Saxons invade Britain, but are de-
feated by Theodosius.
375.-
G r a t i an
gains a victory over the Germans ; p-ic-
ceeds to ihe eastern empire on the death ol
Valens; Maximus is proclaimed emperor.
— Gratian killed at Lyons.
379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandina-
via, and defeat the Vandals.
383. Valentinian II. W — :
— is dispossessed by Maximus, but is re-
stoied by Theodosius; makes Treves his
capital.
384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a
Gaul, commander of the army.
Theodo sius
becomes sole emperor of the East and West.
Complete down fall of Pnganism.
Theodosius defeats Eugeaius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul.
Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius.
A r c a d i u 3 .
-Theodtjsius 11.^^ —
a child ; Aihenius, minister.
Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria.
Persian War.
Armenia divided between the Persians and
Romans.
A great part of Constantinople destroyed by
fire.
Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained from
the western empire.
H 0 n 0 r i u s
101. Europe overrun by the ^TSIGOTHS.
403. Alaric defeated by Siillicho.
406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain,
Gaul, &c.
410. Rome sacked and burned by the Gotha
under Alaric.
412 Beainning of the Vandal power in Spain.
413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace.
414. The'Visigoths plant themselves in Tou-
louse.
417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by
the Goths.
420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their
first king, on the lower Rhine.
424. — Valentinian III . W
426. Britain evacuated by the Romans.
427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns.
423. ^tius, the Roman general, defeated bj
the Franks and Goths.
Franks :— Clodion, king, extends his con
quests to the river Somme.
433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," fornxf
an immense empire from China to the At-
lantic.
437. iEtius defeats the Goths.
439. The kingdom of the Vandals in
Africa, under G e n s e r i c , who
takes Carthage and plunders Italy.
441. The Roman territories invaded bj the
Huns, Persians and Saxons.
445. The famous embassy from Britain, BOli«
citing aid against the Picts.
62
THE world's progress. [Modem : Period IL-^170 years.
iSO
Pkoorcss of Societv, etc.
Zozimua and OJi/mpiodorus, Greek
nans.
histo-
ms
476
Tlie principle established that every accused
person shall be tried by his peers, or equals.
Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain— Eric
being king, and founder of the Gothic nio
narchy.
The tottering empire of the west was finally
overtlirown by Odoacer's sack ^f R,ome, the
great event which precedes the i/iiddle or
'■'•dark ages." The form of the old
Roman government remained — the senate,
the consuls, &c.— but Italy, ravaged by
succession of wars, plagues, famines, and
every form of public tyran-v and domestic
slavery, was nearly a desert
Ecclesiastical.
447. Eutychrs asserts the existence of only
one nature in Jesus Christ.
449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa ; and Eusebius,
bishop of Doryieum, deposed.
450. S'ozoinen and U'/ieodorei, ecclesiastical
hi.<torians.
451. The fourth general Council at Chalcedon,
at wliich Eutycheanism and Nestorianisoi
are solemnly condemned.
461. Pope Hilarius. *
405. Pope Simplicius,
Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Con
stantinople, Alexandria. Antiocii, and JerU'
saleni — all striving for the supremacy,—
The church now beguis to assume a poJisi
cal aspect.
— From Constantine to Odcaccr.]
THE world's progress.
ca
UP. I
EASTi:iiN Empire.
150
157
461
m
475
M a r ci an ,'
a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual
tribute to the Huns.
Western Empire.
— Leo
(the Thracian,)
first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch.
War with the Goths.
Peace witli the Goths ; Theodoric is received
from them as a hostage.
Z e n o ,
turbulent reign : debaucheries and conspi-
racies.
Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths,
and invades the empire. He ravages
Thrace.
448. Franks :— Merovceus 1st, king of the Me-
rovingians.
.^tius defeats the Huns.
451. The arrival of the Saxon*
in Britain, under Hengist and Horsst
452. The city of VENICE founded.
455, Valentinian assassinated by
Petronius Maximus.^J
A V i t u s . %M ■ —
4.57.—
458. Franks :
Majorian. ^'
Chiltleric I., conquers as far
as the Loire and takes Paris
-Severus
A t h e n I u s
(The last three emperors slain by
Ricimer.)
468- Spain :— The Visigoths, under Eric, esta
blish their kingdom. "
472.-
Olybiu
Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan-
tinople.
473. Glycerius.^
474. Julius Nepos,
475.— Romulus Augustulus. ^^
476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king o<
the Herulii :
END of the WESTERN EMPIRE.
1228 years after the building of Rome ; and
commencement of the kingdom cf Italy un-
der Odoacer.
64
THE world's progress.
MODERN : PERIOD III.— 146 v<^ars
4a}
493
493
501
511
516
529
53.3
Proguess of Society, etc.
Rise of the J'euda! system in France^ under
Clovis.
Theoiloric introduces the architecture of
Greece to improve the buildings of Italy.
Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba-
bylon.
Burgundian laws published, beinsr a. collec-
tion of the rights and customs of the Bur-
gundians.
The Salic law established in France.
Boethius^ the Roman poet and philosopher.
Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan-
tinople.
T/ie Christian Era proposed a7id introduced
by Dionysius, a monk.
The schools of Athens suppressed.
The fables of Pilpay translated into Persian.
Chess introduced into Persia from India.
Justinian's pandeds and code of laws.
Architecture : the church of St Sophia \ uilt
at Constantinople.
Froelus, a learned Platonisi.
Ecclesiastical.
483. Pope Felix III.
—excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of
Cons(aniinoi)le.
484. Christians persecuted by Iluneric, kiiij
of the Vandals.
492. Pope Ge.asius L
494. The Roman Pontiff maaerta his auprt
macy.
496. Cnristianity introduced into France.
513. Christianity embraced by the Peraiai
kinsf, Carbades.
514. Pope Ilormisdaa.
519. The orthodox bishops restored by Justin
523. Pope .John I.
525. The Avian bishops deposed.
526. Pope Felix IV.
Extreme Unction introduced.
529. The Order of Benedictine monks ir
stituted at Mon'e Cassino, near Naples.
530. Pope Boniface II.
533. Pope John II.
535. Pope Agapetus.
536. " Sylvester I.
Separation of the Armenians from the (J lea*
church.
533. Pof e Vigilins.
THE world's progress. 65
■Odcacer U Mahomet. [The ^'Middle or Dark Ages" begin here.]
480
481
491
518
518-
665
527
529
Eastern Empire.
An earthquake, lasting 40 clays, destroys the
greater part of" Constantinople.
Zeno makes Theodoric general and consul.
Anastasius I,
The Green and Blue factions.
The emperor's persecuiion of the Catho
lies, and jjrotectlon of the Manichseans, oc
casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus.
The empire ravaged and the imperial army
destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia.
Long walls built to protect Constantinople
from the Bulgarians.
A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000
killed.
Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose
fleet is consumed "by the burning glass of
Proclus.
Anastasius killed by lightning.
-Justin I. ,W-
, peasant of Dalmati
Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire.
Justinian
celebrated fo'r his code of laws and the
victories of his generals, Belisarius
and Narses.
Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos-
roes.
—quells a conspiracy in Constantinople.
—defeats the Vandals in Africa,
—subdues Sicily.
— takes Naples.
Rome, defeats the Ostrogroths in
— takes
Italy.
—the Huns in Thrace, and
Europe, generally.
481. FRANCE :-C 1 o v i s I . ,^
of the French monarchy.
foundef
484. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in Spain.
485. France :— Battle of SoissoDB
gained by Clovis.
487. Britain : — The Saxons defeated by PrinoB
Arthur and Ambrosius.
490 : — Iialy : — ravaged by the barbarians.
Britain : — kingdom of Sussex.
491. France :— Clovis subdues Thuringia.
493. Italy :— c onquered by Theo-
d 0 r i c , king of the Qstrogoths.— Odoa-
cer put to death.
499. France :— Clovis concludes a peace with
Theodoric in Italy.
500. Burgundy becomes his tributary.
507.
-Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers.
510. France :— Clovis makes Paris his capital,
511. France :— Clovis dies.
-C h i 1 d e b e r t
512. The HERULIl settle in Tluace.
516. The Christian Era adopted.
517. Getae ravages Illyricum, Macedon, &c.
519. Britain :— Prince Arthur defeated a1
Charford by Cerdic, who begins the third
Saxon kingdom of Wessex.
522. Spain :— Amalaric. the first Gotiiic kir.g,
who establishes his court in Spain— his capi-
tal, Seville.
5.30. Britain :— kingdom of Essex.
531. Spain: — Theudis succeeds Amalaric
532. Burgundy conquered by Childeber.
536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogroths, surrea.
ders his possessions in Gaul'to the Frer*«H>
king.
537. Italy conquered by Belisarius.
66
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Modern : Period ///.— 146 years.
Progress of Society, etc.
661
559
655
584
53e
583
The mamtfacture of silk introduced from
China by the monks.
Prncopius, a Roman historian— the last of the
cla-;sic writer?.
The Saxon laws ; the king's authority limit-
ed by the Wittenagenijt.
Three orders ; the noble, the free, and the
servile. — Trial by ordeal.
Christianity mtroduced among the Picts by
Columbi.
The old Roman municipal system in Italy
overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards
— and the feudal system established.
Written laws compiled among the nations of
German origin— first by the Visigoths in
Spain.
Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi-
tecture of churches, with much grotesque
sculpture.
The Latin language ceases to be spoken in
Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in
Spain.
The origin of fiefs.
The Roman Catholic faith established in
Spain.
Gregory of Tours, the father of French his-
tory.
Bretwalda, king of England, converted to
Christianity.
AscathiLS. a Grecian historian.
G'ildas, the first British historian.
Evagrias. ecclesiastical historian. — Cassiodo-
rus, the liistorian of Ravenna, tutor to
Theodoric.
The Saxons, having conquered England, it
relapseil, in a great measure, into the state
of barbarism, from which it had been par-
tiilly raised by the Romans,
Ecclesiastical.
10. The Monothelites, who acknowledged
but one will in Jesus Christ.
552. The Fifth general Council at Constant!
nople
555. Pc
*ope Pelagius I.
557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, built
at Paris.
560. Pope .John III.
The Tritheisls acknowledge three Goda,
and deny the resurrection.
573. Pope Benedict I.
575. The first monastery founded in BavarUt.
Grea t increase of miracles.
578. Pope Pelagius II.
590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great.
The doctrfne of purgatory first t&ught.-
Mass introduced.
598. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can-
terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain.
604. Pope Sabianus, or Siihinian.
606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head
of the church by Phocas. — The title of Uni-
versal Bishop assumed.
The Waldenses refuse submission to
Rome
"^-From Odoacer to Mahomet.']
THE world's progress.
67
540
542
549
550
Eastern Empire.
570-
buu
Vitiges at Ravenna. — North Africa, Cor-
sica, and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern
empire.
Plague at Constantinople — during three
months from 5,0U0 to 1U,000 die daily.
The Lombards settle in Pannonia. — The
Turkish monarchy founded in Asia.
Siege of Petra.
Narses defeats and kills Totila.
Italy governed by Greek exarchs.
A plague extending over Europe and Asia,
and lasting nearly 50 years.
Belisarius disgraced by Justinian.
" restored : — lie quells a conspiracy.
Great fire in Constantinople — the city nearly
destroyed.
Justinian dies.
Justin 11.^
Belisarius dies in prison.
The TURKS first mentioned in history.—
They send embassies to Justin, and form
ai) alliance.
Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov-
ernment.
Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia.
•Tiberius 11.^
Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his
reign the empire extends to ihe Araxes, and
almost 10 the Caspian Sea.
The Avars flourish under Baian— invade the
Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary,
Poland, and Prussia.
002
— P h o c a s, ^^ — a centurion, elected kinj
The empire invadoJ by the Persians.
Europe, generally.
539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence.
The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths.
542. Britain :— Prince Arthur murdered in
Cornwall.
550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first
duke and legislator. His brother, Zech,
first duke of Bohemia.
The Greeks form settlements on tba
Spanish coast, -from the Straits to Valencia.
556. Civil wars in France.
558. France :— C 1 o t a i r e I . ^
559. Britain :— the Saxon Heptar-
chy commences.
560. Britain:— the kingdom of Northumbrian
formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira.
— Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues meet ol
the Saxon kings.
5eL France :— C haribert I.^
565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence.
568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, uadei
Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia.
571. Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex.
575. " East Anglia formed into a king-
dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori-
gin of the name England.
583. Spain :— the Suevi subdued by the Visi-
goths.
France :— C 1 o t a i r e II . @
586. Britain :— the kinerdom of Mercia founded.
Spain :— Recareil, king.
.588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire.
589. Rome inundated by the Tibor.
591. Britain:— Ethelbert, kins: of Kent, gains
the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda
III.
Italy:— the Lombards, under Authans,
successful asainst the Greeks and Franks,
.'jgs. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded by
the Sclavonians.
596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgur dy.
597. Britain:— Christianity introduced by St.
Aueustine.
600. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians.
607. Britain:— Supremacy of the Popei se
knowledged.
THE world's progress. [Modem : Period III— 14.6 yean
Progress op Society, etc.
The aristocracy acquire great power in
France, somewhat resirained by the mayors
of the palace.
Rites aiul superstitions increase in all Europe.
— Relics fioi\g\n for, and worshi|)ped. — Lita-
nies atiih-essed to the F/;-^/n.— The burning
of cand es liy day. — Exorcisjns, &c.
Hereditary fiefs. — Aristocratic class.
Srcundus, historian of the Lombards.
Eihelbert publishes the first code of latcs
England.
Ecclesiastical.
606. Pope Boniface IIL
607. Pope Boniface IV.
The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to Goo,
the Virgin, and the Saints.
609. The Christians massacred by the Jewe »«
Antioch.
618. Pope Boniface V.
MODERN: PERIOD IV.— 178 7/mrs.
Progress of Society, etc.
Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and
philosopher.
Islamism, and the power of the Caliphs esta-
blished in the East. In the Caliphs were
united the highest spiritual and regal autho-
rity.
Christianity introduced into China.
In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti-
cal'arcliitectnre ; circular arches intro-
duced; churches built, at Canterbury, Glas-
tonbury, St. Alban-!, Winchester, <fec.
In civil architecture, forts and castles — Conis-
borouah Castle in Yorkshire; Castletown
in Derbyshire, &c.
University of Cambridge founded.
Some of the monasteries of Europe continue
t) be the repositories of learning and the
a'ts.
Cel bacy "if the clergy enjoined>
Ecclesiastical.
625. Pope Honorius I. He had a taste for
splendid cathedrals and processions.
Monks and monasteries increase.
Africa and Asia, with the churches of
Jcru=!.vlem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to
the Chrisiiaj. world by the progress of Mo-
hammedanism.
640. Pope Severinua.
6iO. Pope John IV.
642. Pope Theodorus. He assumes the title
of "Sovereign PontifT."
644. Pope Martin I. He ordains celibacy of
the clergy.
Separation between the Greek and ■
Roman churches.
654. Pope Eugenius.
657. Pope Vitalian. He established the uni-
versal use of the Latin lunguaga irj the
service of the church.
672. Pope Adeodatus.
— From Odoacer to Mahomet.]
THE world's progress.
69
610
Cli2
C14
61S
Eastern Empire.
Ileraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas,
and makes himself" kins.
MAHO.MET publishej his Koran.
Syria ravaged by the Arabs.
Jerusalem taken by the Persians.
Constantinople taken and pillaged by the
Avari.
Europe, generally.
604. Britain :— St. Paul's Church founded by
Ethelbert, king oi" Kent.
612. Britain:— Ethelfrith, king of Northum'
bria, defeats the Britons, and destroys the
monastery of Bangor.
615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna.
617. Britain: — St. Peter's (now Wesimi.iste
Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent.
Britain:— Breiwald IV,
-From Mahomet to Charlemagne.
[Dark Ages, contimied.\
022
632
Eastern Empire, Asia, &c.
TheHEGIRA; or Mahomet's Flight from
Mecca to Medina.
Era of the Mahometans.
HeraclijUb defeats the Persians under Chos-
roes.
Death of Mahomet.
A b u b e k e r succeeds him as caliph of the
Saracens.
Omar, caliph.
" takes .Jerusalem, which is held
by the Saracens 46-3 years.
Omar takes Alexandria, and destroys
another famous library.
Constantine III,
C o n s t a n s II. ,^
(11 years of age.)
The Saracens become masters of Africa and
Cyprus.
The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the
Colossus.
Persia becomes a part of the empire of the
Caliphs.
The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by
agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly.
CorTstans goes to Rome, and plunders the
Treasury.
Mjawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi-
tal.
Constantine IV. ^^invades Sicily.
Grand Cairo founded.
Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens,
whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of
Callinicus. The caliph compelled to pur-
chase a peace of thirty years, by paying a
yearly tribute.
Europe, generally.
62S. France .---D a g o b e r t I . ^ He
builds the church of St. Deny, the burial
place of the French kings.
631. Samo, a merchant "of France, makes
himself king of Bohemia.
633. Britain: — Bretwald V.; he embraces
Christianity.
634. Britain :— Bretwald VL
6.38. France — C 1 o v i s II .^5 years old.
The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (ISyeara
old,) being king of Austrasia.
642. Britain:— Bretwald Vn.
644. Britain: — The University of Cambridga
founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia.
650. Britain: — Mercia converted to Claris-
tianity.
656. Franpe :— C lotaire III. ft
France :— C h i 1 d e ri c
663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald, duke
of Beneventura.
672. The Saracens driven from Spain, bf
Wamba^ king of the Goths.
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Modern : Period IV. .178 years.
Progress of Society, etc.
Stone bicit(li?igs and glass come into use in
England.
The abbey of Whiiby, and the monastery of
Gillini rounded.
The A)iglu- Saxons advance in civilization
and power, by the introduction of Chris-
tianity.
In France, the Teutonic language supersedes
the Laiin. — National assemblies established,
lliough confined to the aristocracy.
In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to
the MohammedaM.
Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain.
Julian, of Toledo, historian and moralist.
The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian.
A king first elected in Poland.
AdheJin, the first British writer in prose and
verse.
Sclavunian republics in Bohemia.
Christianity greatly extended among the Ger-
man nations and other people in the north
of Europe; but almost exterminated in
Africa, by the progress of Mohammedan-
ism
The art of making paper brought from i
marcand by the Arabs.
George Si/ncellus, a Grecian chronologist.
Glastonbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina.
Ecclesiastical.
676. Pope Domnus.
The popes become indeper ilent of tha
Greek emperor.
679. Pope Agatho.
630 The sixth general Council at Constantino-
ple, called by the emperor Ccustantine, who
pres;iiles.
682. Pope Leo II. He usurps tha right of ia«
vesiiiure.
684. Pope Benedict II.
(3S5.
" .lohn V.
636.
" Conon.
687.
" Sergius.
701. Popt;.IohnVL
704. The tir-;t provmce given to the pope.
70.5. Pope .John VII.
Sissiniiis (20 daya).
Constantine.
711. Custom of kissing the Pope's foot intr»
duced.
714. Pope Gregory IL
Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to pnv
•cure the assassination of the Pope. The
Romans defend Mm.
—From Mahomet to Charlemagne.']
THE world's progress.
7\
68C
0^3
68-1
685
705
709
711
/13
714
ri6
Eastern Empire, Asia, «fcc.
The kingdom of Bulgaria founded.
Yezid, Ctiliph of the Saracens.
Moawiah II., caliph.
Abdallah, caJiph.
Justinian II. ^"
Abdulmelek, calipli. He (iiscuniiiiiies the
tribute to the Greek emperor
.Justinian II. deposed, and his nose cut ofT by
I.eoniiius, who is also deposed by
Absinierus Tiberius.
Aniienia and ihe provinces between the Black
and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul-
melelc.
Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa
completely subjugated.
lustinian II. restored.
Syria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain.
Africa subdued by the Saracens.
Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes.
who reigns under the name of" Philippicus.
-Anastasius II .^
Theodosius III. ^ pro-
claimed by the revolted army ot Anastasius.
— Leo III., (the Isaurian,) ^ son
of a shoemaker.
Europe, generally.
673. France :— T h i e r r y I . '^
675. Spain: — Wamba gains a naval victory
over the Arabs, who attempt to invade hia
kingdom.
682. Spain: — Wamba abdicates and tursfl
monk.
690. France :— P epin d'HeristeJ ,^
mayor of the Palace and duke of AustrasiOj
aefeais Thierry, and becomes king.
691. France :— C 1 o v i s III . W ■
695.
— Childebert II
698. Poland :— Cracow founded. — An elective
monarchy established.
Venice : — Luc Auafetto, first Doge.
700. Britain:— Anglo-Saxon Octarchy.
France :— Aquiiaine, Burgundy and Pro»
vence become separate dukedoms.
705. Britain:— Alfred the Wise, in North-
umbria.
710. Spain : — R o d e r i c , king, ^ (the
last of ihe Goths.)
711. France :— D a g o b e r t
713. Spain conquered by the
Saracens under Muca. By the mar-
riage of Abdallah, the Moor, with the'triddw
of the Gothic king, the two nations ara
united in interest.
714. France : — Charles Martel, duke of Aus-
trasia.
715. France:
716. Britain;
-Childeric II. W~
-Ethelbaid, king of Mercia.
718. Spain :— Pelagius founds the kingdom 94
Asturias.
720. France :— T h 1 e r r y II .^—
THE world's progress.
[Moder7i: Period IV.— 118 years
793
Progress of Society, etc.
Increasing
jjower,
epiiitual
aiul
temporal
of ilie
Popes.
Dark
period
of
European
J^ieraiure.
Winifred, an Ans:lo-Saxon, preaches the gos
f el to ilie Prisons.
The vep.orable Beiie dies— a grammarian, phi
losoplicr, historian, and tlieningian.
The AbassiJae, caliphs of the baracens, en
courage learning.
Fredegaire, a French historian.
Virgilius.ti priest, is condemned as a heretic,
for believing in the existence of antipodes.
An organ sent by Constantine to France.
John of Damascus, a founder of the scholas-
tic philosophy.
Fredegaire continues the history of Gregory
of Tours.
The schools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria,
Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas-
sidae caliphs.
Ignorance, profligacy, and miseiy, character-
ized the age preceding Charlemagne.
The first palm-tree planted in Spain.
Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the
caliph Harounal Raschid.
Pleadings in courts of justice first practised.
Foundation of schools in monasteries and
cathedrals, by Charlemagne.
The Gregorian chant.
The Synod of Frankfort.
George, the m.3nk.
Ecclesiastical.
726. Image worship being forbidden by th«
emperor Leo, causes great disturbance.
7"27. Petei's pe7ice tirst collected in England.
723. Leo orders the pope to be seized.
730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor.
The Iconoclasts, or image breakers.
73L Pope Gregory III.
736. The images throughout the empire de-
stroyed by order of the emperor.
Monks persecuted.
74L Pope Zachary.
752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king of
France, by a papal decree.
752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lom-
bards, assisted by Pepin.
754. —he journeys to Pepin to implore his
protection.
755. Commencement of the Pope's
temporal power under the auspices
of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex-
archate of Ravenna.
757. Pope Paul I.
768. Stephen IV.
769. Council of the Lateran.
770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the
emperor.
772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias-
tical state is conferred by Charlemagne.
779. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char-
lemagne, for the support of the clergy,
churches, schools, and the poor.
785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by
Charlemagne.
787. The seventh general Council at Nice, m
which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was
condemned.
794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagne for
confirmation.
Masses said for money.
'—Fi07ii Mahomet to Charlemagne.
THE world's progress.
73
741
74G
?62
766
774
775
Easteen Empire, Asia, «fcc.
The Arabs invest Constantinople by laml with
1-U,QUU men, ami by sea wiih 1800 ships.
The city is saveil by the Greek tire — the
Arab fleet being almost entirely desti-oyed.
Leo confiscates Calabria aniJ Sicily.
The Greek possessions in Italy are lost ir cor-
scqiience ol" the edict nrbidding image woi-
shiii.
Constantino V. (Copronymus).
The Arabs defeated by Constantine.— Rhodes ;
Cyprus, and Antioch captured.
Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdad! and makes
it his capital.
Asia Minor ravaged by the Turka
Great victory over the Bulgarians.
L 6 0 IT . W
Constantine VI. (Porphyrogenetus).^g
Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship.
The empire is invaded by H a r o u n a 1
K a s c h i d , caliph of Bagdad.
Constantine imprisoiis liis K».other, Irene, for
her cruelty.
Irene ^g, puts him to deatli,
and assumes the s )le power.
— proposes to marry Charlemagne
— is dethroned by Nicephoius."
The Saracens ravage Thrace.
Europe, generally.
725. France :— Charles Martel grosses the
Rhine, and subdues Bavaria.
727. Britain :— Ina, king of Wessex, begins the
lax called Peter's pence, to support a col-
lege at Rome.
732. France :— Charles Martel gains a great
victory over the Saracens near Tours.
740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re.
covered by the Poi>e.
742. France :-C h i I d e r i c III. W
752. France :— End of the Merovingian line
of French kings.
P epin le Bref ,^^
first of the Carlovingian line.
753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large
army against the Lombards.
Italy : — Raveraia a dukedom.
756. Spain :— Separated from the Caliphate
Abderhama.
761. Spain :—Froila, grandson of Pelagius,
builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of liia
kingdom.
1^^. France:— CHAR I-EMAGNE, or Charles
the Great, reigns with his brother, Carlo-
man, until 771."
774. Charlemaerne invades Italy; defeats
Didier, king "of Lombardy, and annexes
Iialv to his empire.
End of the Lombard king-
(lorn. , ^ J
778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated
at Roricesvalles,
779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia,
and the Saxons.
Charlemagne conquers the Ayari.
— attempts to unite the Rhine and the
Danube.
787. Britain :— First recorded invasion of th«
Danes :— The Sea Kings and Vikings.
794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns.
Sweden conquered by Iva Viafama
74
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
PERIOD. Y.— The Middle Ages.~2m yean
4.fl. " Pro3i7gs5 op Society.
Ecclesiastical.
Agriculture and horticul-
ture en;-onra"ed by Charle-
ma^;iie ; buih flourish in
Spain under ihe caliplis.
Gold mines worked in Spain.
801 Paul Warc/redus (Diaconus)
I he historian.
Ilaroun al Ka^chid, courting
hi-5 alliance, pre.senisCharle-
maizne wiih usfriking cluck.
Tliis clock was adorned with
auiotn.itun figure-', which
niDveil anil played on va-
rious musical instruments.
Fine Arabian breed of horses
introduced into Sjjain.
Alcuin, of York, a pupil of
iieAe, tbrm-^s^chiiols at Tours
—patronized by Ciiarle-
magne.
Transient revival of learning
under Charlemagne.
Eginhard, historian, secre-
tary to Charlemairne.
The reign of Mamun (caliph)
is regarded as the Augustine
age of Arabian literature.
St. Mark's Church at Venice
built.
Turpin, archbishop, to whom
is attribuied the famous
•' De Vila Carol Magni et
Rolandi."
800. The Pope separates from
the Eaalern Einpire, and
becomes supreme Bishop of
the Western.
Charlemagne reforms the
church.
Many bishoprics founded.
— Great increase of monastic
institutions.
813. Insurrection at
against the pope.
Rome
SI 6. Pope Stephen V.
817. " Paschal I.
The College of Cardinals
founded.
824. Pope Eugenius II.
Christianity in Denmark
and Sweden.
827. Pope Valentine.
H28. " Gregory IV.
Missionaries sent from
France to Sweden.
831. Paschasius Radbertus, a
monk of Corbey, father of
the doctrine of transub-
stantiation. This doctrine
disowned by the English
Church.
Ratramus and Scotus Eri-
ge7ia, theologians, holding
much the satxie opinions as
Luther.
New Western Empire.
800. NEW EMPIRE of tha
WEST founded by Chaile-
magne. who is crowntJ at
Rome, by the pope, king of
Italy, Germany, and France
802. Charlemagne receives an
embassy from Nicepliorus
and from Ilaroun al Ras-
chid.
806. Charlemagne di-
vides the empire be-
tween his three sons.
8U3. First descent of the NOR
MANS upon France.
81-3. Charlemagne dies, Jan.
814. Louis I. ^ .
(Dcbonaire) an inglorious
and turbulent reign.
817. Louis divides the empire
between his three sons.
0. Invasion of the Normans.
8-33. Lothaire, a fourth son of
Louis, associated in the gov-
ernment.
840. — L o thai r e .'
811. —defeated by his brothers,
Louis and Charles, in the
battle of Fontenoy.
Division oi the empire.
France:— Charles I.^
(the Bald).
Ger. :— L o u i s I . ^^
— surnamed the Ger-
Italy :— L o t h a i r e ^
with imperial dignity.
The Normans plunder
Rouen, and advance to Pari*
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
(a. D. 800-1056.) — Charhmagne to William the Conqueror.
75
A..D.
Eastern Empire.
Engla.nd.
The VVoRtD, elsewhere
801. DENMARK becom» a
kingdom under Goiricus
8U2
— N i c e p h 0 r 11 s .^ —
803
The Scirac.ens ravage Asia
Minor. CHpture CyiM-us, and
compel Jsiceplioriis to pay a
tiibuie.
811
Michael I. W
(Caropaltes) ; at war with
the Bulgari.
T f. 0 Y ^^ /.Up
813
813. Eebert, king of Wessex,
Armenian).
defeats the Britons.
816
Earthquakes, famine, fire, &c.
ravage the empire.
818. Al Mamun (caliph) a pa-
tron of iefirnins.
Michael II-W
820. First dismemberment of
821
the Arabian monarchy. The
(Balbus or the Stammerer).
dynasty of the Taherites
822
Con:?tHniinople besie^ei! by
founded at Khorassan.
the Saracens. The' Bulga-
826. The Danish prince, Ha-
rians raise the siege. The
rold, is baptized at Ingel-
Saracens obtain possession
heim.
of Crete, and name it Can-
dia.
— ^T h e 0 p h il u s . ^ —
827. The seven king-
doms of the Hep-
829
tarchy un ited by Eg-
bert,king ofWessex,
under the name of ENG-
833. Motassim, caliph. He
LAND, or the Land of the
builds Saumora, which ha
Angles.
makes the seat ;f go-er>
E g b e r t . W
ment.
Invasion of the Danes.
838. -E thel wolf,ft—
.-Michael III. #—
B42
a weak prince.
Scotland :— Kenneth, king
(the Drunkard).
of the Scots, defeats and ex-
tirpates the Picts. and be-
comes sole monarch.
The Danes return, and
ravage the country unmo-
lested, and burn the city of
London.
Ethelwolf makes a pilgri-
mage to Rome.
76 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years.
A.D.
Piiooiissa OK Society.
ECCLKSIASTIOAL.
FRANCii, Spain, Germany.
814. P.)pe Sergius III. {Bucca
Purti).
The aristocratic F'eudd sys-
Ignatius, patriarch of
tem in p.'l its power. Here-
Ciinsianiinople.
dilurij udbilili/, which, wirh
Persecuiion of the Chris-
the cler^ry, was tiie di)ini-
tians in Spain.
naiu order in ihe .^^laie.
&i7. Pope Leo IV.
The baroiis independent of
the king. Gr.nlual iniro-
850. Christianity propagated
duciiim of the Human and
by Anschariu.s in Denmark
Zjmmon law.
and Sweden.
830. Poi)e Benedict III.
855. Lothario retires to a mo
na.-itery and dies.
New ilivi-sionof the em-
pire at Mersen.
850. Germ.:— Louis II.*^
has Italy with the na-
perial dignity.
—establishes his court at
Pavia.
First inciosure of lands at
858. Pope Nicholas I.
858. Fiance invaded by Louis
Spaldin-,'. where Ricliard de
Fi rst c(»ronation of a pope.
the German, who is finally
Rnle? does much lo improve
859. Eulogius, archbishop of
compelled to retire.
agriculture.
Cunktva, martyred.
8G0. The schism of the Greeks
begins.
864. The Bible translated into
Slavonian
867. Pope Adrian II.
Sih Council at Constan-
tinople — Photius, patriarch
868. Lorraine armexed to
of Constantinople, deposed.
France.
872
Clocks brought to Constanti-
nople Iroin Venice.
872. Pope John VIII.
The Faroe Isles, and Iceland
'
877. Fr.:-Louis 11.^-
discovered in this cemury.
(the Stammerer).
879. L 0 u i s III. and
CarlGma*!!^
882. Pope Martin H.
reign jointly.
884. « Adrian m.
884. France:— Char les§
the Fat, an usurper.
885. « Stephen VL
885. Paris besieged by the
Normans; gallantly defend-
ed by archbishop Goslin.
886. Charles makes a disgrace-
ful peace with the Normans.
887. Germany : — A mold,
emperor,^ (the im-
perial dignity transferred
irom France to Germany).
888. France :— E u d « » ts -
— Charlemagne to William /.]
THE world's progress.
77
&44
861
Eastern Empire.
Decline of the Caliphate be-
gins.—Jews ami Clnistians
persecu led.— Frequent wars
between the Greeks and Sa-
racens.
B a z i 1 I . ^
(the Macedonian), defeats
the Saracens.
Crete and the Sicilies reco-
vered from the Arabs.
Ea''il commences the Mace-
donian dynasty.
Publication of the Basilica.
Leo VI
(tHe philosophet
England.
&49. Alfred the Great, born.
832. Ethelwolf defeats the
Danes in the Isle of Thanet.
857. Ethel bald and Ethel-
fa e r t ^g— reign jointly : —
increase ihe influence of the
clergy.
866. -E t h e 1 r e d . W
867. The Danes conquer Nor
thumberland.
872. Alfred the Great'
defeats the Danes.
879. Alfred abandoned by his
subjects, retires to the Isle of
Athelney, but soon draws
togeiher his friends and con-
quers the Danes.
The World, elsewhere.
845. The Normans plunder
Haniburg, and penetrate into
Germany.
846. The Saracens destroy the
Venetian fleet, and besiege
Rome.
849. —defeated by the Pope's
allies.
851. Sardinia and Corsica ra-
vaged by the Saracens.
856. The coasts of Holland
plundered by the Normans.
860. Gorm the Elder, (descend-
ed from Qilin.) unites Jut-
land and the Danish Isles,
and becomes king of Den-
mark.
861. Iceland discovered by the
Noinuins.
862. RUSSIA: — Ruric, first
grand Prince, builds the city
of Lagoda.
863. Esypt throws off its de-
pendence on the caliphs, un-
der Ahmed.
874. Iceland, a republic, found-
ed by the Normans.
875. NORWAY : — Harold
Harfrage, first king.
Qclo. The Scythians seize Uro«
atia.
889. Hungary : — Arpad lay«
the foimdation of the king-
dom.
78 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years.
k.D. PROQRfiSS OF SOCIETY.
Oxford University founil-
eJ. — AlCred the Greai e.sia-
blislies A regular militia
ami ncivi/, ami ihe mode ol
trial by Jury ; insi i i u i es fairs
ami markets. — Johannes
Scolus JtJrigena, a learned
philosophical writer.
ft'O England divided into coun-
ties, hundreds, and tithings.
The county courts, held
inonilily, become the great
siilcLMiard oT the civil rights
of Lhi-'lisjimen.
Ilnm troops substituted for
the feudal.
933
rhe University of Cam-
bridge founded.
The Anglo Saxon monarchy
rises into importance.
Azophi, Arabian astronomer.
Printing invented among the
Chinese (1)
Cordova, in Spain, becomes
the seat of Arab learning,
science, industry, and com-
merce. Its celebrated schools
of sjcomeiry. astronomy, che-
mistry and medicinej toge-
ther with its equally cele-
brated poets and philoso-
phers, render it famous
throughout the world.
Luitprand, the historian.
Mints established iii Kent or
Wesse:£.
Ecclesiastical.
891. Pope Formosus.
896. " Boniface VI.
" S:ephen VII.
898. " .lohn IX.
Veneration for saints and
a passion for relics prevail.
900. Pope Benedict IV.
903. « Leo V.
905. « Sergius III.
912. The Normans in France
embrace Christianity.
914. Pope John X.
921. The Bohemians embrace
Christianity.
928. Pope Leo VI
929. " Stephen VIII.
Eudes, monk of Cluni.
931. Pope .lohn XI.
Mere children elevated to
the highest offices in the
church.
936. Pope Leo VII.
939. « S:ephen IX.
943. Pope Martin III.
France. Germany, &c.
890. Arnold, emperor of Ger-
many, takes Rome.
38.Fr.:-CharlesIII.^
(the Simple).
39. Ger.:— Louis III.^
Invasion of the Hunga-
rians.
Contests between the no •
bles and bishops
912. France :— R o b e r t , duke
of Normandy.
The Normans, under
R 0 1 1 o , establish them-
selves in Normandy.
Ger. :— Conrad I.^f
(the enipire becomes
elective).
919 Ger. :— Henry I.'^—
(the Fowler), fiist of the
Saxon line.
921. France :— Robert I. de-
feated and killed by hia
brother at Soissons.
923. Fiance:— Rudolph elect-
ed duke.
Italy: — Hugo, count o(
Provence, oppresses the aris-
tocracy, who call to their aid
Berenger.
France : — Civil wars.
929. " —Charles dies a
prisoner at Peronne.
936. Ger. :— O t h o I . W—
(the Great).
Fr. :— L o u i s
(the Stranger).
940. Burgundy, a fief 0 tkt
empire.
■Charknagne to William I.]
THE world's progress.
79
A.D.
Easteun Empire.
England.
The World, elsewhere.
800
Southern Italy subject to the
Greek empire.
891. Invasion of the Danes.
897
War with ihe Bulgarians,
Lombards, and Saracens—
the tatter take the island of
Sam OS.
The first land tax.
900. Scotland : — Constantine
901. Edward^
III.
901.Italy:-Therepublica
(the Elder), the first who
of Venice and Genoa
904
Russian expedition under
lakes the title of " Rex An-
founded.
Gleg, against Constantino-
glorum."
pie.
War with the Danes.
908. The race of Fatimites in
910
-Constantine VIL^-
Euvpt.
910 Spain :— Kingdom of Leon
asoociaies his four sons, so
founded bv Garcia.
that there are five emperors.
91-2. Spain :— Abderrahman III.
tlie greatest Arab prince ol
Spain- builds the sf)Iendid
city and palace of Zehra.
914. Spain :— Ordogno II., king
of Oviedo, makes Leon his
capital.
Commencement of the
917
Constantinople besieged by the
Bulgarians.
heroic age in Spain.
919
Romahus, general of the fleet,
usurps the en)pire, with his
three sons, Christopher, Ste-
phen, and
-Constantine Vlll.^g-
921. Poland :—Lesko IV.
" — Zemormysl.
92.3. Spain :—FrueIa, king of
924. — A t h e 1 s t a n . @—
Leon.
924. « — Alphonzo IV.
927. " — Ramiro II.
930. Denmark :— Harold VI.,
firs- Christian king.
9.32. \rnolf of Bavaria, de-
feate.l near Verona.
9.33. Norway :— Eric, king—
934. —by the victory of Bru-
his cruelty leads the people
m
nanburgh, he becomes king
to revolt.
Romanus gains a naval victory
of all Britain.
over the Russians, who, led
by Igor, enter the Black
Sea with 10,000 ships or ca-
nc'ss.,
942
940. — E d m u n d I .^ —
940. Spain :— Ramiro, king o{
Naples annexed to the empire.
brother of Athelstan.
Leon, defeats the Moora, un-
der Abderrahman, in the bat-
945
The empress Helen usurps the
throne.
tle of Sima acus.
80 THE WORLD*S PROGPcESS. [Period V.—{a. J). S0d-10QQ.)—2QQ 7jears.
A.D. Progress of Society.
94]
96J
The mercantile character
raised by a lawof Aihelsi
tliat a merchant who made
three voyages over the liigh
seas with a ship and carsro
ol" his own, should enjoy the
rank and privileges of a
lliane.
The figures of arithmetic
brought into Europe l»y tiie
Saracens.
Silver mines in the Hartz
Mountains.
Manul'aciories of linens and
wuiiUens in Plunders, which
becomes the sea: of western
commerce.
Geher, Arabian astronomer.
Suidas, grammarian and lexi-
cographer.
Rhazes, Arabian physician.
The Saxon fleet, consisting of
360 sail, in three squailrons.
makes the circuit of tiie
island, under the command
of king Edgar.
378 Abbo, monk and astronome/.
881 Albirunius, Arabian geogra-
pher.
532| Greenland discovered by the
Norwegians.
Almoin, historian.
Dublin much frequented for
trade, also many places on
the Baltic.
ECCLESIASTICAI.
946. Pope Agapetus H.
955 Baptism of Olga, and con
version of Russia to Chris,
tianity.
956. Pope .lohn XII.
Quarrel with the emper
ors respecting investiture.
959. St. Dunstan, archbishop
of Canterbury, attempts to
reform the ciuirch— enforc-
ing clerical celibacy.
The influence of the
monks greatly increased.
963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by
Roman citizens.
9G4. Benedict V. elected by a
council.
965. John XIII.
Poland receives Christianity
under Miecislus.
972. Pope Benedict VI.
973. Boniface VII.: deposed
and banished for his crimes.
974. Domnus II.
975. Benedict VII.
France, Germany, «fcc.
984. Pope .Tohn XIV.
. « John XV.
989. Christianity propairated
in Russia by Waldimir—
they hold to the Greek
church.
950. Germany :— Bohemia bo-
comes tributary to Otho.
953. The Hungarians sub-
dued.
9:>4. Fr.:— Loth&iie I.^
—confers the d'.kcdoois of
Bursundy ai.d Aquitaiue on
Hugh the Great.
957. Germany:— Otho defesi?
the Slavonians in Saxony,
964. Italy imited to the empira
of Germany.
Tuscany becomes a duke-
dom.
97.3. Ger. :— Otho 11.^
subdues the Bohemians.
979. Otho at war with Lo
thaire.
983. — O t h 0 III,,
(3 years of age).
986. Fr.:— Louis V.
("ihe Slothful,") lastoriha
Carlovingian race.
988. Fr.: Hugh Capet,^
—founder of ihe third ci
Capetian line of Frenck
kings.
"-Charleynagne to William I.\
THE world's progress.
81
959
963
967
975
900
Eastern Empire.
England. &,c.
Constantine III. retires into a
cloister.
— K omanus II. ^' —
poisoned by tiis wife, Theo-
phano.
— Nicephorus 11.^—
—he recovers Cyprus and An-
tioch from the Saracens.
— is murdered by
John Zimisces.^^ —
Basil and Constantine
Apu.iaand Calabria recover-
ed and united to the empire.
946. E 1 d r e ri ^
governeil by Duii»ian, abbot
of Glasioiibui-y.
952. Scotland : — Malcolm I.,
kins.
955. Scotland :—Indulf, kin"
955. E d w y W
insulted by Dunstan, and
deposed— liis queen, Elgiva.
put to death.
The World, elsewhere.
950. Spain :— Ordono in. king
of Leon.
959.
-Edgar
•'■ t-i >j f. <•■. I mg
marries the beautiful EI-
frida, after the violent death
of Athehvold. her lover.
960. Scotland:— Duff. king.
Wolves expelled from
England and Wale?, in con-
sequence of a reward being
offered for the purpose by
the king.
Violent disputes between
the monks and the clergy.
975. E d w a r d W
(the martyr), murdered by
his stepmother, Elfrida.
973. — Ethelred II. ,W-
(" the Unready.")— Dunstan
still minister.— The people
become discontented.
985. Danish invasion, under
Sweyn.
The king purchases their
retreat.
955. Spain :
of Leon.
-Sancho L, king
953. Italy :~ War between the
Normans and Saracens.
961. Candia recovered from
the Saracens.
962. Poland: — Miecislas esta-
blishes Christianity.
967. Spain :— Ramiro HI., king
of Leon.
968. The Northmen devastate
Galicia, but are defeated and
almost exterminated.
973. Hungary:— St. Stephen,
first hereditary king, extends
the kingdom eastward ; gives
it a constitution and written
laws.
976. Spain :— Hixem, caliph
of Cordova.
Almansor, regent, obtain!?
many victories" over the
Christians.
980. Russia:— Waldimir I;
marries Anna, sister of the
emperor Basil II.
983. Italy : — Venice distracted
by violent commotions.
985. Sweyn I., or Sweno, king
of Denmark, invades Eng
land.
8:2 THE world's progress. [Period F— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years.
A.D. I'jioGiiEss OF Society.
Ecclesiastical.
993. First
saints.
canonization of
Venice and Genoa carry on a
flourisliin? trade between
Asia ijkI Western Europe. 996. Pope Gregory V.
Siephe.i, duke of Hunga- 997. " Jolin XVI.
ry, propiigates Christianity
among his subjects.
999. Pope Sylvester II.
Paper made of cotton rags.
Spain, the seat of Arabian and
Jewish learning.
Churches first built in the
Gothic style.
Foundation of the House of
Wisdom at Cairo.
The French language first be-
gins to be icritten.
Leo^ the grammarian.
The arts faintly revive in Italy
—paintings in fresco and
mosaic.
Literature, the arts and sci-
ences,and commerce flourish
at Ghizni.
Musical scale, consisting of six
notes, invented by Guido
Aretino.
Avicenna, a famous Arabian
chemist and physician.
Glaber Rud, hisiorian.
Campanes, of Navarro, astro-
nomer.
Hermannus Contractu?, monk
and mathematician.
France, Germany, &c.
Hungary a fief of the
Romish church.
1003. Pope John XVm.
1009. Pope Sergius.
1012. " Benedict VIII.
Persecution of the Albi
genses in Languedoc.
1024. Pope John XIX. He
gained his election by bribe-
ry. He was not of the clergy,
but consul and senator of
Rome.
1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten
years old).
" Peace of God," pub-
lished by the bishops.
996. Fr.: -Robert 11.,^
—(the Wise,) succeeds las
father Hugh.
993. —is excommunicated by
the pope for marrying hi's
cousin Bertha.
1002.Ger. :-HenryII.,^
— (iluke of Bavaria).
Italy :— Ardoin, margrave
of Ivrea, elected king.
1004. Italy :— Henry invited by
the German party — Ardoin
loses most of Italy and re-
signs. — Pavia burnt in a
quarrel between the troops
and people.
1015. Germany:— The empe-
ror receives an annual tri-
bute from Poland.
1024. Ger. :-Conrad II.
—(the Salic) first of the
Franconian line.
1025. Expedition into Italy.
1029. War with the Polea.
1031. Fr.:— Henry l.W"
1032. Burgundy annexed .«
the empire.
— Charlemagne to Williavi /.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
83
Eastern Empire.
lOOJl Basil drives the Bulgarians
from Thessaly,
lOlS
1028
1031
1031
Bulgaria again reducsd to
Grecian province.
— Romanus III..^ —
(Argyrus).
—expels the Saracens from
Syria,
—poisoned by his wife Zoe.
— M i c h a e 1
England, &c.
994. Scotland : — Constantine
IV. slain by
995. Kenaetli IV., (the Grim).
The World, elsewhere.
1002. Dreadful massacre of
all the Danes in Enslund —
upon which Svveyn lands a
large annament, and brings
war and all us miseries upon
the country.
1003. Scotland :— Malcolm II.,
an able, renowned prince.
1012. An annual tribute pro-
mised to the Danes.
1013. The Danes, under Sweyn,
become masters of England^
I016.-Edmund 11.,^-
(Ironsides.) fights six baules
wiih Canute, king of Den-
mark, with whom he finally
divides the kingdom.
1016. Canute ^
the Great, patronizes litera-
ture and tire church.
1027. Irelatid : — Brian Boru,
sole monarch.
1031. Canute penetrates into
Scotland— subdues Malcolm.
1032. —performs a pilgrimage
to Rome.
1031. Scotl'd .-—Duncan, king.
103B. -Harold I . ,W—
(ITarefooi,) cruel and un-
popular— ruled by Earl
Godwin.
995. Norway :—01af I.
Chri.~;tirinitv introduced.
997. Dr(iniheim"founded.
Mahinud Sultan of Ghiz*
ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca«
bul, and part of India to hia
dominions; patronizes litera-
ture.
998. Spam :— Division of the
Mohammedan kingdom ol
Cordova.
1000. Sancho III., (the Great,)
king of Navarre, takes the
title of emperor.
1000. Savoy .-—independent un-
der JJervahl, its first count.
Poland : — Boleslas I.,
(the Lion-hearted).
1006. Pestilence in Europe for
three years.
1012. Spain :— Suleiman, ca-
liph.
1014. Denmark:— Harold JUL,
king.
1015. Norway:— OlaflL
1016. Denmark: — Canute IL,
(the Great).
1019. Norway conquered by
Canute.
Venice, Genoa, and Pisa
rise into importance.
1025. Poland :— Miecislas IL
1035. Spain :— Ramiro I _ king
of Arra^on.
1037. Ferdinand L, of Castile,
in right of his wife succeed!
to Leon ; successful against
the Mohammedans.
1036. Denn-iark : — Hardica-
nute IH.
1037. Norway :— Magnus I-
(the Good).
84 THE world's progress. [Period V.—(a. d «00-1066.)— 266 years.
A.D. Prooress of Society, etc.
1055
Ferdusi, the Persian Homer.
Franco, mathematician.
George Cedrenus, historian.
Ecclesiastical.
Michael Psellus, a celebrated
Greek philosopher and his-
torian.
English parents prohibited by
law from selling their chil-
dren.
First age of scholastic philoso-
phy.
103S. The Pope, for his scan-
dalous conduct, driven Irum
Rome, but re-established by
iJie emperor, Conrad.
1014. — again driven from the
throne, and succeeded by
Sylvester III. Alter three
nionihs Henedict is restored
by the Counts of Tuscuium.
But finding the people will
not tolerate his crimes, he
sells the papal chair to Gre-
gory.
— deposed for simony, by
a council called by Henry
III.
1010. Pope Clement U.
104^. Damascus n., 23 day.s.
" Leo IX. ., the first who
kept a regular army.
1053. —is defeated and taken
prisoner by the Normans.
1054. The papal chair vacant
one year.
Excommunication of the
Patriaich ol Constantinople,
and the Greeks.
1055. Pope Victor H.
Hildebrand. the real
head of the church from the
time of Leo IX. The church
improving in piety and dis-
cipline.
1057. Pope Stephen IX.
1058. Nicholas H.
Benedict X.. (antipope).
The election of pope
transferred to a conclave of
cardinals.
1059. Quarrel between the
popes and the German em-
jaerors. respecting investi-
tures and nomination to the
Holy See.
1061. Pope Alexander H.
1062. Berenger, a celebrated
French ecclesiastic.
Alexander forbids the
massacre of the Jews.
1066. Alexander deposes Ha-
rold, and gives England to
William the Conqueror,
duke of Normandy.
France, Germany. &c.
1039. Ger.. --Henry ITI.^
— defeats tiie IJohemians
and Hungarians— claims ih«
right of "nominating to the
papal chair.
lOlG. France :— Dispute be-
tween William the Con-
queror and William of
Aiques, for the duchy ol
Normandy.
IO.jS. Germany :— Henry IH,
causes his son, Henry, to bo
proclaimed king of the Ro-
mans. This ti:le was ap-
plied, for several centuries,
to the king's eldest son.
Ger.r-Henry IV. ^
—(the Great), aged six years,
under the tutelage of his
mother.
10.58. Roger, duke of Apulia,
becomes a vassal of the
pope.
1060. Fr.:— Philip I W-
- 'Charlemagne to William I.]
THE world's progress.
85
AD.
vm
1011
1042
1012
1DJ3
Eastern Empike.
1054
1054
1056
1057
Earthquakes and famine at
CunsiantinojjJe.
Michael V.,^
(CaJaplialas).
— Zoo & Theodora. ^—
-ConstantineX. ,^—
(Monomaichus).
Fiisi iiivasioa of the Seliuk
Turks,
llie Russians invade Thrace
vviih iUU.OUO men, and are
repeatedly deieaied by the
Greeks.
Engi^\nd, &c.
1039. -Hardi Canute. W-
Scot'd. :— .Macbeth mur-
ders Duncan, and usurps the
tlirone.
The Saxon line i-estored
under s^
104-2. E d w a r d^
(the Cunressor). The coun
try prospers under his mild
sway.
The World, elsewhere.
— Theodora,W
the last of Macedonian dy-
nasty.
The Greek church becories
independent.
— Michael VI. ,^
(Stra iotichus).
Isaac^ — ■
(Comnenus).
-Constantine XI.
— (Ducas).
1051. Rebellion of Earl God-
win and his sons.
William, duke of Nor-
mandy, visiis Edward.
1053. The Dane-geii abolished.
Earl Godvvin dies
The Welch and the Irish
several times invade Ens-
land, but are repressed by
Harolil. son of Godwin.
10."4. Macbeth defeated and
killed at Laiigfaiian, by
Siward, earl of" Northum-
berland.
1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III.
1066. —Harold 11.,^—
elected kine; killed at the
BATTLE of HASTINGS.
— WILLIAM I , W —
duke of Normandy, styled
" the Conqueror."
End of the Anglo-
Saxon dynasty.
Edgar Atheling flies to
Scotland.
1012. Denmark : — Mapiua,
(the Good,) of Norway, king.
1047. Denmark :— Sweyn Es-
tritson, or SuenonlJ.
1050. The Pisans and Genoese
take Sardinia and Corsica
from the Saracens.
1055. The Turks reduce Bag-
dad, and overturn the em-
pire of the caliphs.
1059. Sweden: —Insreldus or
Ingo I., tlie first Christian
king.
1060. Robert Guiscard, the
Norman, is created by the
pope, duke of Apulia.
1062. 70,000 Europeans are
killed, or made prisor.ers by
the Turks in Palestine.
1065. Jerusalem taken by th«
Saracens.
1065. Castile and Leon: — A\
phonzo, king.
86
THE WORLD S PIIOGRESS.
PERIOD. Yl.— The Middle .1^55.— (Continued.)--
A.D. Progress OF Society, etc.
106.2
Feudal System introduced m
England by the Normans.
Surnames first used amonj
the English nobility.
lOToI Knights errant in Spain.
Ingulphtcs, historian, secre-
Uiy to William the Con-
ou'iror.
Marianus Scotus.
BooLadlsrs first heard of.
London B.^Og^, and Westmin-
ster Hal3 v»L-Ji.i
lOSl
iOdJ
1090
1092
Lanfranc, archbisfcop of Can-
terbury.
Doomsday Book ronipi'Iui by
order of Williaiii ^'U Con-
queror.
William of Spires, matheVkS-
tician.
A rigil police established v\
Englanil. — The curfew.
Norman French taught in ,1)1
the schools, and made use of
in all legal proceedings.
Literature patronized in the
East by Melek Shah.
Fortress of Newcastle and of
Carlisle built.
Ecclesiastical.
Popery at the height
of its power, claiming
supreme dominion, tem-
poral and spiritual, over
all the states of Christen-
dom.
France, Germany, & Spain
366. William. Duke of Nor-
mandy, claims the crown o(
England, and makes war
upon Harold to obtain it
1071. Philip engages in a
war with Robert, count 0/
Holland.
1072. Henry IV of Germany,
summoned bef^ire the pope,
for selling the investiture oj
bishops. Treats the man-
date with contempt.
1073. —summoned again by
Gregory VH.
1073. Pope GregoryVII.,
(Hildebrand,) who attempts
to free all the clergy from
the civil jurisdiction. Ho
quarrels with the emperor.
1074. Simony and celibacy
forbidden.
1075. Tiie pope sends legates
to tiie various courts of Eu-
rope.
1076. — sends an ambassador to
to depose the pope— is excom municated by Gregory. Goes
barefoot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses
his feet.
1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by
the Empress Matilda.
1076. Spain :— The Cid.
1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti-
emperor. Rudolph dies in
1080. Ger.:— Henry IV. de-
grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and makes
an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be
elected. The war continues till
1084, when Henry triumphs
over Gregory, who flees to Sa lerno, and dies in exile in 1085.
ijri. The order of the Carthu-
*'ans instituted by Bruno.
Ii.'Sv pope Victor III.
lOea « Urban II.
1085. Spain :— Toledo taken
from the Moors, by Don
Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by
Raymond, count of Tou-
louse.
1086. Spain:— The battle of
Zalaca.
1037. France : — War with
England : Robert, duke o/
Normandy, opposes Wil
liam Rufus.
THE world's progress.
1066-1299. — WlUiani the Conqueror to Olhman I.
8?
Eastern Empire.
Eudocia.^g
She raanies
Romanus III.,®
(Dii)gejies.) He valiantly
but, vainly opposes the
Turks — is defeated and
taken prisoner by Alp Ars-
lan, Emir of Omrah.
Michael VII.,^
(Parapinaces).
Andronicus I.^^
-Constantine XII.
Syria and Palestine su';)dued
by Melek Shah.
Nicephorus, ^g
(Botoniales).
— Alexius I.® (Com-
nenus). The empire in-
vaded by Robert Guiscard,
ihe Norman, who defeats
Alexius^ at Durazzo.
After the capture of Jerusa-
lem, by the Turks, the Chris-
tian pilgrims are insulted,
robbed and oppressed, which
gives rise to the crusades.
— Greai struggle between
Christianity and Mohamme-
danism.
England <fc Scotland.
1066. -William I.,W-
" THE CONQ,UEROR," lirSt Of
the Norman line.
1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of
the Saxon line, takes refuge
in Scotland. His sister,
Margaret, marries Malcolm
111.
1070. The feudal system in-
troduced by the icing All
the offices of the government
placed in the hands of Nor-
mans. The Norman lan-
guaire introduced.
Malcolm III. of Scotland,
ravages Durham.
1072. Peace between the Nor-
mans and the Scots
1076. Robert, the king's son,
raises a rebellion in Noi--
mandy.
1087. William invades France,
and is killed at Mantes.
1037. -William II., W
(Rufus).
Revolt of the Norman
The World, elsewhere.
1067. Poland : — Boleslas n
— he conquers Russia.
1068. Poland ;— Romanus Dio
genes.
1070. Norway : —Bergen built.
1074. Syria: — Melek Shah,
(Emir.) extends his domin-
ions from the Jaxartes to the
Mediterranean.
1076. Denmark :— Harold IV.
Palestine invaded and
subdued by Melek Shah.—
Jerusalem taken.
1077. Hungary: — Ladislas I.
1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi-
shop of Cracow, murdered.
The king excommunicated
and dethroned.
1079. Poland :— Uladislas I.
1083. Italy : — Rome taken
after a siege of two years,
bv Henry IV.
1084. BOHEMIA erected into
a kinsdom by the empereor
Henrv IV.
1090. Sicily conquered by
Roger the Norman, after a
war of thirty years will it4
masters, the Saracens,
88
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Period VI.— The Middle A<:^€s.
A.D. Progress of Societv, etc.
109]
1U%
1099
1100
1118
U2C
Ecclesiastical.
Fkance. Germany «Sc Spain
1093. Conrad, son of the era
peior, rebels.
The popes continue to struggle against the empire,
1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k.
— ol" Navarre and Arragon.
The Crusades :— Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the countries oi
Chrisiendom. ■ i
I The Council op Clermont.
The FIRST CRUSADE ;— Peter the Hermit, and Walter, the Pennyless, stl
out with a vast rabble, 3lK), 000 of whom perish bel'ore the warriors are ready to tlart.
The chieftains of the first cru='ade were,
Godfrey of Bcaillor
or Boulogne.
2. Hugh ol Vermandois.
3. R o b e r t of Normandy
4. Robert of Flanders.
Stephen of Chartrcs.
6. Raymond of Toulouse.
7. lloliemond.
, T a n c r e d .
(500,000 warriors, 100,00(3
cavalry.
N'athan Ben Jechiel, learned
Jew.
Knights of St. John insti-
luieil.
Anna Comnena, daughter of
Alexius I., Eastern emperor,
historian.
WUUuin of Poitou, first trou-
badour.
Ahelard, French scholastic.
Jeffrey of Monmouth, histo-
The Knights Templars.
Tograi, Hairi, and Abdullah
Shaifaddin, Arabian poets.
Scholastic Philosophy attains
its highest point by the
writings of Pe/er Abelurd.
Peter, the Lombard, (master
of sentences).
1099. Pope Paschal II.
1118. Pope Gelasius H.
1119. « Calistus n.
1123. First Lateran, or ninth
general council.
1124. Honorius II.
1104. Spain :— Alfonzo I., king
of Navarre and Arragon.
1106. Ger. :-Henry V .^
— maintains the right of in-
vestiture.
1108. Fr.:— Louis VI., ^
— Le Gros. Abbe Sugar,
minister.
llOy. Germany :— Henry en-
ters* Italy, takes the pope
prisoner, and compels him
to crown him.
1114. Henry V. marries Ma
tilda, of England.
1118. Spain:— A';fcnso I. cap-
tures Saragosea.
1120. Rivalry hetTreen Eng-
land and France com-
1125. Germany :— Loth aire
1 1 . ^^ opposed by Fre-
deric, and Conrad, duke o(
Suabia.
1066-1229.— Continued.]
THE world's progress.
89
Eastern Empire.
1099
1104
1109
1111
ni8
Order, learning, nnd com-
merce revive.
By ill" courage and talents of
the Cumueni, the empire is
(eared or re:=pected by the
nations of Asia and Europe,
Invasion by the crusaders:
great numbers pass through
Constantinople.
Battle of Dorylaeum, which
secures the march of the
crusaders through Asia Mi-
nor.
Acre taken by the crusaders.
Tripolis taken by crusaders.
Berytus and Sidon taken by the
crusaders.
,Iohn I.. ^^ (Comne-
nus),a noble prince : reforms
the maimers ol his people.
Tyre taken by the crusaders.
England <k Scotland. The World, elsewhere.
1093. Scotland :— Malcolm III.
invades Eii!?!and, and is
slain near Alnwick Castle by
Roger de Mowbray.
1094. Scot. .-—Donald Bane,
king.
William again invades
Noimandy.
Sci'd. : — Duncan usurps
the crown.
William quarrels wi'h
Anselm, archbishop of Can-
terbury,
1008. Scotland :— Edgar puts
out Donald's eyes and de-
thrones him.
1100. William IT. accidentally
shot by Sir Walter Tyrel,
— H e n r y I . ,^^ —
(Beauclerc.) grants the Eng-
lish a charte'r, and marries
Maud, a Saxon, thus uniting
the Norman and Saxon in-
teresis.
1101. Robert, duke of Nor-
mandy, invades England.
1106. Henry invades Norman-
dy; takes Robert prisoner
at the battle of Tinchebrai.
Scotland: — Alexander I.
1107. Henry quarrels with An-
selm,
1120. Shipwreck and death of
Prince William and 140 no-
blemen.
1124. Insurrection in Norman-
dy suppressed.
Scotland :■— David I. pro-
motes civilization.
1095. Hungary :—Colomaa
1096. Effypt : — Mustali. tha
eighth Fatimiie caliph. IIo
takes .leru«alem.
1097. Baldwin founds tha
principality of Edessa.
1099. Jerusalem taken by tha
crusaders, under Godfrey
who is elected king.
1102. Poland :—Boleslas III.
1105. Denmark: — Nicholas
1106. Italy: — Venice, Genoa,
and Pisa greatly enriched
by the crusades.
1109. Norway :—Segurd's ex-
pedition to Palestine.
1117. Persia:— Sanjar subdues
Khorasan and Samarkand.
1119. War between Pisa and
Genoa.
1120. Italy: — Rise of tha
house of Guelph.
Zensi, governor of M
sul, a great prince
90
THE world's progress.
[Period VI.— The Middle Agez.-^
A.D. Progress of Society, etc.
Aristotle's logic comes into
repute.
Pandects of the Roman law.
(.Justinian,) discovered at
Amalti, and the study oi' i\\>i
civil law revived.
Gratian collect"? the canon law.
William of Malmsbury, Eng-
lish historian.
Vacariics teaches civil law at
O.vford.
Otho, bishop of Friesengen,
historian, introduces the pe
ripatetic philosophy into
Germany.
Benjamin of Tiidela, a Jew,
travels from Spain to India,
by Constantinople, and re-
turns thiougii Egypt.
The magnetic needle known
in Italy.
^«/rfas. lexicographer-
Ehen Ezra, of Toledo, Jewish
historian.
Arnold, of Brescia, condemn-
ed ;m Iburnt.
Eus'a'hius., commentator on
Hoincr and Diunysius Per.
^crnf' of Vinire established.—
fairs at L»;ip3ic.
London contains 40,000 inha-
bitants
Poem of the Cid.
College? of theology, philoso-
phy and law at Paris.
English commerce confined to
the exportation of wool. — A
woollen maiuifactoiy esta-
blished at Worsted, and soon
alter at Norwich.
Ecclesiastical.
1127. — makes war against
Roger, king of Sicily.
113!). Innocent II. and Anacle-
tus, rival popes.
1137. A pretended Messiah in
France.
113S. —another in Persia.
1139. Second Lateran, or tenth
general council.
IM3. Pope Celestin XL
1144. " Lucius II.
1145. " Eugenius III.
France, Germany «fcS?A.tN.
1112. Spain- — Alfonzo VIL,
king, Leon and Castile.
1134. Spain :— Garcia IV. j king
of Navarre.
Ilamiro II., king of Arra-
gon.
1135. Lothaire in Italy — cap-
ture of Amalfi.
1137. Fr. :— Louis VII. ^
— (le Jeune).
1 138. Germany : — H 0 t s e
of S u a b i a ;
—Conrad I.^
1139. Portugal becomes a king-
dom.— Henry of Besar.con,
king.
1141. Germany and Italy.—
Dissensions of the G u e . fa
and G h i b e 1 i n e s .
l]47.The Second Crusade excited by St. Bernard,
and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew Fre-
deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. of France.
1119. France: — Louis divorces
his queen, Eleanor, wl.o
marries Henry of Anjou. af-
terwards king of England;
thus Guienne and Poitou are
lost to France.
1150. Spain :— Sancho V., king
ot Navarre.
1152. Germany and Italy :—
1 153. Pope Anastasius IV.
1 154. Pope Adrian IV. (an Eng-
lishman, Nicholas Breaks-
peare).
1L59. Pope Alexander III.
Victor IV., antipope.
1160. Order of the Carmelites
instituted.
The Waldenses and
Albigenses begin to ap-
peal*
1164. Pascal III., antipope.
1167. Rome taken by Frederic Babarossa.
1168. Oalistus III., antipope. j
Frederic
(Barbarossa).
11-57. Spain : — Castile and
Leon divided under Ferdi-
nand II and Sancho II.
1158. Germany :— The empe-
ror Frederic receives the
title of king of Bohemia at
the diet of Ratisbon: — con-
quers Poland, and makes it
tributary.
1162. Frederic destroys Ml?an.
Spain : — Alfoasc lit
king of Arragon.
1066-1229.— Continued.]
THE world's progress.
94
1143
1148
Eastern Empire.
England & Scotland.
1155
1156
-Manuel Cominer.us. ^m —
Edessa being retaken by the
Turks, gives rise to the
second ci'usade.
The Normans, under Roger
arrive before Constantino
pie ; are repulsed by Manuel.
The Greeks reduce Apulia
and Calabria.
Manuel (orms the design of
conquering Italy and ih
western empire, but fails.
Kelso, Melrose, and Holy-
rood house Ibunded.
1127. Matilda, the king's
daughter, marries Geoffrey
Plantagenet.
1135. Stephen^—
of Blois,
1136. Matilda asserts her right
(.() the throne;
David, king of Scotland,
as-sists her.
113S. -is defeated in the " bat.
lie of the Standard."
1141. Stephen made prisoner
at the battle of Lincoln.
Civil war: Stephen and
Matilda.
1149. Henry Plantagenet in
vades England.
11.54. — Henry II.
(Plantagenet).
1158' Thomas a Becket intro-
duced to the king's notice by
Theobold, archbishop o'f
Canterbury — becomes chan-
cellor and preceptor of the
prince.
1159. Becket sent as ambassa-
dor to France.
The World, elsewhere.
1 130. Sweden :— Ragwald I
1133. " Mugnus L
1139. PORTUGAL becomes a
kingdom,under Alfonso l.^§
Sweden :— Suercher II.
1147. Russia: — the rity oJ
Moscow founded.
1162. —made archbishop of
Canterbury — opposes the
king.
1164. —resists the constitutions
of Clarendon — flies <o
France.
1166. Scotland :— William.
1150. Denmark :— The coasta
infe?:ted wiih pirates.
1150. Sweden:— Eric X
1157. Denmark : Waldemar I.
1158. Venice a great maritima
power.
1162. Sweden :— Charles VII.
1167. Italy :— League of the
Italian cities to preserrt
their liberties.
92
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
lPe)iod VI.— TIie Middle Agcs.^
Progress of Society', etc.
Ecclesiastical.
Foundation of the military
order of Santiago.
Circuit .luilges appointed in
England.
117S. /nnoctin/ in., antipope.
The pope Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy
of Borksliire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks
during his visitation.
Tlie Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedmont. They
circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the fore-
runners of Protestantism. Ci»n demned by the Eleventh Gene-
ral Council, and severely per secuted.
1179. Third Lateran, or Ele-
venlli General Council.
Robert Wace, first French
poet. Trnnsliition of his
Ilist. des Rots d'Angleterre,
by Layamon, the first Eng-
lish composition.
John Tzetes, Greek gramma-
rian.
Mahnonides, of Cordova, one
of the most learned of the
Jews.
Henry, of Huntington, and
William, of Newbury, his-
torians.
Rainulph de Glanville makes
a digest of laws and customs
of England.
1190
1198
Dreadful massacre of the .Tews
at the coronation of Richard
Teutonic order instituted.
BoahoiMi Ibu Shadad, author
of a J.ife of Saladin, in Ara-
bic.
The .Tows become the princi-
pal bankers of the world.
Order of the Holy Trinity in-
stituted in Germany. .
IISI. Pope Lucius III.
1185. Pope Urban HI
1187. Pope Gregory ^^II.
1187. " Clement III.
Prance, Germany, <Sc Spain.
1170. France:— The Walden-
ses. They derived theii
name from Peter Waldo, i
merchant of Lyons.
1171. Frederick's fourth expe
diiion into Italy.
1176. Frederick defeated al Vhi
battle of Legnano.
1178. Henry, the Lion, diikf
of Saxony, deposed, and
Saxony divided.
1180. Fr.:— Philip II.
(Auguste).
1183. The Peace of Constance
re-establishes the independ-
ence of Italian republics.
1188. Spain : — Alfonzo IX.
king of Leon.
1190. Third C r u s a d e led by Philip Ausruslus, of
France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barba-
rossa.
1190.Ger.:-IIenryV:
1191. Pope Celestine m.
1198. Pope Innocent m.
emperor and king of italj
and the Sicilies.
1196. Richard Coeur de Lion
seized and retained in cap
tivitv.
1196. Philip, of Suabia, and
Oiho, of Saxony, dispute the
crown; the former sup.
ported by the Ghibelines,
and tlie latter by the Guelfi
1066-1299.— Continued.]
THE world's progress.
93
1180
11S3
1185
1190
1195
Eastern Empike.
-Alexius II.
Andronicus
-Isaac n.l
(Angelas).
The empire invaded by the
Bulgaii2ins.
Iconium taken by Frederick
Baibarossa, but; afterwards
restored.
— Alexius Angelns,^
usurper aud tyrant.
England & Scotland.
1170. Beclcet returns to Eng-
land, and is murdered at ilie
altiir.
1172. Henry conquers
Ireland.
1174. Treaty of Falaise, in
which William agrees to do
homage tor Scotland.
Henry makes a pilgri-
mage to the shrine of Becket.
The World, elsewhere.
1171. Egypt:— Saladin, suU
tan.
—He extends his drmi-
nions in Egypt, and con-
quers Syria, Assyria, Meso-
potamia, and Arabia.
1174. Poland :— Miecislaus III.
1175. Portugal— a fief of the
Holy See.
1178. Poland:— Casimir, (the
Just.
1189.— Richard I
(Cceur de Lion). He en-
gages in the third crusade.
1193. Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon ; but,
abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce of ihtej
years.
1182. Denmark :— Canute.
1183. Saladin takes Aleppo,
and di-poses the sultan of
Mosul.
1185. Portugal :—S3ncho L
1186. Saladin directs all hia
efforts against the crusaders.
1187. —gains the victory of
Tiberias, and takes Jerusa-
lem, which leads to
1190. The third crusade.
1191. Kingdom of Cypru>
founded.
1191. Acre taken by the cru-
1193. John attempts to seize
the crown in the absence of
Richard.
1193. Saladin dies.
94 THE world's progress. [PeriPd VI.— The Middle Ages.-^
A.D. PBOaaESS OF SOOIliTV, etc. ECCLESIASTICAI.. FRANCE, GERMANY &. SPAI«
1200
1203
1206
1209
1222
Tlie power of the pope supre me — Rome mistress of the world, and kings her vasBals.
The University of Bologna
coniains lO.OJl) students.
Ville Hardouin, historian.
Haxo G/awt/rtaa'cws, historian.
University of Paris founded.
The order of Franciscan fri ars instituted.
1200. The pope excommunica tcs Philip of France,
1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, and
Veiieiian^ under the Marquis of Mouserrat. They taka
Constantinople.
1204. The Inquisition in Fran ce.
The works of Aristotle, im-
ported from Constantinople,
condemned by the council
of Paris.
Period of the Troubadours in
France ; the Minstrels in
Enjiland ; and the Minne-
sitigers in Germany.
University of Padua founded.
Stephen Langton, archbishop
of Canterbury.
Bitter persecution of the
Albigeu^ses.
The doctrine of transub-
stantiation and auricular
coulession established.
121.5. Fourth Lateran, and
twelfth General Council
against the Albigenses, and
all heretics.
1216. Pope Honorius III.
1217. The fifth crusade by
Andrew II., king of Hun-
gary.
1227. Pope Gregory IX,
1229. The Inquisition at Tou-
loiKe.
The Scriptures forbid-
den to ail laymen.
Normandy reunited
France.
1210. Germany :— Otho placed
under the ban of the pope.
1212. — Frederickll.W
Spain :— The Christiana
gain the battle of Navas de
Tolosa.
1215. Otho loses the battle of
Bovines.
1217. Spam -—Ferdinand, king
of Caotiie.
1223. Fr.: Louis v.. I, ^
(The Lion).
Crusade against the Al-
bigenses.
1226. Fr.: Louts IX. ^
(Saint).
1227. Germany :— Crusade of
the emperor after being ox-
commimicaicd.
1230. Si)ain : — Castile and
Leon united by Ferdinand
III., who tal'es Cordova Se-
ville, Cadiz, iic. from the
Moors.
1066-1299— Continued.!
THE would's progress.
95
1201
1206
1216
1221
t228
ma
Eastern Empire.
Alexius IV. ^
The crusa'lers pluiidei- Con-
stantinople.
Baldwin, count of Flanders.
-Henry II.
Peter
Robert
— John of Brienne,'^'
king of Jerusalem, and em-
peror.
-Baldwin II.
England & Scotland.
Richard, returning home
in disguise, throusih Ger-
many, is impiisoned. Is
ransomed by his subjects for
10,000 marks.
—declares war against
France.
1199. Richard dies.
1200. John, W
(I-ackland.)
1201. Prince Arthur supported
by France.
1207. The kingdom laid under
an interdict."
1208. Jolin excommunicated.
London obtains the right
to elect its own Lord Mayor.
1213. The pope declares John
a usurper. John submits to
hold his crown as a vassal o!
the pope.
1214. Scotland :— Alexander II.
1215. Magna Charta signed at
Runnymede.
1216. —Henry III-W
(4th Plantagenet.)
Earl of Pembroke, pro-
lector.
1224. Henry's province of
Poitou seized by the king of
France.
1229. First expedition of Henry
into France for the recovery
of his estates.
1233. First discovery of Cfial
at Newcastle.
The World, elsewhere.
1202. Denmark:— Waldemar
II.
Poland : — Lesco, (the
white).
Livonia: — Institution ol
the order of short swords to
conquer the Prussians.
1206. Genghis Khan
subdues the north of China.
1210. Italy :— First war of Ve-
nice and Genoa.
1213. Russia :— Jurje H.
1214. Frederick cedes to Den-
maik all the provinces be-
yond the Elbe and Eiser.
1216. Tartary :— Overrun by
the honlesof Genuhis Khan.
1217. Norway :— Haco V.
1222. Two Greek kingdoms in
Asia, Nice and Trebizond.
John Ducas, emperor of
Nice.
Hungary : — Charter of
Andrew ll. Foundation ol
the national liberty.
1234. Italy :— War of the Lom-
bard cities with Frederick of
Germany.
1236. Dreadful invasion ol
Europe by the Mongoh, \in
der Bata Kluui.
96
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.
A.D, Progress op Society, etc.
Robert, of Gloucester, ihe first
English writer in rliyme.
Tirst war fleet in Spain at the
conquest of Seville.
Foumlaiion ol" the Alhambra
near Granada.
St. Edmund, of Canterbury,
dies.
Tiie University of Salaman-
ca founded.
Silk manufactory in Lucca ;
woollen in Milan and Tus-
cany.
Peter, of Albano, astrologer,
physician, and naturalist.
Rubruquis travels among the
Mongols.
Private war and judicial com-
bats suppressed in France
by the laws of St. Louis.
Parliament in England.
The monastic orders, by their
wealth, rigid discipline,
and popular influence, be-
come powerful aids to pon-
tifical ambition.
ECCLESIA.STICAL.
124L Pope Celestine IV.
1243. Pope Innocent IV.
Conlinual struggles with
tlie emperor Frederic.
Sect of the Flagellants.
1254. Pope Alexander IV.
The Jews every where
persecuted.
1261. Pope Urban IV.
The popes claim the
right of presenting t.o every
benefice in the world.
France, Germany & Spain.
12.3S. Germany: — Frederic
again excommunicated.
1243. The Ilanseatic
1 e a g u e— the cliicf towns
are Lubec, Cologne, Bruns-
wick, and Uaiitzlc.
1246. Henry of Tiiuringia set
up for emperor by the^pope,
and
1247. William, of Holland.
1248. France :— Louis sets out
on the seventh crusade.
1250. Germany:
Conrad IV. ^ —
1252. Spain: — Alfonso X.
king of Castile and Leon.
1261. France :— Burgundy falla
to the crown.
1265. The pope succeeds in his long struggle for the do-
minion of Italy, and places CharlesofAnjou on the throne
of Naples.
1265. Pope Clement IV.
1266. Henry of Castile, a Roman senator.
1268. Pragmatic sanction-
foundation of the liberties ol
the Galilean church.
1268. No pope for about three
years.
1271. Pope Gregory X.
1270. France :— Louia IX. seta
out on the eighth and last
crusade, and dies befora
Tunia— succeeded by
— Philip III
(The Hardy).
#-
1066-1290.— Continued.]
THE world's progress.
97
1260
1261
laes
Eastern Empire.
England & Scotland.
—Michael Palasologus.^^
— recovers Constantinople.
The Mongols in Asia Minor.
The Mongols take Antiocb
1240. Richard, earl of Corn-
wall, heads the sixth cru
sade, and redeems Jerusa
lem.
1242. Second expedition into
France — defeated and com-
pelled to make peace.
1246. Henry marries Eleanor,
of Provence.
1249. Scot. : Alexander l I.
—Repulses Haco, king
of Norway — obtains the
Scottish Isles.
1258. Famous parliament at
Oxford. Simon d e
M 0 n t f o r t .
1259. Peace with France.
The World, elsewhere.
1241. Denmark :— Eric VI
1265. First regular parlia-
ment.— Civil war — the king
made prisoner at Lewes— is
released, and gains the bat-
tle of Evesham.
1270. Prince Edward joins the
eighth crusade.
1249. The Hanse towns cap-
ture Copenhagen.
1250. E°:ypt :— the Mame-
lukes rule— take Damas-
cus and Aleppo.
1255. Nice : — Theodore Lasca-
ris, emperor.
1256. Hulaku enters Persia,
becomes sultan — takes Bag-
dad, and puts an end to
the caliphate.
1258. Italy :— Dreadful naval
war between Venice and
Genoa.
1259. China :—Kublai Khan
builds Pekin, and makes it
his capital.
1261. Norway :— Iceland sub-
jected.
Italy :— Charles I.
1262. — becomes a papal fief.
Greenland tributary to
Norway.
Norway : —
-Masnus II.
1265. Abaka Khan of Persia,
1266 Magnus, of Norway,
cedes to Scot'and the He
brides and the Isle M JMan.
1270. Hungary:
-Stephen V
#
98
THE WORLD'S PROGHESS,
[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.
A.D. Progress OF Society, etc.
1272
1273
1276
1279
1285
Marco Polo travels in the
East as far as Pekin.
First patent of nobility grant-
ed to liis goldsmith by the
kii.'f? of France. This was
desicned as an attack npon
the feudal barons, and all
tite landed and hereditary
aristuciacy.
Literature and science flourish
in Spain, under AUbnzo, the
learned.
Chivalry and the tournaments
inti'oduced into Sweden.
University of Lisbon founded.
Roger Bacon, of Oxford, the
most learned man of the
middle ages.
Institution of the three great
courts of law in England.
Ecclesiastical.
France, Germany, & Spaim
1272. Languedoc falls to th«
crown.
1273. Ger.:— RodoIph.W
founds the house of
Hapsburg.
1274. 14th General Council at Lyons; first re-unicai of
the Eastern and Western Churches.
1276. Pope Innocent V., 4 mos.
" Adrian V., 1 mo.
" John XXI., 8 mos.
1277. Nicholas III., enriching
his family at the expense of
the churcii— he introduces
Nepotism.
1281. Pope Martin IV.
12S5. Pope rionorius IV.
1288. Pope Nicholas IV.
Nicholas TV. patronizes civil and religious literature, aaa
improves and embellishes Rome.
Albert, the mathematician, and
Prcvengal poet.
1276 France at war with Ua
tile.
1283. Germany Rodcph
makes his son, Albert, duk#
of Austria.
1285. Fr.:— Philip IV,
(the Fair.)
1286. Spain :— Alfonzo in.
king of Arragon,
1066-1299.— Continued.]
THE WOr.LD's PROGRESS.
95
Eastern Empire.
1273 ■ ■ Andronicas,
(the Elder.)
1274
Union with the Latin church.
:277
'281
Persecution of the Greeks.
Othman establishes an inde-
pendent rule, as chief of
400 families, in the north of
Aif'a Minor.
England &; Scotland.
1272. — Edward
1276. War between England
and Wales.
12^3. Edward has a son born
at Caernarvon, from which
the title. Prince of Wales,
descends to the eldest son of
the king.
Scotland T— Robert Bruce and
John Balliol contend for the
1289. Last payment of t?ibu.te
to the pope. .
The World, elsewhere.
1272. Hungary:
— ^Vladislas VI.
1276. Sweden : — Magnus L
Russia : — Hanseatic set-
tlement at Novogorod.
1279. China:— Kublia Khan
subdues the southern king-
dom, and becomes the Great
Khan.
China visited by Marco
Polo. ^
1279. Poland :— Lesco II. W—
1279. Portugal :— Dennis,^
the father of his roun-
try.
1280. Norway :— Eric 11.^—
1282. Sicilian vespers.
1282. Denmark :— Parliament
at Wurtembure.
First Handveste.
1286. Denmark :— Eric VI.
1289. The Mongols mvade
Hunsary and Poland.
1290. Hungary : —Andrew III
the Venetian.
Poland : Wenceslas,
king of Bohemia, takes Cra-
cow, and becomes duke o
Lesser Poland.
100
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period VL— The Middle Ages.-*
Progress of Society, etc.
Peter, of Albano, astrologer,
physician, and naturalistT
John Holywood. of England
astronomer.
Richard Middleton.
Cimabue, the first of modern
painters at Florence.
Arnolf di Lapo, the father of
modern Italian architecture
Ecclesiastical.
1292. Celestine V.— he abdi-
cates.
1292. The papal chair vacant
two years and three months
Institution of the order
of the Celestines.
1294. Pope Boniface VIII.
1296. Strusgles with France.
France, Germany <fc Spain.
1297. Canonization of Louis
IX.
The Inf luence of the
crusades teas great
expanding the
m ind of Euro p e — r e •
fining the general
manner s — exc iti 7ig
a spirit of geogra-
phical research and
adventur e — a nd pro-
moling i mp rovement
in the arts and sci-\
ences — thus under mining instead of
s tre7ig t hen ing the
First letters of marque grant- poioe r of p apal Rome,
ed by Edward III. against by advancing libe
the Portuguese. ral ideas and free
do7n of thought .
1291. Germany : — — .
— A d 0 1 p h u s ,^ —
of Nassau.
Spain :-~James n. k. of
Arragon.
1295. Spain : - Ferdinand IV.
in Castile ai d Leon.
Philip successfully in-
vades Flanders.
1298. Germany : — Adolphua
deposed by a Diet, which
elects
— Albert I.^ —
son of Rodolph.— Adolphua
slain in the struggle which
ensues.
1066-1299— Continued.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
1291
Eastern Empire.
Capture of Acre by the Ma-
melukes—end of th« king-
dom of Jerusalem.
The Mongols drive the last
sultan of Iconium from his
throne.
The Genoese obtain the trade
of the Black Sea, and rise to
great power
England & Scotland.
mi
Othman mvades Nicomedia,
and establishes the Ottoman
empire.
1291. Edward decides the
Scottish dispute in favor of
Baliol.
1292. A piratical warfare be-
tween England and France.
— Philip gets possession of
Guienne.
The World, elsewhere.
1296. Bali; 1 defeated; sub-
mits to Edward.
1297. Scotland :— S i r W i 1
1 i a m Wallace .— S i r
William Douglas,
Robert Bruce, and
other chiefs head a rebellion
against the English.
1299. —they are defeated at
Falkirk by king Edward I.
1292. Hungary:— The pope
sets up Charles Martel)
crown prince of Naples, as
king.
1294. China:— Tymui Chao.
1295. Poland :-
-Premislas II.'
1296. Poland:— Less H.W—
1299. Foundation of the
OTTOMAN or TURKISH
EMPIRE m Bythinia, uo-
der Othman I.
.i)2
THE world's progress.
PERIOD Yll.— The Middle Ages— 12m to 1453,—
Progress op Society, etc.
L'jiiversity at Lyons founded.
— Rapid advances in civili-
zation.— Revival of ancient
learning. — Improvements in
the arts and sciences — and
progress of liberiy.
The Mariner's Com-
pass invented at Naples,
by Gioia, native of Amald.
University at Avignon.
Dani c , the father of modern
Italian poetry, flourishes.
Amid the struggles of the
Guelfs and Ghibelines,
Italy becomes the cradle of
modern literature and im-
proving civilization.
University at Orleans.
University at Perugia.
University at Coimbra.
Knights of St. John at
Rhodes.
Order of Knights Templar
abolished. — The barons in
Ensland extort from Ed-
ward II. a reformation of
abuses. Parliaments are to
be held every year, and to
appoint to all imfwrtunt
offices.
Ecclesiastical.
France, Germany, «fc Spain-
1302. First convocation of iha
States-general in France.
Guienne restored to Eng-
land.
1304. France at war with
Flanders.
Germany: — The Swiss
towns rise into importance
— oppressed by the House of
Hapsburg.
1303. Pope Boniface VIII.
Council of Paris.
Ball unam sanctum.
Pope Benedict XI.
Vacancy in the papal
chair ne;irly eleven mon:hs.
— The pajml power de-
clines.
1305. Pope Clement V.
Seatof the popes transferred to Avig-
non.
1306. Persecution of the Jews
in France.
Germany • — R u d o II
of Austria, ft
1307. Per.secution of the
Knights Temp'ar.
Ger. : — William Tell
shoots Gesler.
1308. Germany : H e n r y
1311. General Council at Vien-
na.
Another vacancy in the
papal chair of more than
two years.
1316. Pope .John XXIL
Taxes imposed upon all
the countries of Europe, to
enrich the treasury of the
church.
of Luxemburg. ^^
General insurrection in
Switzerland.
1309. Spain:— Ferdinand IV.
takes Gibraltar.
1311. Lyons united to France.
1312. Spain :— Alfonzo XL
of Castile and Leon.
1314. Fr. :-Lcuis X.W-
(Hutin.)
Ger. :— Louis of Bava-
ria, and Frederick of A us
tria. contenil for the crown,
1315. Fr. :— Edict for the en-
franchisement of slaves.
Battle of Morgarten— the
Austrians defeated by th«
Swiss.
1316. Fr.:-Philip V. Wi-
ethe Long.) HesucceeTsby
virtue of the Salique ^aw
now first established.
154
THE world's progress.
irs. — Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire.
103
1303
Eastern Empire.
War of the Catalans, under
Roger de Flor.
Othman increases his posses-
sions ; abandons the pasto-
ral life, and fortifies towns
and castles.
England «fe Scotland. The World, elsewhere
1303. Edward invades Scot-
land. — Wallace betr.nyed
and beheaded. — Scotland
submits.
Edward recovers Gui-
enne.
1310 The Knights of St. John of
Jerusalem, established at
Rh Ddes.
1306. Scotland: — R obe rt
Bruce jM-oclaimed king
— is obliged to flee ; but,
Edward dying, resumes his
position.
1307.Eng. :Edward II. W
Scot. : — Bruce strength-
ens himself by repeated 'ad-
va.i^ges and prudent con-
du ■.-..
1301. Hungary :— AndreWj the
Venetian. ^^
Extinction of the hous«
of Arpad.
— Wenceslas III. of Bo
hemi
1314. Edward invades Scot-
land, and is defeated at the
Battle of Bannock-
burn
The Scots invade Eng-
land and Ireland.
1304. — Otto v.. of Bava
ria.W
1305. Polai fl :— Vladislas IV.,
in Little Poland, and
Duke Henry, of Glogau,
in Great Poland.
Russia subject to the
Khan of Tartary.
1307. Switzerland:
W m . Tell escapes from
Gesler :
SWISS Republics
louniled, Nov. 7.
1308. Hungary :— Carobert, of
Anjou. ^§
1309. Poland united into one
monarchy under Vladislas
IV.
Naples : — Robert, the
Good. He aspires to the
dominion of Italy.
1310. Italy :— The Council of
Ten established at Venice.
1313. Italy ;—Matteo Visco.ati.
1314. Tunis made tributary to
Spain.
1316. Italy :— Castruccio, Lord
of Lucca and Pisa.
1317. Robert, the Good, a sena-
tor of Rome, and
1313. —lord of Genoa.
1319. Final establishment of
the oligarchy at Venica
.04
THE world's progress. [Period VIL— The Middle Agei.—
A.D, Progress op Society, etc.
1321
1323
^325
1326
1331
1335
1337
:340
3345
1347
1-350
lJ56
Dante, dies.
John de Muris introduces
notes of different length into
music— and ihe method of
distinguishing them.
Romance poetry of the middle
ages llouiishes.
Mayronis commences the cele-
brateil disputations in the
Sorbunne.
Clock constructed on mathe-
matical principles, by Rich-
ard Valigfort.
Linna, a monk, and astrono-
mer of Oxford, constructs a
map of the northern seas.
Thomas,of Bradwardlne, arch-
bishop of Canterbury.
Giotto, a shepherd boy, the
first who drew portraits
from life.
Greek literature revives. —
Barlaam teaches Petrarch.
— Leonlius lectures on Ho-
mer at Florence.
First comet, whose course has
been accurately described.
GUNPOWDER in use at
the battle of Cressy.
Lippo Memmi Giotino, Flo-
rentine painter.
First bank at Genoa.
Ecclesiastical.
1324. Contest of the popes
with Louis of Bavaria.
1328. Crusade preached agains.
Louis, who sets up Nicholas
V. as anti-pope.
1334. Pope Benedict XII.
1339. Struggles in Rome be-
tween the Colonna and the
Ursini.
1342. Pope Clement VL
Democracy at Rome, under Rienzi, the last of the Tri-
bunes.
Manufactures improve in
England. — Commerce in-
creases.
Bartolus and Baldus, cele-
brated jurists.
Merino sheep introduced into
Spain, by Peter IV. of Ara-
gon.
sir John Mandeville's Tra-
vels, the first English book
in prose.
1352. Pope Innocent VI.
1354. Rienzi killed. — Albernoz,
cardinal legate, restores the
papal dominion.
France, Germany, <fc Spain
1322. France:
Charle
I V.*^ -(the Fair.)
Germany :— Frederic, ol
7*'jsiria defeated and taker
prisoner.
1324. Germany :- Louis ax-
communicated by John XII.
— appeals to a general coun-
cil.
1.328. France :-P h i 1 i p VI
of Valois.W
1332. France :— The Fleminga
revolt and acknowledge Ed-
ward III. as king ol France.
1338. France :- War with Eng-
land.
Germany : — Declaration
of the Diet of Frankfort,
tliat the pope had no tempo-
ral power in the empire.
Louis sides with the
English against France.
1 346. France : — Normandy
overrun by Edward, with
his son, the Black Prince. —
French defeated at Cressy.
Germany : — C h a r 1 e s
IV., king of Bohemia.
The empire offered to
Edward III, who declines.
13.50. France :— .T o h n , W—
(the Good.)
1355. Germany : — Promulga-
tion of the golden Bidt.
1356. France : — King John de-
feated and taken prisoner at
PMiiers. — Charles the dau-
phin resent.
Insurrection in Pans.
1360. France:— John regaina
his liberty— cedes much ter-
ritory to England
1299-1453— 1*5 i7/c«r.s.— Continued.] THE world's progress.
105
.D. I Eastern Empire.
1320 Disputes and civil war be-
tween the emperor and his
son, Michael.
1326
1328
1341
1348
Orkhan, sultan of the Turks,
makes Prusa his capital.
Andronicus,
(the younger.)
— John Cantacuzene.
1360
War with the Genoese, defeat
of the Greeks and Venetians.
John Palaeologus.
Amurath
Turks.
Sultan of the
England & Scotland.
1322. Lancaster executed.
1323. Conspiracy against the
king.
1327. Peace between Scotland
and England. — The inde-
pendence of Scotland ac-
knowledged.
—Edward III. ft—
1329. Scotland .—David 11.
1332. Edward invades Scot-
land.— Balliol crowned, but
soon expelled.
1333. Battle of Halidon Hill.
— Balliol restored — does ho-
mage to Edward.
1338. Struggle for the French
crown,which lasts 120 years.
1340. The victory of Helvoet
Sluys — gives spirit to the
English navy.
""David, of Scotland, in-
vades England.
1346. Battle of Cressy.
1M7. Siege and capture of
1350. Viclory over the Spanish
fleet. — Parliament divided
into two chambers, lords
spiritual and temporal.
1356. Edward, the
Black Prince,
gains the battle of
Poitiers. — John made
prisoner.— Two years' truce.
— Edward again invades
Scotland — is obliged to re-
treat.
1358. — again invades France.
136(r. Peace of Bretigni.
The World, elsewhere.
1320. Russia : — The grand
duchy of Wladimir confer-
red on Ivan Danilovitsch.
1326. Tartary ; — Tamer-
lane born at Kesh.
1327. Italy :— Invaded by Louis,
emperor of Germany.
1333. Poland : — Casimir the
Great.A
1339. Italy:— Simon Bocane-
gra, doge of Genoa.
1.340. Denmark : — Waldemar
IV. restorer of the kingdom.
1342. Hungary : — Louis the
Great.
1343. Italy : Commercial
treaty between Venice and
the sultan of Egypt and
Syria.
1347. Italy :— R i e n z i , the
last of the Tribunes, rules
at Rome.
1350. Italy :— Naval war be-
tween Venice and Genoa.
1353. Establishment of the Ot-
tomans in Europe.
1354. Italy :—Rienzi killed—
papal flower restored.
1356. First war between Hua«
gary and Venice.
1359. Hungary :— Conquest of
the principalities lying en
the Danube.
5*
/06
THE WORLD'S TROGRESS.
[Period VII.— The Middle Ages.-'
1364
1365
VM\
1333
J 336
1390
1392
1400
140-2
PaoGiiEss OF Society, etc.
Petrarch and Boccacio.
Charles V. founds a college of
medicine and astrology at
Paris.
Foundation of the University
of Vienna.
Geof. Chaucer, fath er
of English poetry.
Mysteries played in Prance.
Wickliffe's translation of the
Bible.
University of Heidelberg
founded.
FroissarVs, Chronicles.
John Van Eyck, invented oil
painting — founder of the
Flemish school.
The first mill in Germany for
the manufacture of linen
paper.
Chaucer's Astrolabe written.
Revival of Greek literature in
Italy.
Chaucer dies.
John Gower, English poet.
Ecclesiastical.
1362. Pope Urban V. at Avig-
non— beautifies the city of
Rome— presents the right
arm of Thomas Aquinas to
Charles V. of France, as an
object of worship.
1370. Pope Gregory IX.
1378. " Schism of the West:"
Pope Urban VI. ac-
knowledged in the empire
and England.
Clement VII. acknow-
ledged in France, Spain, and
Scolland.
1389. Pope
Rome.
Boniface IX.
1391. The English clergy for-
bidden to cross the sea for
benefices.
1394 Tope Benedict XIII.
France, Germany & Spain,
1364. Fr.:— Charles V.l
(the Wise.)
1365. War with Navarre— bat-
tle of Amoy,
1378. Germany:— Wen ces-
las, (king of Bohemia),
emperor.
1380. Fr. : CharlesVI.^
(the Maniac).
1382. Battle of Rosbecq— the
Flemings defeated — Arte-
velde killed.
1386. France : — Fruitless at-
tempt to invade England.
1392. —Charles seized with
madness.
1394. Germany :— The emf er-
or imprisoned by the peopie
of Prague.
1400. Ger. :— Roberti
(Count Palatine).
1299-1453.— 154 years— Continued.] the world's progress.
107
1373
1389
1391
Eastern Empire.
Treaty with Murad, the Otto-
man emperor.
Bajazet 1., sultan of the Turks.
Manuel II.
emperor.
England & Scotland.
1362. The Black Prince aids
Peter the Cruel, of Castile,
to recover his throne.
1369. A new war with France ;
unsuccessful.
1371. Scotland :— Robert II.—
the House of Stuart.
1376. Death of the Black
Prince.
1377.— Richard II. @—
First Speaker of the House
1402
Bftjazet defeated and made
of Commons.
1378. Fruitless invasion of
France.
Insurrection of Wat Ty-
ler.
1382. The king marries Anne,
daughter of Charles IV.
1384. The Scots, assisted by
France, invade England.
1385. The English bum Edin-
burgh.
1333. Battle of Otterbourne.
1390, Scotland : Robert III.
Persecution of the Wick-
Mtes.
The World, elsewhere.
1362. Italy: — War between
Pisa and Florence.
1369. Tartary : — Tamerlane
makes Samarcand the capi-
tal of his new empire.
1370. Poland :— Extinction o(
the royal race of Piasts.
Victory of Nicopolis. — Sigis-
mond, of Hungary, defeated ,„„„ ^^ . _
by Bajazet I. ^393. Henry, of Lancaster
banished
House of Lancas
ter:
1399. —Henry IV.
Richard II. deposed
1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen-
dower, and
^n-isoner by Tamerlane, at 1 1403. of the Percys, who are
the battle of Angora. defeated at the battle of
• Shrewsbury.
1378. Italy :— Silvester de Me-
dici, gbnfaloniere of Flo-
rence.
1380. Russia :— Dimitri Ivano-
vitsch victorious over the
Tartars, near the Don.
1382. The Tartars sack Mos-
cow.
1384. Persia : — Invaded by
Tamerlane ; Ispahan taken.
— Pyramids of human heads.
1335. War between Austria
and Switzerland.
1386. Battle of Sempach:—
the Austrians defeated.
1387. Denmark «fc Norway : —
Margaret, @ the Semi-
ramis of the north.
1391. Italy :— Pisa falls under
the yoke of the Visconti.
1395. Tamerlane overruns
Kif-chak and Russia
1397. Union of Calmar, form-
ing Denmark, Sweden, and
Norway into a single mo-
narchy.
1399. Invasion of India by
Tamerlane.
108
THE world's progress.
[Period VII. -The Middle Ages.
Progress of Society, etc.
Rodrigo, of Zamora, Spanish
historian.
University of Leipsic found-
ed.
Thcmas a Kempis.
John Huss.
Jerome, of Prague.
First Portuguese colonies on
the coast of Africa, Madei-
ra, dec.
George of Peurbach, astrono-
mer at Vienna.
Peter d'Ailly, theologian.
The arts promoted in Italy by
Cosmo de Medici.
England increases her trade
with the Mediterranean.
Michael Walhgemuth, Ger-
man painter, (teacher of
Durer).
Fra. Filippo Lippi^ painter.
INVENTION OF PRINT-
ING at Mayence.
John Miiller Reg iomont anus,
German astronomer and
mathematician.
Ecclesiastical.
1404. Pope Innocent VII.
1406. " Gregory XII.
1409. The council of Pisa de-
poses Gregory and Bene-
dict, and elects Alexander
V. ; — neither will yield, so
that there are three popes at
unce.
1410. Pope John XXIII.
1414. Council of Constance.
1416. John Huss, and Jerome,
of Prague, burnt by the
Council of Constance.
1417. Pope Martin V.
1429. Pope Clement VIII. at
Avignon, resigns, and ends
the " Schism of the West."
1431. PopeEiigeniusIV.
Council of Basle.
France, Germany, «fc Spain.
1407. France : — Murder of
Louis, Duke of Orleans.
Spain:— John II., king
of Castile.
1410. Spain :— Ferdinand, king
of Arragon. — Yusicf HI.,
king of Granada.
1410. Fr. :— Civil war between
the parties of Orleans and
Burgundy.
Germany : — Death of
Robert.
1411, S i g i s m u n d , (king
of Hungary),^^ empe-
ror.
1413. France: — The French
defeated by Henry V., of
England, at Agincourt.
1416. Spain :— Alforizo V., king
of Arragon and Sicily.
1419. Sigismund succeeds to
the Bohemian crown.
1422. France :— Death of Char-
les VI — Henry VI. pro-
claimed at Paris king of
France and England.
— Charles VII. ^ —
at Poitiers.
1427. Orleans besieged by tho
English.
1429. —saved by J o a n o 1
Arc.
Charles crowned at
Rheims ; makes a vain at-
tempt to gain Paris.
1431. Joan of Arc taken pri-
soner and burnt as a witch.
1431. Germany: — Sigismund
visits Italy, and is crowned
ernperor by Pope Eugeniua
IV.
143.5. Peace of Arras, betweea
France and Burgundy.
1436. France :— Recovery of
Paris.
1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, estaWishes the liber-
ties of the French church.
/299-1453 :— 154 yc^r^.— Continued ] THE world's progress.
109
1403
1413
1421
1425
1438
Eastern Empire.
Solyinan L, Sultan of the
Turks.
Mohammea I., Sultan of the
Turks.
Amurath II., Sultan of the
Turks.
John VII.
peror.
The emperor visits Italy to
obtain help against the
Turis— submits to the pope.
England & Scotland.
1406. Scotland :— James I.
1413.
-Henry V
1414. — claims the French
crown.
1415. — gains the battle
of Agincourt.
1420. Treaty of Troyes.-Henry
marries Catharine, daughter
of Charles VI., and is de-
clared heir to the French
crown.
1422. Death of Henry V.
—Henry V I .^-
1424. The Duke of Bedford
defeats the French at Ver-
neuil.
1427. —besieges Orleans.
1429. The siege raised by the
Maid of Orleans.
431. —she is taken prisoner
and burnt.
1435. Death of the Duke of
Bedford, followed by the
loss of all the English pos-
sessions in France, except
Calais
1436. War with Scotland.
1437. Scotland :— James II.
The World, elsewhere.
1406. Italy :— Pisa cor quered
by Florence.— Subjugation
of Padua and Verona by
Venice.
1412. Italy:— Sack of Rom«
by Ladislas, king of Naples.
Denmark, Norway, «fec. :
Eric VII., of Pomerania.^^
1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by
the Portuguese.
1419. Bohemia :— Hussite war.
1420. Discovery of Madeira
by the Portuguese.
1424. Bohemia :-Death of John
Ziska, the Hussite leader.
Italy : — War of the Duke
of Milan against Florence.
1429. Florence:— Cosmo di
Medici, patron of the
arts and sciences.
1431. Italy :— Second war of
Venice and Milan.
1434. Poland :-VIadislas IIL
1436. Italy:— Third war be-
tween Venice and Milan.
1437. Portugal : — Expedition
into Africa.
1438. Portugal :— Alfonso V^
king.W
no
THE world's PROGHESS.
[Period VII.— The Middle Ages. -^
1444
1446
1147
1448
1450
PftooRESs OF Society, etc.
Leonardo da Vinci^ sculptor,
architect, and painter—dis-
covers perspective.
Pet. Perugino, founder of the
lloinan school of painting.,
teacher of Raphael.
Library of the Vatican, found-
ed.
The Azores discovered.
Alain Chartica. French poet.
Flourishinsr period of Flan-
ders' trade.— AW European
nations have warehouses at
Bruges and Ghent. — Book
trade at MoAjence.
ler.
Ecclesiastical.
France. Germany & Spain,
1438. Germany : ~ H o u B «
of Austria:
1447. Pope Nicholas V.
1448. Concordat of Aschaffen-
bersr, by which the liberties
of the German church are
compromised.
— Albert 1
(king of Bohemia andTJun-
gary.)
1440. Ger. :-Frederic
France :— The dauphin,
(Louis XL), rebels— but is
pardoned.
1444. —establishment of the
companies of Archers, the
first national standing army.
1446. Germany : — War with
Hungary, for refusing to
give up the young prince,
Vladislas.
1451. Expedition of Frederic
to Rome.
1453. Austria made an hendi-
tary duchy by Frederic.
End of the French uid
English wars.
1299-1453.— 154 2/^ars.— Continued.] THE world's progress. ..S
A.D.
Eastern Empire.
England <fe Scotland.
The World, elsewhere.
'
•
1440. Hungary: — '^'Jadislaa
chosen kmg.^^— —
1441. Italy:- Peace of MarU-
1413
Insurrectiai of S(andeberg—
"J^SO- ,
victory over the Turks near
1443. Alfonso V., of Arragon,
Nissa.
unites the crown ol the Two
Sicilies.
J444
Battle of Varna — Vladislas.
1444. Truce with France.—
king of Poland, defeated and
Mai-riage of Henry to Mar-
killed by the 'i'arks.
garet, of Anjou.
1447. Gloucester arrested for
treason— dies suddenly.
1445. Poland : Casimir IV.#
1446. Tartary : — Ulugh Beg,
patron of astronomy and
geography.
•448
Constantine XII. @
1448. Denmark :— Christian L
(Palaeologus,) the last of the
Greek emperors.
•*
of Odenburg.^^
Sweden :— Charles VIII. ^
1450. Insurrection of Jack
1450. Italy :— Francesco Sfor-
Carfe— calling himself Mor-
za, duke of Milan.
1^51
Mohammed II., Sultan of the
timer.
Norway : Christian
Turks.
Civil Wars of
"the Roses:''
Richard, duke of York,
crowned at Drontheim.^^
claims the throne.
Delhi :— Behol Lodi en-
larges (he kingdom.
1453
Siege and capture
1453. Poland : —Confirmation
of ConstantinopJe
Scotland :— Struggles be-
of the national liberty in th«
by the Turks:
tween the king and arisfo-
Diet of Petri kan.
END OF THE EAST-
cracy for power.
ERN EMPIRE.
112
THE world's progress.
PERIOD nn.~1453-1598.-
AO.
PRDGREas OP Society, etc.
England.
Scotland.
France.
Spain and
Portugal.
Philip de Comines^ French
1454. Spain :^
historian.
1455. Battle of
Henry IV. of
Castile. @
St. Albana.
146C
Wood engraving invented.
House
of York:
1460. James
1461. —Ed-
III.
1461. Louis
ward IV.
^
1469. Marriage
1464
Post- Offices in France and
W- gains
XI.®
ofFerdinand,
England.
Civil war.—
of Arrason,
tho battle of
—Peace of
with Isabel-
Towton.
Conflans.
la, of Cas-
1466
Faust dies at Paris, whither
.le journeys twice to sell his
Latin Bible.
tile.
1470
Beerhard invents the pedal to
the organ.
1469.Warwick
1471
Printing in England— Cax-
ton.
banished.
1471. Battle of
Barnet :
1473
Printed musical notes.
Hungary :— Mathias patroni-
zes literature and the arts.
Warwick
slain.— Hen-
ry VI. dies in
the Tower.
Large library at Ofen— 300
1475. War be-
copyists 01" manuscripts.
tween Louis
and Charles
1476
German ballads— war songs of
1483. Ed-
of B'irgun-
1476. —who is
Veit Weber.
ward V .
* ■
1479. War with
1479. Union
England. —
defeated at
of Castile
1477
FTa/cAes first made at Nurem-
Conspiracy
of the no-
Gransonand
Morat, and
and A r r a -
g 0 n under
Ferdinand
1 1 . and I s a-
bella.
1480. The In-
qu i si tion.
— X i m e
1481
burg.
Mikrond and Ronderair, great
Persian historians.
Lady Juliana Berners, one of
Richard,
Protector. —
The king &
his brother
murdered in
the Tower.
bles ; — they
take the king
prisoner.
1477. —slain at
Nancy.
Artois and
Burgundy
united to the
French
the earliest female writers
crown.^.
n e s , bishoL
of Toledo.
of England.
— R i c h -
ard III.
ITans Holbein, painter.
*-
1481. Port. :-
John 11.^
1484. First au
1484
Franchino Gafurid, teacher in
1485. -Henry,
earl of Rich-
1483.-Char.
les VIII.
the first public school of
music at Milan.
mond, lands
at Mi I ford
Haven.
4
da-fe at S«
ville.
Josquin de Prez, greatest mu-
sical genius of his age.
Battle
of B 0 s-
worth
Field:
Richard
defeated and
slain.
THE WOKLD'S PROCKESS.
Othman to the Edict of Nantes.
113
A.D.
Germany.
1462
The emperor besieged in his
court at Vienna— delivered
by G. Podiebrad, of Bohe-
mia.
1469
1472
Invasions of the Turks.
University of Ingoldstodt.
.477 Marriage of Maximilian and
Maria of Burgundy.
I
1455. Turks re-
pulsed at Bel-
grade.
1454. Struggle
between Cos-
mod da Me-
dici and the
aristocracy.
1458. The
French rule
in Genoa.
Pope Pi-
us 11.
1463. War of
Venice with the Turks.
Ottoman
Empire.
1464. Pietrode
Medici at
Florence.
Pope Paul
II.
1466. Galeaz-
zo, duke of
Milan.
1469. L o r e n -
zo de Me-
dici, suc-
ceeds Pietro.
1471. Sixtus
IV. pope.
Power of
the Medici
increases.
Learning
flourishes,
1478. Conspi
racy of the
Pazzi at Flo-
rence.~Giu-
lio, brother
of Lorenzo
de Medici,
slain.
l464.Warwith
Hungary.
The World, elsewhere.
1454. Poland :— War with the
Teutonic Order.
1458. Huns
iry:-
Mathia»
1484. Innocent
VIIL, pope.
Corvin,^ ;nakes his
country formidable to her
neighbors.
1462. Russia :-Ivan I. ^--
the Great— takes the title >f
Czar.
1466. Peace of Thorn.— East
Prussia a fief of Poland.—
West Prussia ceded to Po-
land.
1468. Uzun Hasan, master of
all Persia.
1470. —forms an alliance with
the Venetians and the duke
of Burgu.i dy against the Turks— con-
quers Bagdad.
1472. Russia : — Ivan marries
Sophia, niece of the Greek
emperor.
1474. —shakes off the Tartar
yoke, and captures Novo-
gorod.
1479. Fruitless
attempt upon
Rhodes.
1480. -capture
and destroy
Ot.ranio.
1481. Bajazet
the tirst un-
warlike sul
tan.
1477. Hungary-
Frederic III.
-War with
1481. Denmark :— John,^
partially acknowledged
Sweden.
1488. Hungary :-
takes Vienna.
■Mathias
iU
THE world's progress.
[Penod VIIL^
1490
1492
1493
149:
-8
1493
Progress op Society, etc.
1499
15U2
i5l5
1517
1522
Martini Behaim, (Nurem-
burg,) publishes a 7nai> of
the world.
DISCOVERY or
AMERICA.
First printing press at Copen-
hagen.
The second voyage of Colum-
bus.— A Spanish colony at
Hispanioia.
The discoveries of John and
Sebastian Cabot.
Third voyage of Columbus.
He discovers Trinidad and
the Continent.
Lisbon, the great seat of trade.
— Venice declines.
Maritime enterprises greatly
extended.
Sir Thomas Morels Utopia.,
published.
Nicholas Machinvelli, states-
man and historian.
Amerigo Vespucius's voyage.
F^oarlk voyage of Columbus.
Raphael' Michael Angela, Ti-
tian, Corregio, painters.
St. Peter'' s, and other magni-
ficent churches built.
The cele' rated tapestry, after
Raphael ;— Cartoons woven
in the Netherlands.
L UTHER, Erasmus,
M e 1 a n c t h 0 a , and other
reformers.
Roger Ascham, tutor of queen
Elizabeth.
Hans Sachs, founder of Ger-
man drama.
Copernicus, discovers
the true system of the Uni-
verse— his great work, De
Orbium Coeiestium Revolu-
tionibus.
First complete circumnavi-
gation of the qlobe, by iMa-
gellan
England.
House of
Tudor:—
—Henry VII.
1436. Imposture of
Lambert Symnel.
The Star Cham-
ber established.
1493. Perkin War-
beck, pretends to
be Richard, duke
of York — defeated
on Blackheath.
1497. Cabot makes
discoveries in A-
merica.
1499. Earl of
Warwick, last
of the Plantage
nets, executed.
Scot-
land.
1487. : —
James
IV.
France.
1509. - — H e n r y
VIII.^
joins the League
of Cambray.
1513. Invasion of the
Scots. — Battle of
Flodden — the king
and chief Scots
killed.
1515. W o I s e y ,
chancellorand car-
dinal.
1520. The Emperor
visits England. —
Meeting o'f Henry
and Francis at the
"Field of the Cloth
of Gold."
1521. The Reformed
doctrines opposed
by Henry, in his
book in the Seven
SacraKients — he
receives the title
of " Defender of
the Faith."
1503.:-
James
marries
Marga-
ret, of
Eng-
land.
.513. : -
James
V.
1491. Bretag-
ne united to
the crown
by the king's
marriage
with Anne.
1494. Invasion
of Italy.
1498.— Louis
xii.'i-
1499. m-
vades Italy
— conquers
the Mil
Duchy
1.500. Treaty
with Ferdi-
nand, of Ara-
gon, for the
conquest and
partition of
Naples.
1510. The
Council of
Tours, to
support the
king aiiainst
the Hoiy
League.
1515. — Fran ■
CIS l.'^ —
— invades
Italy — victory
of Marigna-
no — Genoa
and Milan
submit.
1516. Concor-
dat with the
pope, instead
of pragma-
tic sanction.
1521. First war
with Char-
les V.
Spain and
Portugal.
1492. Con
quest o
Granada,,
by Gonzala
de Cordova.
Discovery
of Ameri-
ca, by Co-
lumbus,
1498. Vasco
d e G a m a
doubles the
Cape of
Good Hope,
and reaches
India.
1506. Colum-
bus dies at
Vdlladolid.
1507. Cardinal
Ximenes.
Board ol
American
trade at Se-
ville.
1516.— Ch a I
les,#-
king ot ail
Spain, and
the Nether-
lands.
1519. Con
quest of
Mexico
by Coi tea.
453-1598.]
THE world's progress.
115
14fti
502
.50S
1512
1517
1518
1519
1^21
Germany,
-Maximilian
Italy.
University of Wittenburg.
Maximilian enters Italy to be
crowned by the pope.
—joins the League of Cani-
bray.
— divides the empire into ten
circles.
Commencement op
THE Reformation.
Luther summoned before the
diet of Augsburg.
— Charles V .® —
of Spain.
The archduke Ferdinand, mar-
ries Anne, sister of Louis —
whence the accession of
Bohemia and Hungary to
the Hiiuse of Hapsburg.
Diet of Worms.
1492. PietroH
succeeds his
father, Lo-
renzo, in Flo-
rence.
Pope Alex-
ander VI.,
(Boma.)
1494. Expedi-
tion ot' Char-
les VIII. in-
to Italy.
1499. Amerigo
Vespucius's
voyage to
America.
150U. Partition
of Naples
between
France and
Spain.
1502. Florence:
Macldavelli.
Secretary oi
Slate.
1503. Naples
annexed to
the Spanish
Crown.
Pope Pius
HI.
Pope Ju-
lius II.
1508. League
of Cambraij
against Ve-
nice.
1510. Holy
League to
expel the
French.
1511. Council
of Pisa.
1513. Pope
Leo X.
(de Medici.)
patron of li-
terature and
arts.
The build-
ing of St.
Peter's com-
menced.
1519. Cardinal
de Medici
holds rule in
Florence.
1522. Pope
Adrian VI,
Ottoman
Empire.
1493. Wars
with Egypt
Hungai-y,
and Venice.
The World, elsewhere.
1503. Peace
wi(h Venice.
1505. War with
Persia.
1512. Selim I.,
# de-
thrones and
puts to death
his father.
1514. The Per-
sians defeat-
ed at Kalde-
roon. — Me-
sopotamia
and Kiirdis-
Un added lo
the empire.
1516. Cairo
taken by
storm.— Ma-
meluke do-
minions an-
nexed to the
empire.
1520. Soliman,
Magnificent.)
1521.'Beigrade
taken by
std-m.
1522. Rhodes
capitulates.
1458. India :— Sekander Lodi,
king of Delhi.
1492. Poland:— John Albert.
AMERICA discovered by Co-
lumbus.
1493. Spanish colony at His
paniola.
1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves-
pucius.-— South American
coast explored.
1501.Polai.J ;— Alexander.'
] 502. Ismail Shah Soo.l makea
himself sole sovert\gn of
Persia,
1506. Poland :—Sigismund I.
® (the Great.)
1509. Bohemia :— Louis,^-.
3 years old.
1510. America: — Settlement
at Darien.
1511. America : — Cuba con-
quered.
1512. America: — Florida
di.'Cdvered.
1513. South Sea first reached
by Balboa.
1516. Hungary and Bohemia ;
-Louis n.^
1517. India :— Ibrahim LodL
king 0/ Delhi
1517. Amenca.:— First patent
for importing Negroes — ■
granted by Spain.
1518. Corsairs in Algiers.
1519. MEXICO conquered by
the Spaniarf^, under Coj^
tes.
116
THE world's progress.
[I eriod VIIL—
154S
Progress op Society, etc.
Xavier plants Christianity in
India.
Ariosto, Italian poet.
Albert Durer.
F.rst work on military archi-
tecture.
Jorgeng invents the spinning
wheel lor spinning flax.
Rabelais, French humorist.
Botanic Gardens at Padua.
Ignatius Loyola founds the
order of the Jesuits.
Papal bull declaring the Ame-
rican natives to be rational
beings.
The diving bell invented.
Calvin founds the Univer-
sity of Geneva.
Pins first used by Catharine
Howard, queen of England.
John Knox, Scottish Refor-
mer.
A commercial treaty between
Portugal and Japan.
Needles first made.
Vasaiius's work on Anatomy.
Revival of Stoicism, by Justus
Lipsius.
Pale.nrina, founder of Italian
church music.
Giacomo Carisimi.
Orange trees introduced into
Europe.
England.
Scot-
land.
1529. Sir Thomas
More, Lord Chan-
cellor. — Rise of
Cranmer, archbi-
shop of Canter-
bury.
1532. The king mar-
ries Anne Boleyn.
1535. Bishop Fisher
and Sir Thomas
More beheaded.
Henry excom-
municated by the
Pope
1536. — marries Jane
Seymour. — Sup-
pression of the
smaller monaste-
ries,
L543 Henry invades
France ~ — takes
Boulogne.
1.544. French fleet
gain a victory over
the English, off
the Isle of Wight
1547.
Edward
vi.W—
Somerset invades
Scotland —defeats
the Scots at Pin-
kie.
Formal esta-
blishment of Pro-
testantism.
1.536. : -
Spread
of the
Refor-
maiion.
—Pro-
testants
persecu-
ted.
1542.:-
Mary.
Earl of
Arran,
regent.
France.
1525. Francis
defeated and
taken pri-
soner at Pa-
via.
1527. Second
war with
Charles V.
1529. Treaty of
Cam bray. —
Great en-
couragement
given to arts
and sciences.
—The Lou-
vre com-
menced.
15.32. Calvin
preaches.
Tiiird
French war,
— Siege of
Marseilles.
Spain and
Portugal.
1.538. Truce of
Nice — for 10
years.
Attempt to
recover pow-
er in Italy ;
hence the
1.542. Fourth
French war.
1544. Peace of
Crespy.
France gives
up Italy.
1547. Henry
The fa-
mous Catha-
rine d e
Medici,
queen.
1536. Ac(:i'!si
lion of Mi
Ian.
1540. Portu-
gal : — Lis-
bon,the mar-
ket of tha
world.
1542. Com-
mercial trea-
ty between
Portugal and
Japan.
1463-1598.J
THE world's PRCGRESS.
117
1525
1526
l{i29
1538
lbl3
1545
I<)
1647
Germany.
General insurrections of the
peasantry, under Thomas
Miinzer.
Charles marries Isabella, of
Portugal.
Death ol Frederic, of Saxony.
The Turks invade Germany.
— Diet of Spires. — Luther-
ans first called Protestants.
League of Smalcald.
Congress of Nice between the
Emperor, the Pope, and the
king of France-
War in alliance with England
against France.
Diet of Worms.
War of the Sqjalcaldista.
Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo-
uy.
Italy.
1523. Clement
VII. , pope.
15'25. Spain ac-
quires the
ascendency
by the victo-
ry of Pavia.
1527. The Me-
dici expelled
from Flo-
rence.
1.530. Medici
restored. —
Charles V.
crowned at
Bologna.
1534. Paul III.,
pope.
1537. Cosmo
de Medici,
duke of Tus-
cany.
1540. Investi-
ture of Mi-
lan cortfer-
red by Char-
?.es V. on
Philip.
1545. Council
of Trent.
Ottoman
Empire.
1526. Invasion
of Hungary.
1529. Invasion
ofGermany.
—Siege of
Vienna.
The Otto-
man na vy
formidable
under the
command of
Barbarossa
1535. —who
seizes Tu-
nis. — The
emperor,
Charles V.,
restores the
Moorish
king. -
1541. Destruc-
tion of an ar-
mament, led
by Charles
V. against
Algiers.
1547. The
Turks in-
vade Persia,
and capture
Ispahan.
The World, elsewhere.
1523. Sweden :— Revolt under
Gustavus Vasa .—The
Danes expelled. — Union of
Calmar dissolved.
Denmark and Norway •
—Frederic I.^
1525. Albert, duke of Prussia
1530. Malta give^. to the
knights of Rhodes
1532. Union of Norway and
Denmark.
1533. Conquest of Pe.
r u , by Cortes.
Russia :— Ivan IV., (the
Terrible).
1536. Cortes discovers Califor-
nia.
1543. First standing array ia
Sweden.
1545. South America :— Mined
of Potosi discovered.
1548. Poland :—Sigiamuud 0^
W (AjgUBtUB).
118
THE world's progress.
[Period VIIL--
i5-=V8
1559
1560
Progress op Society, etc.
Scaliger, Philologist.
Montatgne, French Essayist.
Cardan, Italian philosopher.
Sealing wax comes into use
in Europe.
Foundation of Jesuit Colleges
in opposition to Protestant
Schools. The first at Co-
imbra, in Portugal.
Only two carriages in Paris —
horses and litters generally
used.
Snufffirstbrought into France.
—Knives first made in Eng-
land.
Torquato Tasso Guarini.
poets.
Camoens, Portuguese poet
Thomas TcUlie, English mu-
siciaii.
England.
1549. The English
Liturgy comple-
ted and establish-
ed by act of Par-
liament.
1553. Northumber-
land intrigues to
settle the crown on
Lady .lane Grey,
his daughter-in-
law.
— Mary .^a —
Catholicism re-
stored.
1554. The queen
marries Phihfj, of
Sjiain. — Lord Dud-
ley and Lady .lane
Grey executed.
1555. Bloody perse-
cution of Protes-
tants.
1557. War with
France to support
Spain.— Calais
lost.
L558. — Eliza-
beth, w
Cecil, Lord
Burleigh, Secreta-
tary of'Siate.
Protnslantism
established.
The Puritans
begin to rise.
1568. —Mary, queen
of Scots, takes re-
fuge in England—
and is imprisoned,
1570. Civil wars of
the Desmonds in
in Ireland.
SCOT.
LAND.
1560. Ca-
tholic-
ism abo-
lished
by par-
liament.
1505. : —
Mary
marries
Lord
Darn-
ley.
1565. : —
Revolt
of Pro-
testants .
1.567. : —
Darn ley
murder-
ed— the
queen
marries
earl of
Both-
well— is
dethron-
ed and
impri-
soned at
Lochle-
ven.
James
1570. :—
Lennox
regent.
France.
1552. Fifth war
with Char-
les V.
1557. The
French defeat-
ed at St.
Quentin.
1558.— at Gra-
vclines.
1559. Peace of
Chateau —
Cambresis.
F r a n c i s
II. 4
Duke of
Guise, min-
isiter.
1560.— Char -
lesIX.®
1562. Religious
liberty grant-
ed (0 the Hu-
guenots.
First civil
religious war
—Huguenots
supported by
England — de
ieated at
Dreux.
1567. The se-
cond war. —
HuguencJts
defeated at
St. Denys.
1569. —routed
at Jarnac. —
C o n d e
kiUed.
Spain and
Portugal.
1554. CcTC.'ir.,
in India, lost.
1556. Charles
abdicates —
Philip 11.^
1557. Portu-
gal :— Sebas-
1564. Acquisi-
tion of the
Philippines.
1567. Duke o(
Alva, gover-
nor of tho
Netherlands.
1570. War
with the
Turks.— Na-
val victoij
at Lepaata
i453-1598.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
119
1551
1556
1558
I&G4
Germany.
Treaty of Passau secures reli-
gious liberty to the Protes-
tants.
Fruitless siege of Mentz.
Charles abdicates.
— F erdinand I ."^ —
king of Hungary and Bohe-
mia.
Coronation by the pope relin-
quished.
— M aximilian II. ^P—
Italy.
1550. Julius
III., pope.
1555. INIarcel-
lusTL, pope.
Paul IV.,
(Caraffa)
pope.
1559. Pius IV,
(Medici)
pope.
Peace of
Chateau —
Cambresis
terminates
the French
wars in Italy.
Tranquil-
lity for 66
years.
1562. Council
of Trent re-
assembled.
1566. Pius v.,
pope.
1569. Florence,
a grand du-
chy.
Cosmo
d 6 M c d i -
c i , declared
grand duke
of Tuscany,
by Pius V.
Ottoman
Empire.
1551 . Tripoli
taken from
the Maltese
knights.
1552. "Invasion
of Hungary.
1553.Warwith
Per.'ia.
Building of
the mosque
of Solyman-
yah, at Con-
slantinopie.
Thk W jrld, elsewhere.
1559. Naval
victory of
Calves, gain-
ed by l>ra-
gut.
Military
power of
the Turks at
its greatest
height, un-
der Soliman.
1565. Unsuc-
cessful siege
of Malta.
1.566. Death of
Soliman at
the siege of
Sigeih.
Selim II.
1570.
1571.
War of Venice ^with
the Porte.
Cyprus reduced by the
, Turks.
I Battle of
Lepanto.
1553. ^ew Mexico disccTBtfld
by t' le Spaniards.
14r>o. India :—.TeIaleddin Ak-
jar, a patron of science and
.iterature, aided hy his min-
isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh
Faizi.
— raises the Mogul em-
pire to its greatest splendor.
1559. Denmark and Norway .
—Frederic Il.ft
Decrease of the influence
of the Hanse lowna.
1560. Sweden:— Eric XIV. W
1562. War with Russia and
Poland.— An Fugush am-
bassador in Pexcia.
1564. Coligny sends a colony
of Huguenotp to Florida —
destroyed by the Spaniards.
1565. Prussia: — Alber? Frede-
ricA
Sweden:- John III. W-
1270. Peace of Stetin, between
Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden.
1571 Russia devastated by the
khan of Crim Tartary.-
Mogcow burnt.
(20
THE -world's progress.
[Period VIIL-^
Progress of Society, etc.
Cervantes, author of Don
Quixotte.
Titian, and Paolo Veronese,
painters.
Sir Francis Drake's voyage
round the world.
Sir Philip Sydney's Arcadia.
Gregorian Reformation of the
Calendar.
Greenland discovered by Sir
Francis Drake.
Tobacco first brought to Eu-
rope.
First newspaper in England.
Telescopes invented by Jan-
sen, a German.
Tasso, Italian poet.
The Carracci, celebrated pain-
ters.
In England : — Spenser,
Shakspeare, Beau-
mont &, Fletcher, Ben Jon-
son. — Napier invents loga-
rithms.
Lord Bacon, celebrated phi-
losopHer.
Lope de Vega, dramas and
novels.
Kepler, Tycho Brake, astro-
nomers.
England.
Soot-
land.
Framob.
1578. The queen
sends help to the
revolted Nether-
lands.
1583. Levant Com-
pany chartered.
1584. Raleigh's co-
lony in Virginia.
1585. War with
Spain.
1586. Sir Philip
Sidney killed at
Zutphen.
1587. The Queen of
Scots beheaded.
1588. The Spanish
armada destroyed.
1589. Alliance with
Henry II. in aid
of Protestantism.
— Troops sent to
France.
1593. Act for reli-
gious conformity.
159A. Sir John Haw-
kins's Voyages.
1596. Cadiz taken,
and the Spanish
fleet burnt, by the
earl of Essex.
Sir Robert Cecil,
minister.
1599. Troubles in
Ireland : — Revolt
of O'Neill, earl of
Tyrone.
1581. :—
Gow-
rie's
conspi-
racy
against
the king.
1572. Massacre
of St.. Bar-
tholomew.
1573. Peace of
Rochelle.
1574. —Hen
rylll.i
Fifth war
with the Hu-
guenots.
1576. The Ca-
tholic
League.
1577. Sixth re-
ligious war.
Spain and
poktuoau
(578. Port.:—
Henry, ^g-
1580. Portugal
falls undet
Spanish do-
minioa.
1590. :—
The
king
marries
Anne, of
Den-
mark.
1588. Revolt of
Paris.
1589, House
of Bour-
bon:
— H E N R Y
1590. Siege of
Paris, raised
by the Spa-
niards.
1593. Henry
abjures Pro-
testantism.
1594. Jesuita
banished.
1595. War with
Spain con-
tinued.
1598. Peace of
Vervius.
Ministry of
Sully: —
restoration
of order.
Edict op
Nantes
— granting
toleration to
Protestants.
1588. Defeat o!
the Spanish
armada.
1589. English
volunteers
under Drake
and Norris,
repulsed
from Lisbon.
1598. Phi p
III. m -.
U53-1598.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
121
lae
mi
Germany.
— R 0 d o I p h II .W~
king of Bohemia and Hun
gary.
The imperial authority disre-
garded by the princes of the
empire, who wage war
among tha nselves.
Italy.
Union of Protestants at Heil-
bronn.
1572. Gregory
XIII., pope.
1573. Cyprus
yielded to
the Porte ;
1574 Florence :
— Frances Ma-
ria succeeds
Cosmo.
Ottoman
Empire.
1580. Charles
Emmanuel,
duke of Sa
voy.
1585. Sixtus
v., pope,
active and
energetic —
corrects
abu.-5es in
the church ;
restores the
Vatican li-
brary.
1590. Urban
VII., pope.
Giegoiy
XIV., pope.
1591. Innocent
IX., pope,
two months.
Clement
VIII., pope.
1592. The Ri-
alto and Pi-
azza di San
Marco built
at Venice.
peace with Ve-
nice.
1574. — Murad
III. &
1576. War with
Persia.
1580. War with
the Druses
in Syria.
15S3. First
trade with
Enffland.
The World, elsewhere.
1589. Predato-
ry incur-
sions of the
Cossacks.
Revolt of
the Janiza-
ries.
1593. War with
the Empire
in Hungary.
1594. The
Grand Vi-
zier takes
Raab.
1595. Moham-
med III.^
Turkish
power in
Hungary de-
clines ; de-
feated at
Gran — re-
volt of Wal-
lachia.
1597. Moham-
med leads his
troops, and
defeats the
Germans at
Agria.
1574 Poland :— Henry, of V»
Iois.§
1575 Poland :— Stephen Ba-
thori.W —
1578. Alliance of Sweden and
Poland against Russia.
1579. Cornrnencement
ofthe Republic of
HOLLAND, by the union
at Utrecht:
William, Prince
of Orange, stadthol-
der.
1584. North America:
— First English colony found-
ed in Virginia, by Sir W.
Raleigh.
1585. Persia acquires power
under Abbas the Great.
Holland : — Maurice, of
Orange, stadtholder.
1586. Battle of Ziuphen: death
of Sir Philip Sidney,
1588. Denmark : — Christian
IV.^—
1592. Sweden : — Sigismund,
king of Poland.
India:— Mizam Shah, re-
pulsed from Choul, by the
Portuguese.
1594. The Falkland Isles dif-
covered by Hawkins.
1595. The Dutch first in Indii.
Sweden :— The regent a».
sumes independent auth>
rity.
1598. Russia: — Boris Godl-
nov,^^ ^begicfi a n>iw
dynasty.
Sigismund lance in Swe
den, to re-establish his pow«
er — but is defeated, and r^
turns to Poland.
122
TIIE world's progress.
PERIOD IX.— 120 vftars.
Progress op Society, etc.
1630
English East India Compa-
ny Ibuiided.
Erportation of Eng.ish wool
pioliibited.
Conference at Hampton Court.
Ntic Tr lUsUUion uf the Bi-
ble hegun: (pn!)lishnd Kill).
Dr. Giibeii, disc()vers the pow-
er ui' electricity, and of con-
ductors and non-conductors.
Telescopes invented by Gali
leo.
CoflTee at Venice.
Tobacco in Virginia.
Bacon's Inductive Philoso-
phy.
Harvey discovers the circula-
tion of the blood.
Tiieriiio meters invented by
Drebel.
Inigo Jones, celebrated archi-
tect.
Marti?i Opitz, German poet.
Negro Slavery co ^3menced in
Virginia.
Peter Paul Rubens, painter.
Massinger, the dramatist.
Kepler's " Astronornia Nova
Celestis."
Torricelli invents the barome-
ter.
The Parian marbles brought
to England by the earl" of
Ai mdei.
Gaxettea firat published in
Vonice.
1604. — Acadia co-
lonized by the
French.
1G06. — Discovery
ollluiison's Bay.
16U7.— E a g 1 i s"h
settlement at
J a m e s I u \v n ,
(1st permanent
one in N. Ame-
rica.)
lt)U8. —Quebec
founded.
1(>U9. —.Jesuit mis-
sions in Para-
guay.
1616.— The Tobac-
co plant introdu-
ced into Virgi-
nia.
1620.— Negro
slaves tirst im-
ported to Virgi-
nia.
Emigra-
tion of Pu-
ritans to
New Eng-
land.
1621. —John Car-
ver, 1st Gover-
nor of N. E.
1624. New Am-
sterdam set-
tled by the Dutch.
1627. Boston found-
1629. Wouter Van
Twiller, gover-
nor of New Am-
sterdam.
England.
1601. Earl of Essex be-
headed.
1603.— .lames I.^-
Union of the
English and
Scotch c r o w n a .
160.3. The Gunpowder
Plot.
1612. English factories at
Surat.
1616. Ministry of Viliiers,
duke of Buckingham.
1617. Sir Francis Bacon,
lord chancellor.
16 IS. Sir Walter Ra-
leigh's unsuccessful
voyage to America —
he is" beheaded on his
return.
525.— Charles I.^
Buckingham, prime
minister.
1627. War with Prance, in support of
the Ilugue-
Franob.
16 LO. Assassi-
nation of
Henry IV.,
by llavail-
lac.
L 0 u i 3
XIII, .#
(9 years old).
Mary de Me-
dici, regent.
1614. Last as-
sembly of the
States-gene-
ral.
1615. The king
marries
Anne, of
Austria.
Civil war : —
C o n d e
heads the
Hugue-
nots.
1624 Ministry
of Cardinal
R i c h o -
lieu.
1629. No parliament for
eleven years.
1630. Peace with France.
nots.
Rochclla
reduced by
famine — af-
ter a siege ot
ten months.
THE world's progress.
1598-1718.— S^ic? of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden.
123
Expul-
sion of
I lie
Moors.
War of
llie
Mont-
fenat
succes-
sion in
Italy.
Dutch
war.—
Spain
sup-
ports
Austria.
Philip
IV. ^
Defeat
o( Span-
fleet off
Lima,
by the
Dutch.
Naval
war
with
Eng-
land.
Peace
with
Eng.
land.
Germany.
1606. Truce of Co
morra, for twenty
years,
Porte.
Italy.
1605. Leo XL,
pope.
Paul v.,
pope.
with the
1608. Protestant
union, under Fre-
deric, the elector
palatine.
1610. The Catholic
League, under the
duke of Bavaria.
1612. Matthias.
1615. Truce of Co-
morra confirmed.
1618. The Thirty
Years' War
begins.
1619.— Ferdinand
II.4 —
1620. Victory of the
White Mountain,
near Prague.
Massacre of
Prague.— The Pro-
testant religion to-
tally suppressed.
1626.Victory of Til-
ly over Christian
IV., of Denmark,
at Lutter.
I628.Wallenstein
recovers all the
shores of the Bal-
tic, except Stral-
sund.
1629. Gustavus Adol-
phus lands in Ger-
many. — Diet of
Ratisbon. — Wal-
lenstein dismissed,
succeeded by Til-
ly.
1609. Tuscany:
—Cosmo II.
Leghorn,
the empori-
um of the
Levant trade.
1618. Conspi-
racy of Bsd-
mar, the
Spanish en-
voy, to re-
duce Venice
under sub-
jection to
Spain.
1621. Gregory
XV., pope.
Tuscany : —
Ferdinand II.
1623. The fa-
mous library
of the Pala-
tine at Hei-
delberg, sent
to Rome.
1628. General
Italian war
on the death
of the duke
ofMantua.
Ottoman
Empire.
1605. Revolt in
Syria and
Caramania,
under the
pasha of
Aleppo.
1606. Com-
mercial
treaty with
France and
Holland.
Tobacco
first brought
to Turkey.
1617. — Musta-
phaL'i-
1618. — Osman
II. #
Great Per-
sian victory
atShibli.
1620 War with
Poland, and
unsuccess-
ful mvasion
of Poland.
1623. Murad
IV. 'g'
restores tran-
quillity.
1625. Truce
with the em-
pire renew-
ed.
The World, elsewhere.
1604. Sweden: Charles IX. ^
1605. India :•
tan.
-Jehangir, sui-
1609. India :— Arrival of Haw-
kins, first English envoy
from the East India Com-
pany.
Sweden : — G u s t a v u 3
Adolphus. ^
1611. Sweden : — War with
Denmark. — Calmar and His-
by lost.- Axel Oxenstiern,
minister. — Russia devasta-
ted by Poles and Tartars.
Russia : — Michael Ro.
manoff, czar.
1615. Denmark: — First stand
ing army
1616. India :— Sir Thomas Roe
ambassador from James L
of England.
Sweden predominates in
the north.
1618. The Synod of Dort—
Arminius condenmed.
Settlement of Tanquebar,
in Coromandel.
1621. Dutch West India Com-
pany incorporated.
1622. Persia :— Ormuz gained
from the Ponusuese by .he
help of the English.
1625. Netherlands : — Hei..ry
Frederic— Breda, taken by
Spinola.
1627. Persia :— Shah Soofi 1.
1629. Peace ofLubeck.
124
THE world's progress.
[Period /X—
1630
1631
Trogress of Society, etc.
Lotteries for money first men-
tioned.
Calico first imf orted into Eng-
land
1636
1638
1639
1640
1641
1643
Edward Coice, the great ju-
rist.
Pedro Calderon de la Barca,
Spanish diamatist.
Flourishing period of flower
trade in 'the Dutch cities.
Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain-
ters.
The Jansenists, founded by
.lansenius, bishop of Ypres.
Printing in America.
First Swedish manufactories.
Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and
Claude Lorraine., French
painters.
Coffee brought to England by
Nat. Conopius.
Conde and Turenne, the great-
esv generals of the age.
America.
The Dutch sole
masters of Bra-
zil.
1632. Maj-yland
settled by a colo-
ny under Lord
Baltimore.
1635. Connecticut
settled. — Guada-
loupe and Mar-
tinique, by the
French.
1637. Maine and
Netv Hampshire
colonized.
Harvard Col-
lege founded.
England.
1630. Wentworth, earl of
Strafibrd, minister.
Laud, archbishop of
Canterbury.
1633. The king visits
Scotland — is crowned
at Edinburgh.
1639. First print-
ing office in Ame-
rica, at Cam-
bridge, by Sam.
Green.
1640. Whole num-
ber of emigrants
to New England
previous to this,
21,000.
1643. Confedera-
tion of the colo-
nies of New
England, for
mutual defence.
1637. Trembles in Scot-
land, caused by Char-
les's plan to overthrow
the Scotch presbyterian
church, and enforce
episcopacy.
1639. War with Scotland.
1640. Parliament assem-
bled— dissolved with-
out eflecdng any thing.
The Scotch invade
England— take
sion of Newcastle
The Long Parlia-
ment, Nov. 3.
Impeachment of Straf-
ford and Laud.
1641. Strafford beheaded.
—Courts of Star Cham-
ber and High Commis-
sion abolislTed.— Rebel-
lion of Roger Moore in
Ireland. —Massacre of
Protestants by Irish Ca-
tholics.
1642. Civil War and
Revolution .
Rise of Roundheads
and Cavaliers, toth of
the popular party. —
Battle of Edgehill, inde-
cisive.
1643. Royalists victorious
at Carlsgrane— defeated
at Newbury.— Solemn
league and covenant be-
tween the Scotch and
English parliaments.
France.
J631. Treaty
with Swo-
den and the
popular prin-
ces against
the emper-
or.
1635. Alliance
with Holland
against Spain,
lor the par-
tition of the
Austrian Ne-
therlands.
1636. Alliance
with Sweden
against Aus-
tria.
Invasion of
Gascony by
the Span-
iards, and of
Picardy, by
the Impe-
rialists, who
threaten Pa-
ris.
1638. Invasion
of Spain,
siege of Fon-
tarabia.
1640. Turin ta-
ken by the
French.
The first
Louis d'ora
struck.
1641. Alliance
with Portu-
gal against
Spain.— Ca-
talonia and
Rousilion re-
volt, and sub-
mit to France.
1642. Cinq
Mars and de
Thou be-
headed.
1643. Louis
xiv.#.^
(the Great.)
Anne, of
Austria, re-
gent.
Victory ol
Roscroi over
the Span-
iards, by
Conde.
Ministry o
Cardinal Ma
zariae.
[598-1718.]
THE world's progress.
125
1639
1640
Spain
AND
Portu-
gal.
Loss of
the Ja-
panese
trade.
Portu-
gal re-
gair.s
her in-
depe.i-
dence,
under
John IV.
duke ol
Bragan-
Germany.
163L Sack of Mag-
deburg, by Tilly.
— Gustavus Ado'l-
phus takes May-
ence.
1632. Defeat and
death of Tilly, at
Lech. — Gustavus
takes Munich. —
Waliensiein again
in command. — Bat-
tle of Lutzen. —
Victory and death
of Gustavus Adol-
phus.
1635. Peace of Prague
wriih Saxony.
1636. Swedes victo-
rious atWittstock.
1637.— Ferdinand
in.A —
Galas successful
against the Swedes.
1638. Bern hard, of
Saxe Weimar, de-
feats the Imperial-
ists at Bheintield —
takes Brisac.
1639. Battles of Ol-
nitz and Brandiez,
gained by the Swe-
di.-^h general, Bau-
ner.
1640. Prussia-— Fre-
deric William.
1642. The Swedes de
feat the Austrians
at Leipsic.
1643. —invade Hoi
stein, and compel
the Danes to desert
Austria.
Italy.
1631. Peace of
Chierasco. —
The influ-
ence of France
increases.
Ottoman
Emfirk.
1634.Murad ic
vades Pei-
sia — takes
Falreeze.
1636. Peace
with Poland
renewed.
1637. Troubles
on the Tar-
tar frontier;
Azoph taken
by the Cos-
sacks.
Bagdad ta-
ken by the
Turks.
All the con-
quests of Ab-
bas recover-
ed.
1640. Ibrahim.
1642. Recap-
ture of Azoph
from the Cos-
sacks.
The World, elsewhere.
1632. Sweden :
Christist,
queen ^g
1632. Sweden: — Oxenstiern,
regent.
Russia:— War with Po-
land ; iwc years' siege of
Smolensko. — Russian arrny
capitulates, and the Polish
king advances to Moscow.
1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad-
vantageous to Russia.
1639. Holland. —Great na ral
victory by Van IVomp, ever
the Spanish fleet jfi the
Downs.
1640. India :— Madras founded
by the EnglLsh.
126
THE world's progress.
[Pe7iod IX.— 120 ijeats.-^
1(46
lf>i8
lerjo
Prooress of Society, etc.
Des Cartes, French philoso-
pher.
Air guns invented.
Engraving in mezzotints, iir,-
pioved by Prince llupert.
1654
1655
Railroads with wooden rails,
near Newcastle.
Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid-
ney, Englisli writers.
Le Seur and Le Brun, French
painters.
Air pumps invented.
About this time flourish Mo-
Here, La Fontaine, Cor-
neille. Madame de i^ecig-
ne, Rochefoucault, Racine,
Boileau, and Pascal, in
France.
Velasquez and Murillo, Span-
ish painters.
America.
1646. Thomas
May hew, preach-
er to the Indians,
siiipwreckod.
1647. Peter Stuy-
vesant, governor
01' New Amster-
dam.
164S. Cambridge
platform adopt-
1649. J. Winthrop,
governor of Con-
necticut.
1650. Settlement of
North Carolina.
1652. John Cotton
died.
1655. E. Winslow
died.
Great Britain. Franc*.
1644. Battle of Marston
Moor — royalists defeat-
ed.
1645. Battle of Naseby.
1646. The king seeks re-
fuge in the Scottish
camp.
1647. —is delivered up to
parliament lor je400,lX)0,
164S. Cromwell routs the
Scotch, under Hamil-
ton. The Presbyte-
rians expelled from
parliament, which re-
ceives the name of" the
Rump."
1649. Trial and execution
of the king.
The Commonwealth.
1650. Cromwell subdues
Ireland.
The Scots proclaim
Charles II. He
1651. enters England — is
defeated at Worcester,
and escapes to France.
1652. Naval war with
Holland. B lake,
A s c o u g h , and
P e n n , English ad-
mirals.
1653. Long parliament
dissolved by Crom-
well.— " Barebone's par-
liament" summoned.
Oliver Crom-
well,Lord Pro-
tector.
Milton, private secre-
tary to Cromwell.
1654. Peace of Westmin-
ster. Alliance with
Holland.
1655. War with Spain.—
.Jamaica conquered by
Penn.
1658. Death of Cromwell.
— R ichard Crom-
well, Protector.
1645.: — Mar.
shalTurennq
lakes Treves.
1648. Factiong
of the Fron
de ; difssen-
sions foment-
ed by Cardi-
nal de Retz.
1649. Court re-
moves to St.
Germains.-
Siege of Pa-
ris.
1650. Conde.
C o n t i , and
L o n g u e -
V i 1 1 e , im-
prisoned.—
Turenne
flees to the
Spaniards.
1652. Maza-
rine retires
to Sedan.
Conde flies
to Spain.
16.53. Mazarine
enters Paris
in triumph.
1659. Peace o(
the Pyre-
nees.— Mar-
riage of Lou-
is XIV. to
Maria The-
resa, of Spaia.
1598 -1718.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
127
Spain
AND
• D. Portu-
gal.
1654
lGo5
Brazil
recover'
ed fVcr
tlie
Dutch,
War
vviih
Eng-
land.
Germany.
1644. Invasion of
Hungary, by Ra-
coezi— the empe-
ror forced to yield
to the demands of
the protestants.
1648. Peace of
Westpha-
lia, signed at
Munster, between
France, the eni-
pii-e. and Sweden.
— The principle of
a balance of pow-
er in Europe first
recognized.
1657.
Leopold
Italy.
1644. Innocent
X., pope.
1646. Revolt of
Naples, un
der Mas
s a n i e 1 1 o
IG55. Alexan-
der VII.,
pofe.
Ottoman
Empire.
1645. War with
Venice.
Caadia, the
theatre of
war.
164S. Moham-
med IV.
1650. Moham-
med lliopri-
li, grand vi-
zier.
1653. Naval de-
feat by the
Venetians in
the Archipe-
lago.
1657. War with
Racoezi, for
aiduig Swe-
den against
Poland.
The V\ orld, elsewhere.
1644. Naval victory of the
Swedes over the Danish
fleet.
1645. Sweden: — Peace of
JBrorasebro with Demnark.
1647. Netherlands .--William
n.
China: — The Tartars
place a prince of their own
on tlie throne— the first ol
the present dynasty of Tsing.
1648. Poland : — The Ukraine
Co.'sacics revolt, and cut the
Polish army to pieces.
-John Cassimir.'
1653. HoUatKl : — J o h n da
Witt, Grand Pensionary ;
D e R u y t e 1 , admiral.
1654. Defeat and death ol
Tromp.
Sweden : — Chri.«?tina re-
signs.— Charles X., 1st o:
the House of Deux Ponts.^^
Poland :— War with Rus-
sia.
1657. Denmark : — Waragainss",
the Swedes, who overrur
Denmark, and menace Cg-
penhagen.
1658. Denmark : — Naval vie
tory over the Swedes.
Denmark :— Peace of Ros
kilde.
128
THE world's progress.
[Period lA.— 120 ifcufs.—
Progress of Society, etc.
Logwooti first cat in the bay
oi Honduras.
Salvator Rosa, landscape
palmer.
Huygens, Dutch astronomer.
Persecution of Jansenista in
France.
Chain shot invented by De
Witt.
Canal of Languedoc, from the
IVlediierraDeaa to the Atlan-
tic.
Gobelin tapetiry manufactory
in Paiis.
Bayonets invented at Bay-
onne.
Orrery invented.
Foundation of the Academy
of Architecture, and ihe
Hotel des Invalides, at Pa-
Casaini, Italian astronomer
and mathematician.
D'Herbelot, Pascal, Bour-
daloue. La Bruyere, Mai-
tranche, French writers.
Christopher Wren, architect,
comiuences St. Paul's.
Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch
paiiJter.
Williain Temple, historian.
Butler, Waller, and Dryden,
English poets; Henry
More, Leighton, Baxter,
Boyle.
Mansart, architect ; Giradon,
sculptor, of France.
1663. Canada made
a royal colony.
16ti3. Eltfol's Jn
dian Bible prin-
ted.
16t)-l. New York
tx-cupieil by the
Llnglish.
1667. — cede-J to
them by the
peace of Breda
1671"). Conclusion of
the ' American
treat) ' between
Hngland and
Spain.
167.5. King Phi
lip's War ir
New Enaland.
1677. Maine pur-
chased by Massa-
chusetts.
Engi^and.
1659. Richard resigns.—
Rump parliament cull
ed, but soon expelled.
Restoration oi
the Stuarts.
1660— Charles 11.^
Hyde, earl ol
Clarendon, chancellor
and prime minister.
1661. New parlianjent. —
Alliance with Portugal.
1662. Marriage with Ca-
ilierine, '>1 Portugal.
Act ol Uniformity.
Dunkirk sold to
France.
1664. War with Holland.
166.3. Naval victory by the
duke of York.
Great Plague in
London.
1666. Great Fire in Lon-
don.
1667. Peace of Breda. —
New York ceded to
England.
Banishment of the
earl of Clarendon.
1668.Triple league— Eng-
land, Sweden, and Hol-
land, against France.
1670. The Cabal min-
istry.—Secret treaty
with France.
1672. War with Holland
in conjunction with
France.
1673. Ministry of Danby.
Test Act passed.
1674. Peace with Holland.
1678. The Popish Plot.
Franob.
1661. Death ol
■Mazarine.
Colbert,
comptroller-
general of
hnance.
Lvonne,
Le Tellier.
1662. Disputet
wiiluhepope.
—6000 troopa
sent against
the Turks in
Hungary.
1664. FreiMh
East India
Company.
1666. Acade-
mie des Sci
encesLouvois
1667. War with
Spain. Lou-
is claims
Spanish Ne-
therlands for
his wife— in-
vades Be)<
gium.
L66S. Peace o
Aix la Cha'
pelle with
S|)ain.
1672. War with
Holland.
1673. French
ambassador
at Ispahan.
1«74. The
Dutch de-
feated at the
battles of
Sinsheim
andMulhau-
sen. — Tu-
renne rava*
ges the Pala-
tinate.
1675. Death of
Turenne at
Sasbach.
Influenca
of Pere la
Chaise, the
king's con-
fessor.
1677. Victory
over the
Prince of
Orange at
Mont-Cassel.
167S. Peace
of Ni me-
guen with
Holland and
Spain — re-
stores ti a/*
quillity to
Europa.
1698-1718.]
THE world's progress.
129
Spain
AND
Portu-
gal.
1661
l663
Invasion
of Por-
tugual.
Victory
of the
Portu-
guese
over the
Span-
iards at
Estre-
mas.
Spain : -
Cliarles
Portu-
gal:—
Revolu-
tion at
Lisbon.
King de-
posed.
— Pedro
Peace of
Li.sbon
with
Spain.
Nitard,
the Je-
suit, dri-
ven
from
Spain.
War
with
France
to pro-
tect Hol-
land.
Germany.
1663. The Diet per-
manent at Ratis-
bon.
1664. Montecuculi
victorious over the
Turks at St. Go-
thard.
1665. The Tyrol uni-
ted to Austria.
1673. War of Austria
and France.
1675. Turenne and
Montecuculi op-
posed on the
Rhine. — Victory
of Consarbruck
over the French,
under Crequi. —
Treves taken.
1676. General revolt
of Hungarians un-
der Emeric.
Italy.
Ottoman
Empire.
1661. War
with Aus-
tria.
1662. Invasion
of Hungary.
The World, elsewhere.
1667. Clement
IX., pope.
1669. Candia taken from Ve-
Inice by Kio-
prili.
Peace with the Porte.
1670. Cosmo
III., grand
duke of Tus-
cany.— War
between Ge- 1672. The Sul-
noa and Sa- tan invades
voy. Poland
Clement X., 1673. —defeat,
pope. ed by Zo-
1674. Revolt of briski, at
Messina in Choezim
favor of
France.
1676. xMessina 1676. Peace of
blockaded by Zurawno
the Dutch with Poland,
and Spanish
fleets.
Death of De
Ruyter. 1678. Firstwar
Innocent XI. with Russia
pope. on account
Death of the of the Cos
atheist, Spi- Backs.
1660. Demark :— Peace of Co
penhagen. — The Swede!
restore Bornholm, and Dron-
theim.
Revolution in Denmark.
Sweden :— Charles XI. ^
Peace of Oliva.
Prussia acknowledged in-
dependent.
1660. Poland :— Great victory
of Marshal John So
b i e s k i over the Tartars
1667. Holland :— Peace of Bre-
da : loss of New Nether-
lands.
1668. First embassies from
Russia to France and Spain.
India : — Rise of the Mah-
ratta power.— Sevajee takea
and sacks Surat.
1670. Den. :— Christian V.ft
1672. Sea fight between the
Dutch fleet, under De Witt
and De Ruyter, and the
English and French fleets-
Dutch defeated.
Den. :— William HI.^
1674. Poland:— Johr Sobies-
ki.A
le?."?. The Swedes invad*
Brandenburs.
1677. Battle of the I vnd, >
tween the Swedes an 1 Panea
h-
130
THE world's progress.
[Period IX.— 120 years.—
1681
^
Progress op Society, etc.
7?er?imi, Italian sculptor.
.Museum tor Natural History,
at Lonilou.
Jardin des Plnntes, at Paris.
Pamypost established in Lon-
doti.
Kevipfer's travels in Japan-
John Bunyatt, "Pilgrim's
Progress."
1686
1687
169'J
169i.
1692
Otto Von Guericks, inven-
tor of the air-pump and
electrical machine, died.
Telegraphs invented.
Neinto7i,'s Principia, publish-
ed.
G. Batt. Lully, from Flo-
rence, founder of French
opera fnusic.
Arch. CorelU, celebrated vio-
linist aad composer at Rome.
While paper first made in
England.
Leibnitz, German philoso-
piier, founds the Academy of
Sciences at Berlin.
First opera in London.
Purcell, English musician.
Bank of England.
Telescopes, first reflecting
one made on the principles
of Sir Isaac Newton.
1686. Sir Edmund
Andros, governor
of New England.
1683 General sup-
pression of char-
ter governments.
1689. Mt)ntreal de-
stroyed by the
Five nations.
Leisler usurps the
government of
New York.
1690. The English
settlements of
Schenectady, N.
York.Casco, Me.
and Salmon Falls,
N. H., destroyed
by a party of
French.
Port Royal, No-
va Scotia, redu-
ced by Sir Wil-
liam Ptiipps. —
Expedition against
Canada, unsuc-
cessful.
1691. Schuyler
defeats the French
at La Prairie.
Witchcraft superstition in New- England.
John Locke and Sir Isaac
Newton in England.
Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle,
in France.
1693 Bank of England.
1690
Pkcspkortcs discovered.
1692. New Hamp-
shire purchased
by Allen.
N. York : Leis-
ler executed.
1693. N. York:—
Episcopacy in-
troduced.
William and
Mary's College
founded.
1697. Kidd's pira-
cies.
599. French colo
ny in Louisiana
— Gold mines in
Brazil.
Great Britain.
Rise of the names of
Whigs and Tories.
1683. " Ryehouse Plot."
Execution of Lord
Russel and Algernon
Sydney.
In this reign the JRoy-
al Society of London
was insiiiuted by Wii-
kins, bishop of Chester.
—Bombay ceded to
England.
1685.-James 11.^
Rebellion of Mon-
mouth, in Eitgland, and
Argyle, in Scotland,
both defeated and exe-
cuted.
Judge Jeffries.
1686. The king favors the
Catholics.
1687. —re-establishes the
Court of High Com-
mission.
1688. "Revolution
OF 1688."— The Whigs
and Tories unite in ap-
plying to the Prince of
Orange, who lands in
England with 15,000
men — the king flees to
France.
1689.— William III.
and Mary II .^^—
War with France.
James II. lands in
Ireland— besieges Lon-
donderry.
1690. William in Ireland.
—Battle of the Boyne.
James defeated, returns
to France.
1691. Limerick taken, and
William acknowledged.
1692. Invasion of Eng-
land undertaken by the
French in favor of
James,— Naval victory
by the Dutch and Eng-
lish.
1693. Bank of England in-
corporated.
1694. Death of queen
Mary.
1697. General peace
1698. First partition treaty,
between Fi-ance, Eng
land, and the Empire to
dispose of the crown of
Spain.
1699. Visit of Peter the
Great.
PRANCB.
France, the
most formi-
dable power
in Europe.
1683. Invasion
of the Span-
ish Nether-
land.s.
1684. Truce ol
Ratisbon for
twenty years
with Spain.
1685. Revo-
cation of
the Edict
of Nantes.
1638. War ol
Spain — the
Empire, Hol-
land, Savoy,
and England
against
France.
1689. Grand al-
liance against
France, head-
ed by Wil-
liam III.
1690. Naval
victory over
the Dutch
and English
off Dieppe.
Victory of
Luxemburg,
at Fleurus.
1692. Marshai
Luxem-
burg de-
feats William
at Steenkirk,
and
1693. —at Ne-
uvinden.
Institution of
the order of
St. Louis.
ofRy s wick
— between
France ana
the alliea.
598-1718.1
THE world's progress.
131
Spain
AND
PORTL'-
GAL.
Germany.
IC97
Revolt
of Cata-
lonia in
favor of
France.
Incur-
sion of
the
Fi-ench
into
Aragon.
1680. Great part of
Alsace seized by
France.
1683. Turkish war,
siege of Vienna by
the Turks— victory
of th'j Germans
and Poles, under
Charles, of Lor-
raine, and John
Sobieski.
Treaty of the
Hague against
France.
1G86. League of
Augsburg against
France.
168G. Buda taken af-
ter being held by
the Turks 145
years.
1687. Decisive victo-
ry of Mohaez :
Croatia and Tran-
sylvania subdued.
Joseph I. crown-
ed king of Hun-
gary.
1689. Grand alliance
ratified at Vienna.
The Palatinate
desolated by the
French.
590 Joseph I. elect-
ed king of the Ro-
mans by the Diet
of Augsburg. —
Victoria's over the
Turks.
Peace of Ryswic
In
1697. Victory over
the Sultan Musta-
pha at Zenia, by
the Prince Eugene.
tiigues
for the
succes-
sion.
Italy.
Ottoman
Empire.
1682. War with
Austria.
1683. Total
rout before
Vienna.
1684. Alliance of Venice with
Poland, and the Empire
against the Porte.
1689. Alexan-
der VIIL,
pope.
1691. Innocent
XII., pope.
1693. Battle of
Marsaglia —
the allies in
Italy defeat-
ed by the
Marshal Ca-
tinat.
1686. Russia
declares war.
1637. Revolu-
tion in Con-
siantinople,
Mohammed
dethroned.
Solyman
iiA —
1689. Defeat at
Nisa.
1690. Musta-
pha Kiopri-
li drives the
Austrians
across the
Danube — re-
covers Bel-
grade.
1691. Ahmud
Deleat and
death of Kio-
prili.
1694. Chio ta-
ken by the
Venetians.
1695. Musta-
phall.W-
1696. — leads
his own ar-
my.—Victo-
ry of Olach.
1699. Peace of
Carlowitz.
The Otto-
man power
broken.
The World, elsewhere.
1680. Sweden :— Diet of Stock
holm.
1682. Russia:— Ivan and Pe^
ter,^J— — their sister. So.
phia. legent.
1683. Denn)ark :— The Code o"
king Christian publisher^.
1686. India :— The Deickin coa
quered.
Golconda and Besapore.
1687. —The English factories
in Bengal suppressed— after-
wards restored.
1688. Prussia :— Frederic III
Russia: — Ivan resigns —
Sophia is confined in a con-
vent :
1689. Peter the
Gre AT-W
1692. Russia: — First trade
with China.
India : — Height of the Mo-
gul power, annual revenue
£32,000,000.
China: — Great infiuenca
of Jesuits.
1693. Sweden :— The king de-
clared absolute.
1695. Holland : Bombard-
ment of Brussels by the
French, under Villeroi.
1696. Poland :— Death oi So-
bieski— succeeded by
1697. — Frederic Augustus I.
Sweden ; — C h a r l e s
X 1 1 . W~C15 years old.)
Russia :— Introduction ol
various manufactures —
equipment of a fleet, etc.
1699. Den. :— Frederic IV. ^
Alliance of Denmark, Rus-
sia, and Poland, againsi
Charles XII. of Sweden.
132
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Penod IX.— 120 ycars.^
Progress op Socibty, etc.
First manufactories in Russia
and Denmark
Fenelon, Bosstiet, MasiUon,
in France.
National Delh of England
commenced.
Godfrey KnelUr, English
painter.
First Russian newspaper. —
Su Petersburg!! Ibunded.
Flourishing period of French
literature.— Greal splendor
in the French court.
A newspaper in America.
1716
i/is]
Incorporation of the United
British East India Com-
party.
Prussia acid discovered by
Diesbach.
A post-office in Ainerica.
The famous bull " Unigeni-
tus " against the French Jan-
senists.
Rise of commerce in Austria ;
first manufactories.
Law's bank at Paris.
The monastery of Mafra, ' the
wonder of Portugal,' built.
Prior, Steele, De Foe, Addi-
son, fl lUrish in England.
First standing army in Eng-
land.
The coffee tree brought from
'ava to Sunnam.
America.
1701. Yale College
founded.
170:2. Rice intro-
duced into Caro-
lina Irom Mada-
gascar.
1703, Apalachian
Indians subdued.
Maine ravaged
by French and
Indians.
1701. Captain
Church's expe-
dition against the
Indians.
Boston News-
Letter, first Ame-
rican periodical.
1706. Carohna in-
vaded by the
French and Span-
ish.
1707. Unsuccessful
expedition against
Port Royal.
170S.Ttie Saybrook
pla/form, form-
ed.
1709. First paper
money in New-
Jersey.
1710. First post-
office at New
York.
Fruitless expe-
dition against Ca-
nada.
1713. "Queen
Anne's War "
closed by the
treaty of Utrecht.
1715. Indian war in
South Carolina.
1717. New- Orleans
settled by the
French.
Great Britain.
1700. A British fleet sent
to assist Charles XII.,
of Sweden.
Foundation of the
national debt ia this
reign.
1701. War of the Spanish succession.
1702. Tiie French invade Holland, vja-
derBoulllers— repuloed by M a r 1 •
borough.
Francs.
A nne.'j^
1703. Methuen treaty of
commerce with Portu-
gal.
1704. Marlborough enters
gains the battle of
Gibraltar taken by
Rooke.
1706.Tre atyofunion
with Scotland.
Battle of Ralnillies,
feated.
1707. Victory of Almanza
lish and Portuguese.
The first United
Parliament of
Great Britain
meets.
1708. Battle of Oudenarde,
feated.
Sardinia and Minor
the English.
Unsuccessful attempt
of the Pretender to land
in Scotland.
1710. Victory of Vendome
Dr. Sacheverell's trial.
—Collision of Whig
and Tory principles. |
1713. Peace of Ut
Perpetual separation
of France and Spain —
quires Newfoundland,
Hudson's Bay, also Mi
braltar. The Rhine is
between Germany and
1714. Factions at court —
disgrace of Harley,
chancellor of the exche-
quer.
Death of the queen.
— H ouse of Hano-
ver:—
George I .^g —
Robert Walpole, pre-
mier.
171.5. Insurrection of .Ta-
cobites.— Battles of She-
riffmuir and Preston.
War against Sweden.
1718. Quadruple al
Emperor, England, Ho
France against itie desi
1702. Revolt ol
tiie Hugue-
nots suppress,
ed by Mar-
shal Villara.
Germany,
Blenheim.
Villeroi de-
over the Eng-
— French de-
ca captured by
atViliaviciosa
r e c h t .
of the crown/
England ac
Acatfta, and
norca and Gi
the boundarc
France.
1714. Peace o'
Radstadt : th«
Emperor ac
knowledges
Philip on
the cession
of Lomba*"-
dy, Naplea^
and Sardinia.
1715. Louis
XV. A-
Duke o(
Orleans re-
gent. — Du-
bois, minis-
ter.
1 i a n c e : th«
Hand, and
gns of Spain.
1598-1718.]
THE world's progress.
133
Spain
AND
D- PORTU-
OAL.
1700
1701
17 M
1705
i/Jl
Death of
the king,
who
names
the duke
of Anjou
as his
success-
or.
Philip
v.#
The
arch-
duke
Charles
iands at
Lisbon,
and en-
ters
Spain.
Barcelo-
na taken
by the
allies.
Port. :—
John V.
b^iiglish
and Por-
tuguese
enter
Madrid.
Charles
leaves
Spain 01
becom
ing Em-
peror.
Barcelo-
na taken
by Ber-
wick.
Albero-
Germany.
ni,
prime
minis-
ter of
Sirain.
170L Grand alliance
between England,
the Empire, to pre
of Fiance and Soa
1702. Battles of Stol-
hafen, Hochstedl.
and Spires, gained
by the French.
1705. — J o s e p h
Ottoman
Empire.
The World, elsewhere.
1710. Treaty of the
Hagw.e between
England. Holland,
and the Empire.
1711. — Charles
\I.m
Minisiry of Count
Linzendorf.
1713. Pragmatic
sanction, vesting
the succession to
Austria in the
daughters of Char-
les.
1714. Peace of Ras-
tadt and Baden
with France.
1718. Quadru-
ple alliance
against Spain.
of the Hague
Holland, and
vent the union
in.
1702. Victory
of Luzzace
gained by the
Ftench over
the Inipe
rlalists.
1706. French
driven from
Italy by
prince ' Eu-
gene.
1707. All the
Spanish pos-
sessions in
Italy aban-
doned to the
allies.
1703.
111.
Ahmed
1709. Charles
XII. takes
refuge at
Bender —
hence war
with Russia.
1714. War of Venice with
the Porte.
1715. Corinth taken by the
Turks — the Emperor joins
Venice — sie ge of Corfu
raised on the news of their
1716. defeat at
the battle of
Peterwar-
den.
1717. Defeat of
Crusca— loss
of Belgrade.
1718. Peace of Passarowitz,
between the Porte, Venice,
and Hunga ry.
1700. Russia :— Peter the Great
invades Ingria— defeated bj
Charles XII., at Narva.
War of the Northera
Powers.
1701. PRUSSIA erected into a
kingdom under
Frederic I.@—
Charles XII. invades Po-
land — is victorious at Riga.
1702. — enters Warsaw — takea
Cracow.
1703. Victory of Pultusk —
Poland:— The throne ds-
clared vacant, and
1704. Stanislas Leetzinski
elected king.^^
1706. The Swedes victorious
over the Saxons and Rus-
sians at Traverstadt.
1707. Russia :— Revolt of the
Cossack Mazeppa.
1708. Charles invades Russia,
crosses the Dnieper, and ia
1709. defeated at Pultowa.
Sweden at war with Den-
mark.
Poland : — Frederic Augus-
tus re-ascends the throne.
1712. Victory of the Swedes at
Gadebusc.he.
1713. Prussia :— Frederic Wil
liam l.^S—
1714. Russia : — Naval victory
over the Swedes.— Aland and
Finland conquered.
1715. Netherlands Barrier
treaty ot Antwerp with Aus-
tria.
Sweden : — Return of Char-
les— Prussia and England
join the alliance against him.
1718. Charles XH. invade«
Norway; is killed at the
siege of Fredericshall.
Sweden:— Ulrica Eleo
134
THE world's progress.
PERIOD X.— 97 ytars."
1740
Progress of Societv, etc.
Cotton Mather, " MagnSia,"
anil Increase Mather, Hist,
ol War with Indians.
Inoculation introduced by
Liuly Montague. The same
year iniroiluced into Boston
by Dr. Bayision.
Academy of Sciences at Paters-
burg.
The " Appellants," in France,
lieaiied by the Cardinal de
Noailies, appeal from the
bull ''Uiiigenitus," to a ge-
neril council ; but without
effect.
Behring's Strait discovered.
Balloons invented by Gusmac.
In England : In France :
Pope, Swift, J. B. Rous-
Young.
seau. Le
Sage, Rollin,
Montesquieu.
lliutnpson.
Watts, Lord
Bnlinf broke,
Doddridse.
Chesterfield.
Halleij, astronomer.
First Lodge of Freemasons in
Irish linen manufactories,
and English steel and cutlery
flourish.
L. Holberg, Danish drama-
America.
England.
1719. First Philadelphia news-
paper.
1721. First New-York news-
paper.
1723. Vermont setiled.
Increase Mather, died.
1724. Trenton, N. J., founded,
1727. Great earthquake
New-England.
1728. Cotton Mather, died.
Discovery oi' diamond
mines in Brazil.
1729. The Carolinas separated.
1732. Birth of Washington.
1733. Savannah founded.
America, at Boston.
1740. Tennessee first explored.
1742. Invasion of Florida by
Indians and Spaniards— re-
pulsed.
1719. Unsuccessful attempt to
invade Scotland by the S[)an-
iards.
"The South Sea Scheme."
1720. "Bursiingof the South
Sea bubble."
1721. Sir Robert Walpole'i
ministry comiaucs.
1725. Leaj, ; e of Herrenhauser.,
1727. George I. dies at Osna-
burg.
George 1 1 .*© •
1728. Pe»ce
Spain
of Pardo wita
1729. Treaty of Seville, be
1731. Treaty of Vienna with
Holland and the Empire.
1739. War with Spain.
1740 Porto Bello taken by Ad-
miral Vernon —Anson's <roy-
age round the world, and
capture of the Manilla g«J
leon.
THE
PROGRESS.
135
\118-1S16.— Death of Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo.
l7>^
France.
172A
1726
1728
'33
.73^1
1710
17^3
The ihig asr-umes
iho governiuer.t.
Dul'e de bouvbon,
micister.
Congrei>s of Cam-
bray
between England,
rranc3, Prussia,
and IlGlkiiil.
Miniotry of Cardi-
nal F 1 e u r y .
Congress of Sois-
so.as dissolved,
without effecting
any thing.
tween England.
France, and Hol-
land.
War of the Polish
succession :
France, Spain,
aad Sardi lia.
Conquest of Lor-
raine.
War of the Aus-
trian succession
— Marshals Belle
isle and Broglio :
-defeated by the
fUI'Cj at Dettin-
gca.
Spain
AND
Portu-
gal.
GEtlMANY.
1725.
Alliance oi Vienna, Spain,
1734. :— nnd Austria
Con-
quest of
Nap;.-is
and Sicv
iv by
l>.-n
Oarloiy.
1733. War of the Po-
lish succession;
Austria, Russia,
and Denmark.
1735. Preliminaries
of Vienna-not con-
cluded till 1733
1740.Warorihe Aus-
trian succession.
Maria The-
resa succeeds to
the he-reditary
States.
1741. The French,
Saxons, and Bava-
riaas, overrun Aus-
tria, take Prague,
and crown Charles
1739. :—
War
with
Eng-
land, for
in I'rac-
tions of
the Asi-
ento
treaty.
VI. emperor. ^^
Treaty of Bres-
lau with Austria.
1743. The French
driven across the
Rhine.
The World, elsewhere.
1719. Italy :— Sicily invaded by the
Spanish.
1720. Peace of Stockholm.— Tranquillity
restored in the n^rth
Sweden :— The queen, abdicates in
favor of her husband.
1721. Italy :— Innocent XIII., pope.
Frederic.^
Peace of Nystadt wiih Russia
Russia:— Peer assumes the title
"Emperor of all the Russias."
1721. Turkey : — Mahommed Etfendi, am-
bassador to Paris.
1723. China: — Christians expelled.
1723 Italy :— John Gaston, (de Medici),
grand duke of Tuscany.
1723. Turkey :— The Turks and Russians
attempt to dismember Persia.
1724. Italy :— Benedict XIII., pope.
1725. Russia :— Catharine I., widow of
Peter. ^^
1725. Turkey : — Partition treaty for sei7
ing the north and west provinces A
Persia.
1726. Russia :— Alliance with Austria.
1726. Turkey : — First printing press
brought from Paris to Turkey.
1727. Russia :— Treaty with China.
-Peter II.
1727. Turkey :— Peace ^^^ Bagdad.
1728. Denmark:— Fire at Copenhagen,
destroys the public libi-ary.
— colony of Danes in Greenland.
1730. Denmark :— Christian VI. ^
1730. Italy — Clement XII., pope.
Russia :— Anne.^§
1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus IL^
The diet elect Stanislaus, but are
compelled by the Russian army to elec*.
Frederic.
1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, iea-
capes to Koningsberg.
1734. Turkey :— Turks driven from Per-
sia by Nadir Shah.
1736. —war with Russia and Austria.
1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, gram
duke of Tuscany.
1739. India :— Invaded by Nadir Shah
who takes and plunders Delhi.
1739. Turkey :— Turks defeated nea
Choezim.
1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope
Turkey :— The Turks invade Perai
— are repulsed by Ashraf
-peace of Belj'.rade.
136
THE world's PROGRE&b.
[Period X. — 97 ytars. - i
A.O.
Prooress op SociBnr,etc.
Ambrioa.
Great Britain.
Frederic the Great makes
1744. Naval victory over the
greai improvemenis in mili-
French and Spanish fleets in
tary tactics — imroduces^y-
the bay of Hieres.
ing horse artillery.
1745. Louisburg and Cape
1745. Scotch rebellion— Char-
Durante and Leo, celebrated
Breton taken from France
les Edward lands in Scot-
musicians.
by the English.
land.
Hiuuld, and Seb. Bach, musi-
1746 he is defeated at Cul-
cal composers.
loden.
1747
liuli^o first produced in Caro-
1747. David Brainerd and
1747. Victories over the French
lina.
Benjamin Coleman, died.
oiT Belle-isle and Cape
Finisterre.
1748
Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo-
1748. Peace of Aix la
rian.
1749. English settlement in
mutual restitution of con
'750
Dr. Franklin's discoveries in
electricity.
England iniroduces the "New
Nova Scotia.
1752
1752. The new style intro-
Style " Calendar.
duced ; the year hereafter
1733
British Museum fowided.
commences Jan. 1.
1752. Hostilities between Eng land and France on the boun
1754. VVa.sliington's mission to
the French.
1755. Deleat of Braddock.
British.
1756. Oswego and Ft. Granby
A Ian Bam-
ffelvetius, Fr.
taken by the French.
1756 "Seven Years'
say,
Shenstu7ie,
Racine, Fr.
Subsidiary alliance with
Gellert, Ger.
Prussia.
Gray,
Collins,
Akenside,
ChurchiU.
Winckle-
jnann, Ger.
1757. Fort Wm. Henry cap-
tured.
1758. Repulse of Abercrombie
Ministry of W 11 1 i a m
Pitt, the elder.
1757. Victory of Plassey, ir.
India.
at Ticonderoga.
Fort Du Q,uesne taken.
1759. Invasion of Canada —
1759. Naval victories over the
death of Wolfe — Quebec
Lagros, and ofl' Brest.
taken.
Surat, in India, taken
Capture of Niagara,
from the Dutch.
Crown Point, and Ticonde-
roga.
I760.-George III.^—
John Rysbrach, sculptor.
Hogarth, Wilson, Sf Joshua
1761. Earl of Bute, premier.
1762. War with Spain.
Reynolds, painters.
Conquest of Havana,
L7i;j
Potaioes tirst planted in
Trinidad, and Manilla.
France, by Turgot.
1763. End of the « Old French
1763. Peace of Paris
Niebuhr's travels in Arabia.
War."
1765. " American Stamp Act "
Wesley Sf Whitefield preach.
resisted in Massachusetts
1764
Philadelphia Medical School,
and Virginia.
1765. Bengal ceded to the Easf
first in America,
First Colonial Congress at
India Company by ih*
1766
Wallis and Carteret's voyage
of discovery in the South
New-York.
treaty of AUakab&a.
Seas.
1718-1815.J
THE world's progress.
137
1744
1745
1746
t747
France.
War declared
against England
and Austria.
Battle of Fontenoy,
allies defeated.
The French victo-
rious by land,
but unsuccessful
by sea.
War with Holland,
Spain
AND
Portu-
gal.
Germany.
1.^53
1757
1758
1760
J7i>l
C ha p e 1 1 e
quests.
daries of Nova Sco-
tia.
Influence of Ma-
dame de Pompa-
dour.
War."
Capture of Minor-
ca trom the Eng-
lish.
Invasion of Hano-
ver.
Defeat at Crefeldt.
on the Rhine.
French off Cape
Attempt to invade
Ireland.
Loss of all Canada.
The Bourbon Fa-
mily Compact.
Siege and capture
of Belieisle, by
the English.
between France,
Spain and Eng-
iland.
Expulsion of the
Jesuits.
1746. :—
Ferdi-
nand VL
1745. Charles dies at
Munich.
House of
Lorraine:
— F r a n c i s I . ^g
husband of Maria
Theresa.
The World, elsewhere.
1740. Prussia :— F rederic II.'
(the Great.) Prussia increase* in
portance.— War with Austria.
Russia :— Ivan V.
1741. Sweden :— War with Russia.
Swedes driven out of Finlani
1748
pelle ;
the on
759 : —
Charles
Ill.^t.
Peace of Aix la Cha-
Spain, and Prussia
ly gainers by the
war.
1756. Seven Years'
War of Austria
and Prussia.
Invasion and
conquest of Saxo-
ny, by Frederic 11.
Alliance with
France.
1757. Prussians vic-
torious at Prague,
Rossbach, Lessa,
and Breslau.
The French take
Verdun and Bre-
men.
1758. French defeated
at Crefeldt.
1759. and at Minden.
Victory at Max-
en over the Prus-
sians.— Dresden re-
taken.
1760. Great victory
at Torgan, by Fre-
deric.
1762. Prussians victo-
rious at Freiburg.
1763. Peace of Hu-
bertstrug.
1765. Joseph II.
Russia : — Elizabeth.
1743. —Peace of Abo with S'weden.
1743. Turkey :— War with Persia.
— Defeat near Erivan.
1744. India:— Hostilities between French
and English.
1744. Italy :— Savoy occupied by French
and Spaniards, who take
1745. — Parma, Milan, and Placentia.
—Genoa bo.mbarded by the English.
1746. — French and Spaniards driven frona
Lombardy.
1746. Denmark :— Frederic V.^J
1747. Netherlands :— William IV.
Persia: — Revolution: Nadir.
Shah murdered.
1751. Holland :— William V. stadtholder.
Denmark :— Ministry of Count Bern-
storff.
Sweden: — House of Holstein Got-
torp : —
Ado] phus Frederic. ^^
1754. Italy :— The Coisicans, under Paoli,
revolt against Genoa.
1754. Turkey :— Othman III.
1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan-
tinople.
1756. India:— Calcutta taken by the Na-
bob of Bengal.
1757. Turkey :— Mustapha III.
1757. Prussia :— Russian invasion.
1758. -victory of Londorf.
1758. Italy :— Clement XIII., pope.
1759. Prussia :— The king defeated at
Kunnersdorf.
1760. —Battle of Liegnitz.— Berlin taken.
India :— Shah Alim II.
Siege and capture of Pondicherry,
by the English.
Kingdom of Mysore foimded by
Hyder Ali.
1762. Russia: Peter lU.^ (six
months).
— — C atharine II .^
1764. Poland :— Stanislaus Poniatowski.
1765. India ,— Treaty of Allahabad.
— Establishment of a British empire
1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duke
■ Tuscany.
1766. Denmark :— Christian VII. _
1766. Power of the Mamelukes in Egypt
revived under Rodvan and Ali Bey".
13H
THE WORLD*S PROGRESS.
[Period X.—d7 years.-^
Progiiess of Society, etc.
1767 First sjnnnhtg machine in England.
17C6 Cook's first voyage of discovory.
Bruce discovers ihc source of ihe Nile.
Royal Acad e nil/ of Arts in Eiigland ; Joshua
Reynolds, first president.
Letters of Junius.
VVliitefield dies at Newburyport.
Captain Cook discovers New California.
Tlie Spinning- JENNY, invented by Robert
Arkwright.
The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt
and Bolton.
In England.
Goldsiiiilh,
Warburton,
Johnson,
Licileton,
Lovvth,
Oarrick,
Hume,
Robertson,
H laciest one.
Adam Smith,
Hoi-ne 'I'ooke.
Piiesiley,
Horsley,
Burke,
Piit,
Fox,
Cooper,
Sheridan,
McPherson,
Burns.
Kaimee,
Rcid.
France.
Voltaire,
Rousseau,
Diderot,
Cond iliac,
Jussien,
Lavoisier,
•La Harpe,
Uarth le ny,
Buffo,.
Ger. Mosh-
elm,
Zimmerman,
Kant,
Klopstock,
Lessing,
Wieland,
Herder,
Goeihe,
Schiller,
Slc. Linnaeus,
//. Metastasio.
Rus. Kheras-
kov,
Kostrov,
Deerhavin,
Bogdanovich,
Khemnitzee.
United States.
17G8. Boston occupied
by the Briiisii troops.
1769. Daniel Boone ex-
plores Kentucky.
1772. Hancock, S.
Adams, and P a -
trick Henry,
promote the revolu-
tion.
1773. Tea destroyed at
Boston.
1774. Continental Con-
gress at Philadelphia.
177.5. AMERICAN
WAR:
April 19, Skirmish at
Lexinston.
June 17,'Battle of Bun-
ker's Hill
Prescott, Put-
nam,&Warr en.
WASHINGTON,
commander-ia-chief.
Montgomery
Montreal, and falls at
1776. The British troops
evacuate Boston.
Moultrie de
Sullivan's Island.
D 15 C L AR A-
TIO N OF IN-
DEPENDENCE,
July 4.
Americans (S u 1 1 i-
v a n) defeated at
Flatbush. Aug.
Battle of White
Plams.
Battle of Trenton,
Dec. 26-7.
1777. Arrival of Lafay-
ette.
Capture of Ticon
Great Britain
1766. American Stamp
Act repealed — New
ministry under iha
Earl ol Chatham.
1767. First war with
Hyder All in My-
1770. Lord N # r t h ,
prime minis ttjr.
1771. The Falkland
I-;lands ceded by
SiJain to Great Bri-
tain.
1774. The Boston Port
Hill passed.
1774. Warren Hastings,
governor general ol
India.
REVOLUTIONARY
1775. Lord North's
" conciliatory mea-
sures " rejected by
the colonies.
takes St. Johns and
Quebec.
1776. The city of Lon-
don remonstrates
against "he American
war.
feats the English at
The British army
takes possession of
New-York.
Hessians hired for
service in America.
dcroga by the British,
July 5.
1718..1815.]
THE world's progress.
139
France.
Germany.
1768
1769
770
1773
1774
377C
Genoa ceJes Corsica to France.
Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon.
Marriage of the dauphin with
Marie Antoinette.
Madame du Barri rules the
king.
L o u i s XVI .4
Marie Antoinette, queen :—
Maurepas, priiu3 miiuster.
IN e c k e r , comptroller-gene-
ral.
Franklin in Paris.
1772. Joseph
II. wiih I he
Emperors o
Russia ant
Prussia, dis
member Po
land, divid
ing it be
iween them
selves.
The World, elsewhere.
Discipline of the Ottoman troops Im
proved by Baron de Tott.
17G7. Spain :— .Jesuits expelled.
India:— Hyder Ali resists the Eng-
lish.
176S. War between Russia and the OttomaE
Empire.
1769. Pope Clement XIV.
The Russian army occupies WaJachia
and Moldavia.
1771. Sweden :—Gustavu3 III.^
1772. First Pa rtitionof Poland.
773. Ottoman Empire :— The Russians cross-
ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi
Hassan.
Pope Clement abolishes the order of
Jesuits.*
1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British
governor-general.
Ru.ssia:— Revolt of the Cossack Pugat-
schefF, calling himself Czar Peter.
Ottoman Empire :— Abdul Hamid.^^—
1775. Pope Pius VI.
Spain :— Able ministry of Florida Blan-
ca.
776. Bassnra surrendered to the Persians.
EasL Indies :— Lord Pigot, govcrnor-ge
iieral, imprisoned by his own council.
1777. Portugal :— Maria, qi (
140
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Period X. — 97 years.-^
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
Progress of Society, etc.
HerachePa discovery of the
Georgium Sidus.
Prussic acid obtained in a se-
parate state, by Scheele.
Air balloon of Montgolfier.
First American
China.
Institution for the deaf and
dumb at Paris, by the Abbe
i-le I'Epee.
Sunday schools established in
England, by Robert Raikes.
Herscliel's Telescopes.
Stenography, by Taylor.
Panoramas in London.
First spinning machine in
France.
Talma, the celet rated trage-
dian.
United States.
Great Britain.
Battles of Bennington,
11, and Siillwater.
Pliiladelphia taken by
lis. Battle of German
ceives Burgoyne's
Articles of confederation,
adopted Nov, 15.
1778. Alliance with France.
Battle of Monmouth,
Washington victorious, June
28.
Arrival of the French
fleet under D'Estaing.
Massacre of Wyoming.
Sivannah taken by the
English.
1779. Wayne recovers
Stoney Point.
Paul Jones's Victory off
1780. Battle near Camden:
D e K a I b killed.
Treason of Arnold.
1781. BatileofCowpens, gain-
ed by Morgan.
Surrender of Co
town, Oct. 17.
Aug. 16; Brandy wine, Sept
the English, under Cornwal
town, Oct. 4.— Gates r&
surrender, Oct. 17.
1778. Capture of Pondicherrj,
in India.
Scotland.
178a. War with Hyder All in
India.
War with Holland.
rnwallis at York-
1781. Victory ofl* the Doggei-
bank.
1782. Treaty with Holland, by
J. Adams, Jay, Frank
1 i n , and Laurens.
1783. PEACE OF VERSA ILLES:
INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES ac
knowledged by Great Bri-
tain.
1784. New-York Chamber of
Commerce founded.
1785. John A d a m s , 1st
States of America to Great
Britain.
1786. Shay's insurrection in
Massachusetts.
1787. General Convention at
Philadelphia.
Federal Con-
stitution of the
United States, adopted.
1783. Cotton planted in Geor-
gia.
1789. George Wash-
ington, first Presi-
dent:
J e {{e r s o n , Ha-
milton, Knox, Ran-
dolph, and Jay, form
the cabinet.
1791. First United States Bank.
1792. Kentucky admitted
to the Union.
Un .ted States Mini' esta-
bliaheu.
1784. Pitt, the younger,
premier.
Peace with Tippoo Saib.
ambassador from the United
1736, Pitt's Sinking Fund.
1788. The king insane. —Deatn
of Charles Edward, the last
pretender.
Trial of Warren Hast-
ings.
1792. Provision for the f ho'u*.
abolition of the siti » f '«.
1718-1815.]
THE world's progress.
Ul
1778
France.
Alliance with America
1779 Scheme to invade England
from Normandy.
I78C
1781
1782
1783
Rochambeau sent to
aid the Americans.
Necker resigns.
Defeat of De Grasse in the
West Indies, by Rodney.
Peace
I es .
of V e r sai I
1787
178t»
179-
1722
La Perouse^s voyage of disco-
very.
Financial difficulties — New
taxation : Colonne, Brienne,
and Necker, ministers suc-
cessively.
FRENCH REVOLUTION
begins.— Bastile taken and
razed, July 14.— Lafay-
ette , commander of the
national guards.— M i r a •
beau, leading orator.
Germany.
The World, elsewhere.
1778. War of the Bavarian
succession. — Bavaria seized
by Germany.
1779. Congress and Peace of
Teschen.
1782. Punishment of death
abolished.
The Pope vi.^sits the em-
peror, to dissuade him from
hostilities against the church.
1785. 2,000 religious houses
suppressed by the emperor.
1788. The emperor attempts
to control the Universities.
1790. Leopold 11.^—
Congress of Reichenbach.
Flight of the king to Varen- 1791. Conference of Pilnitz.
ncs. — Lafayette resigns.
1792.— Francis II.
War with Germany: — The French take Spires, Mentz,
and Longwy— Lafayette im
France declared a prisoned at Olmutz.
republic.
Girondists and Mountainisls.
1780. Declaration of the aimea
neutrality — to pi'otect neu-
tral flags from the right ol
search claimed by Bnixiin.
1782. Italy:— Pontine maiehea
drained.
India:— Rise of Sindia—
Tippoo, Sultan.
1783. — alliance with the
French.
1786. Prussia — Frederic Wil-
liam II.
1787. Russia:— War wi* tha
Porte.
1788. Spain :— Charles IV.
1789. Ottoman Empire;— Se-
lim II.
1790. Tuscany : — FerUinand
III.
1792. Sweden:— Gustaviw IV
142
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
[Pc?-lod JV. — 97 years. -~-
Progress of Society, etc.
Tom Paine,
Fisher Aines.
Affieri, Italian
poet.
Hannah More, Glucfc,
Gainst)oru\ \Hiiydn,
Moreland. LMuzurt,
\Albrechtsber-
Bognslawski, i isen,
Krasiki, Po-\BeeUwven.
lish poets. I
PestaJozzi, system of elemen-
tary educaiiori.
Mango Park's travels in
Africa, published.
Iron railways in England.
Polytechnic school in Paris.
First book/air in New- York.
Unixeo States.
1793. Washington reelected.
Neutrality in regard to
France.
G.-'.KAT Britain.
1793. First coalition against
France, directed by Eiig«
land — all Europe, excepi
Sweden, Ueuniark, andTiir-
key.
1791. Commercial treaty with Englani.
First Locomotive Steam En-
gine used on the Merthyn
Tydvil road in Wales.
C o m m e n c e in e n t
of the n a V y—<j fri-
gates b u i 1 1
1796. Washinston resiams.
1797. John Adams, 2d
president.
Difficulties with France.
1798 llegulHranny organized,
Waslungtun coiiunaader-iu-
chief.
1799. Death of Washington.
Tennessee becomes
a Stale.
1800. Seat of government
translierred to Washington,
D. C.
liiiiish array defeated
near Dunkirk.
1795. War with Holland.
1801. Thomas Jeffer-
son, 3d President.
Exports of United States,
$93,0iJ0,00J.
l&^i. Ohio joins the Union ;
it has 76,00U inhabitants.
1803. Purchase of Louisi-
ana, for $ I. '3,000,000.
U. States frigate Philadel-
phia, taken by the Tripoli-
tans.
1804. Decatur recaptures
the Philadelphia.
Preble bombards Tri-
poli.
Burr kills Hamilton.
305. Jefferson re-elected Pre-
sident : George Clin-
ton, of New- York, Vice-
President.
1798. Second coalition agamst
France.— Irish rebellion. —
Nelson's victory at
the Battle of the
Nile.
Wilberforce's motion to
abolish the slave trade, lost,
87 to 83.
1800. Union of Eng-
land and Ireland.
— Malta taken.
1801. Battle of Alexandria.—
Pitt resigns, succeeded by
Addington.
1802. Peace of Amiens.
1803. Successful war in ludia.
1804. Pitt again premier.
1805. Nelson defeats thi
French and Spanish fleea
off Trafalgar.
1718-1815.]
THE world's FROwic^o.
143
France.
Germany.
The king and queen beheaded.
Reign of Terror.
Marat assassinated by Char-
lotte Corciay.
Victories of P i c h e g r u
every where driven bade, i
Revolution 01 the yih Thermi-
dor.
Robespiere guillotined.
NAPOLEON BONA-
PARTE, commander of
the army; ijuells an in^ur-
reciiin in Paris.
War in Italy.
Battle of Lodi.
Bonaparte's Austri
1793. First Coalition
against France.
and J 0 u r d a n —the allies
C a m p a i g n— H o c h e
a u ' s cele
brated
Peace of Campo Formio
and M o r e a u ' s cele
arated passage of the Rhine
■ m i n
Bonaparte's expedition to
Egypt is defeated by Nelson
at Aboukir, Aug. 1.
The French enter Switzerland
under B e r n a d o 1 1 e and
.lourdan.— Return of Bona-
parte.— R evolution of
the 18th Brumaire
— Bonaparte, first
0 n s u 1.
c 0
1 1 1 e o f M a r I
1798. Second Coalition against
France.
— M 0 r e a u ' 3 victory of
Hohen linden.
1-cace of Lunevile.
Bonaparte elected president of
the Italian republic.
Peace of Amiens.
Legion of Honor instituted.
War with Er^'and.
Bank of France.
Duke D'Enghien shot.
Bonaparte crowned as NA-
POLEON L, Emperor of
the French.
Marshals Soult, Murat,
N e y , &c.
Austrian Campaign,
Napoleon
Peace of
Protector of tlie
The World, elsewhere.
1804. The emperor of Ger-
many assumes the title of
emperor of AUSTRIA.
Batttle of AuBter-
1 i t z .
Presburg.
Confederation of the JRhine.
1793. Second Partition of Po-
land by Russia and Prussia.
H ay t i independent re-
public, under ToussainX
L'Ouverture.
1794. Poland :— Revolt at Cra-
cow.— K () s c i u s k o , go-
neial-in-chief — Russians de-
feated at Warsaw.
1795. Final partition
of Poland — extinction
of the kingdomr
Batavian Republic :— Shi-
melpennink.
1796. Russia :— Paul I.
1797. Switzerland :— General
Revolution — The French
invade Berne — Ilelvetian
Republic.
Prussia :— Frederic Wil-
liam III.^
1798. India : -.Marquis Welles-
ley, governor-general.
1799. Russians, under S u •
w a r r o w , defeated neaif
Milan.
1800. Armed neutrality of th«
north.
Pope Pius VIL
Ionian Republic founded.
1801. Russia: Alexander.^
1802. Italian Republic— Bona-
parte president.
1803. India :
War.
1804. Russia :
sia.
-Great MahratU
-WirwithP«r
144
THE world's progress.
[Period X. — 97 years.-"
Progress of Society, etc.
Planet Juno discovered.
Lewis ^ Clark's expedition
to the Rocky Mountains.
Fulton's first success-
ful TRIAL OP Steam-
boats.
General Unirersity established
by Napoleon, lo superintend
natiunal educaiiun.
Lithography inveniod.
In England :
Flnxman,
Weslinacott,
Chantrey,
sculptora.
I Frar^ce :
[La Grange,
^ Mange,
\Hauy,
\Biot,
\B. St. Pierre,
I poet.
First steamboat built in Eu-
rope.
American Board of Com-
missioners for Foreign Mis-
sions, founded.
Steam carriages in England.
Gas used for lighting the
streets of London.
Safety lamp invented by Sir
Humphrey Davy.
In England:
H. K. White,
Keats,
Reg. Heber,
Shelley,
Crabbe,
Sir W. Scott,
Byron,
Coleridge,
Lamb,
Montgomery,
Hogg.
France :
Mad. de Stael,
Mad. de Genlis,
Chateaubriand
Cuvier.
Melendez Val-
dez, Spanish
poet.
Bilderdyk,
Dutch.
German:
W. Schlegel,
F Schlegel,
Richier,
Kotzebue:
Weber and
Spohr, musi-
cal compo-
Russia :
Karamsin,
Somorokor,
Dmitriev,
KjiloT.
United States.
1807. Embargo on all the
ports of the United States.
Trial of Aaron Burr for
treason.
Slave trade abolished.
1809. James Madison,
4th President.
Embargo repealed ; the
non-iniercourse act passed.
1811. Engagement between
the ' President ' and the
'Little Belt.'
Indians on the Wabash,
defeated by Gov. Harrison.
Population of the United
States, 7,239,903.
Great Britain.
1806. Fourth Coalition
France.
1807. Bill for the aao'.ltion of
the blave trade, passed.
1808. The English, under
W e 1 1 e s 1 e y , enter Spain
as allies.
1809. Fifth Coalition.
Walcheren expedition.
1810. War with Sweden.
181 1 George, Prince of Walea,
Prince Regent, (the king be-
ing insane).
Population of Great Bri-
tain, 12,552,144.
1812.
War with Great Britain.
Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull.
Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British.
The Constitution captures the Guar
r i e r e : i
(First check of British Lord Liverpool
naval supremacy.) | premier.
Wool victorious at Queenstown, Oct. 12.
Captain J o n e s , in the W a s p , captures the Frol .i
Oct. 18.
The "United States,"
The Constitution, Captain
Louisiana admitted into
the Union.
1813. Perry's victory
on Lake Erie.
Battle of the Thames :
Tecumseh killed.
1814. City of Washington
burnt by the Bur^'sh.
Captain Decatur, captures tha
British frigate Macedonian.
Bainbridge, captures the Bri
tish frigate Java.
1813. Sixth Coalition against
France — Prussia, Russia,
Sweden, Great Britain, and
Austria.
1814. Treaty of Chaumot.t be-
tween Austria, Prussia, Rus-
sia, and Great Britain.
Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3.
1815. Battle of New-Orleans ;
British defeated by General
Jackson, Jan. 8.
, War against Algiers de-
dared.
1815. Candy and Almora cap-
tured.
Wellington vie
torioua at Waterloo, June 18.
•18-1815.J
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
145^
1806
1807
France.
Germany.
Victcry of Jena over the Prussians.
Berlin decree.
War with Russia.
Battle ofFriedlaiid.— P e a c e
of Tilsit.
Invasion of Portu
gal.
French in Spain defeated at
Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wei
lesley.
Battle ofWagra m—
Napoleon marries Maria Lou-
ise.—Continental peace ex-
cept with Spain.
Birth of the emperor's son;
created king of Rome.
Souk victorious in Spain —
takes Badajos ; is defeated
by the English at Albuesa.
Russian Campaign,
Battles of Smolensko and Bo-
rodino.
Moscow entered by Napoleon's
army— and bun 3d by the
Russians.
Victories of L u t z e n ,
Bautzen, and Dres-
den, over the allies.
Battle of Leipsic —
The allies enter Paris.
Napoleon abdicates,
and retires to Elba.
House of Bourbon
restored:
L o u i s XVIII.
Bonaparte returns from Elba.
Tlie hundred days.
Napoleon victorious at Li^ny.
BATTLE OF WATERLOO.
The allies enter Paris.
Ilonaparte banish-
ed to St Helena.
Peace of Vienna.
M e 1 1 e r n i c h , minis-
ter.
1812. Austria in alliance with
France against Russia.
1813. War of German inde-
pendence.
Austria joins the Coali-
tion.
Bonaparte driven to the
Rhine, loses his whole army.
1815. German League.
Congress of Vien
na.
The World, elsewhere.
1806. Holland :— Louis Napo-
leon, king.
Prussia at war with Franc#
m alliance with Russia.
18U7. Ottoman Empire :— Mua
tapha IV.
1808. Spain :— Ferdinand VII.
" Joseph Napoleon.
Naples:— Mu rat.
Denmark :— Frederic VI.
Ottoman Empire :--Mah
moud II.
1809. Sweden:— Charles XW
1810. South America:— VE
NEZUELA declared inde-
pendent.
1811. NEW GRENADA de
Glared independent.
1812. Invasion op Rttssia
by Napoleon.— BURNING
OF MOSCOW.
K u t o s 0 f f pursues
the retreating ]<'rench.
Poland :— Diet of War-
saw : the Poles declared a
nation by Napoleon.
1813. South America:— Bo
1 i v a r drives the Span
iards from Caraccas
1814. Union of Holland anJ
Belgium. — Peace of Kiel
Sweden, and England.
Union of Sweden ana
Norway as two kingdoms
under one monarch
1815. Netherlands :— William
I
he "Holy Al-
1 i a n c e ' '—Russia, Prus-
sia, and Austria.
146'
THE world's progress.
PERrOD Xr.--50 years.-
I8ii
1816
1817
1818
1819
1821
1823
1334
1825
182f
Progress of Society, etc.
New corn law in England.
Polytechnic ini^tiiuiuin at Vi-
enna.
Manufactories introduced into
Pol ami.
The family of Rothschilds
conies into notice at Frank-
fort.
Abolition of the slave trade by
the congress of Vienna.
Second United States Bank
chitriereil for JO years, capi-
tal S3o,UUL),UL»0.
Public schools established
throughout Russia.
JBelzoni penei rales the second
pyramid of Gheza.
Abolition of predial bondage
in Bavaria and VVirteniberg.
First passage of the Atlantic
Rise of mechanic institutions
in England.
Hieroglyphics deciphered : —
Chu/npollion. — Sir William
Ilerschel died.
Huskisson's /"ree irac^e system
in England.
First manufactory in Egypt,
established by Mehemet Ali.
Inland navigation of the
United States : the great
Erie Canal opened.
Mail-posts in Prussia. —
Steam navigation on the
Rhine.
General financial panic in
England.
Vast increase of periodical
literature in England, France,
Germany, America, &c.
Alexander Volta dies, disco-
rerer of the Voltaic battery.
United States.
181G. United States Bank in-
corporaied.
Indiana admitted
1817. .lames Monroe,
5th President.
Mississippi ad
mitted.
1318. Illinois admitted.
War with the Seniiiioles,
by steam, by the Sivannah —
New- York to Liverpool.
1320. Maine admitted.
1821. Monroe re-elected.
Missouri admitted,
Slavery compromise.
1824. Lafayette's visit.
Erie canal opened.
Protective tariff.
1825. .1. Q,. Adams, 6th
President.
Great Britain.
181 G. Bombardment of Algiers
— The Dey compelled W
make peace and abolish
slavery.
1317. Lord Exmouth'a expe-
dition to Algiers.
Greorge IV .^S—
182.3. Canning ministry.
The Ashantees in Afiica
defeated.
1825. Commercial treaty with
Prussia.
1827. Treaty of London k
favor of Greece.
1828. Wellington ministry.-
Disturbances in Ireland
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
14;
1815-1865
A.V.
France.
Austria, &c.
The World, elsewhere.
1816. Portugal -John VI. ^
in Brazj. ,
Union of Naples and
Sicilv.
1S17. Republic of the Ionian
Islands.
India :— The cholera com-
mences its ravages.
1818. Sweden :— Cliarles XIV.
lil6
Uon^ress of Aix la Chapelle.
(Beniadotte.)
—France joins the " Holy
India:— The Mahratta
Alliance."
power completely over-
thrown, and the Briiish suc-
ceed.=!.
1819. South America:— Re-
public of COLOMniA:—
Bolivar, President.
1821
Death of Napoleon at St. He-
1821. Congresf of monarchs
1821 Hayti :— B oyer, em-
lena.
at Laybiich. — Insurrection
peror.
in Mohlavia and Wallachia.
South America :— PERU
—Alexander Ypsilanti de-
and GUATEMALA inde-
feated and carried prisoner
pendent.
to Austria.
182-2. BRAZIL declared inde.
pendent.
Mexico :— Iturbide, em-
peror.
'
Greek Revolu-
tion.
Charles X -W
Declaration of Indepen-
im
dence.
Massacre of Scio.
1823. Italy :— Leo XII., pope,
1824. Death of Lord Byron at
Missolonshi.
1825. Russia :— N i c h o 1 a s
1-4 —
182G. —War with Persia.
Greece: — Missolonglii
taken by the Turks.
1827. Treaty between Russrs
and the Porte respecting
Greece.
Greece :— B a 1 1 1 e of
N a V a r i n 0 .
iSSi
Fleet sent to Algiers.
Portugal :— Maria de Glo-
ria, queen. ^§
—Rebellion in favor of
Don Miguel as regent.
1828. War between Russia
, and the Porte.
MS'
THE world's progress.
[Period XL — 50 ijearx. —
PiioaiiGss OP Society, etc.
1835
1836
1836
In England :
Jertiny Ben-
iJuiin.
Tkoimis Choi
iners,
Thoiiuis Dick,
W. Kirbi/,
Hallain,
Lingarrl,
Wonlsworth.
Sout/ui/,
Cainjihellf
Lfi^k Hunt,
J\Irs Heiiiuiis.
Balirar,
'• Barnj Corn-
wall."
Russia :
Kurainain,
^'jinurukov,
Dmietriev,
Kriluv.
France :
Ciivier.
'J'alinu, irage-
(llUII,
Segitr,
L(i Place,
Beranger,
La/nartiiie.
Germany:
Spohr,
Mayp.rhcp.r,
Kolzebue^
U(ill,
Hpuizheim.
Sweden :
Tcgnfir,
Daliiijren.
Italy:
Rossini,
Paganini.
U. S. A.
N. Webster^ Wheaton,
Irving,
Cooper,
Flint.
Wirt,
Marshall,
Kent,
Story,
Gallatin,
Livingston,
Channing.
Liverpool and Manchester
Railrund opened.
The two Lamlers succeed in
iracin;; tlie Niger Irom Lake
Tcliad to the ocean.
The tir-st newspaper in Con-
.«iaiuinople. — The Factory
Bill in England, limiting the
h )ur3 oi labor for children.
Refurin Bill in England: —
F.ttcnsion of Suffrage.
Trade unions in England,
France, Germany, Switzer-
land, <kc.
Girard College, at Philadel-
phia, and the University of
New-York, commenced.
De Tocqueville's History of
Democracy in America.
Inquisition abolished in
Spain.
Slavery abolished in the
British co[o?iies.
Boston and Lowell Railroad
completed.
James Smithson, of London,
bequeathes £100,000 to the
United States for the esta-
blishment of an IrustitvAion
'"'•for the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among
Tnen."
The Luxor obelisk erected at
Paris.
United States.
1829. General Jack-
son, 7ih Preoideni of the
United States.
ia3r). Treaty between the
United States and the Porte.
1331. The king of the Nether
North Eastern Boundary, be
1832. War with the Winneba-
goes and other Indian tribes.
—Cholera in New- York. —
Nullification in S^uth Caro-
lina.— General Jackson's ce-
lebrated proclamation.
1833. General Jackson reelect-
ed to the Presidency.
Removal of the Depo-
sites of the United States
from the U. S Bank.
18^34. The President censured
by the Senate for removing
the Deposites.
1835. Great Fire in New- York.
ia36. The national debt of the
United States being paid, the
surplus revenue is divided
among the States.
Treaty with Morocco.
1837. The independence of
Texas acknowledged.
Martin Van Buren,
8Lh President.
Great Britain.
1827. Treaty of London
favor of Greece.
1828. The Wellin^on mini* ,
try.— Uisturbances in Ire-
land.
1829. Catholic emancipation.
Cap ain Ross' voyage to
discover a North West pas-
1830. -William IV ^
Earl Grey, mimsier.
Difficulties with China.
1831. Lord John Rub-
s e 1 ' 3 Reform Bill intro-
duced.
Cholera first appears ia
England.
lands makes his award on the
tween the United States and
the British provinces.
1832. Relbrm Bill passed.
1833. Captain Ross retuma
from his voyage of disco-
very.
1834. Sir Robert Peel,
Premier. — Difficulties ia
Canada.
1837.
-Victoria
1815-1860.J
THE world's progress.
149^
1827
1829
1830
1832
France.
A Freach fleet sent to Algiers.
Algiers taktui.
Three Days* Revo-
lution, J ul y 27, 28, and
29.
Lafayette, commander of the
National Guaid.
Charles X abdicates.
— L ouis Philippe I.
(House of Orleans.)^P
Ministry of Marshal S o u 1 1 .
Death of Lafayette.
Insurrection attempted by
Louis Napoleon at Stras-
burg.
Austria, &c.
ISaS. The Em-
peror of Rus-
sia visits the
Emperor of
Austria.
Ferdi
nand 1.^
The World, elsewhere.
>829. Italy :— Pius VllL, pope.
Algiers taken by the French.
VENEZUELA independent, General
P a e z , President.
1S30. BELGIUM revolts from Holland, and
is declared independent in August.
1830. Polish struggle {vTr nation-
ality, begins November 19.
Brazil : — Revolution ; Don Pedro 11.^^
a
1831. Belgium :-L e o p 0 1 d 1 .®
The Poles victorious at Prayo.
Italy .-—Gregory XVI., pope.
Poland: — Warsaw capitulates to Rus-
sia.
1832. The kingdom of GREECE founded :
Otho I.^
Poland: — The Insurrection crushed;
5000 families sent to Siberia.
— University of Warsaw abolished.
1833. Spain r-Isabella. W
— Don Carlos claims the throne.
Portugal : — A constitutional monarchy.
Esypt :—MehemetAli acknowledged by
the Sultan.
Mexico: — Santa Aima, President.
1834. Quadruple alliance— England, France,
Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel
and Don Carlos.
1835. The Plague in Egypt.
1836 Spain :— The Queen Regent adopts tha
constitution.
Texas :— Battle of San Jacinto, Sant«
Anna taken prisoner.
China:— A decree to expel all Itritisli
and other barbarian merchants.
\5Q'
THE world's progress.
[Pciiod XI. — 50 years.'-'
A.D. Progress op Society, eic. United States
S . F . B . Morse takes
out a patent for his E 1 e c -
I r 0 - in a g n e t i c Tele-
graph, (iiiveuietl 18:J2 )
Su-!peasitm olspecie payments
l)y the Bulks in the United
States, in May.
lB3y The Daguerreotype
inventeil in Paris.
Irnproveinent ol' the condition
of I he Jews in Russia.
An Antarctic Continent disco
Pfnwj jwstage system in Eng-
land.
Persecution of the Jews at
Damascus.
Whentslone's Electric Tele-
gnipli patented in England.
lSi6|
The CTCt >n Aqueduct in New-
York completed.
Bain'.j electro-magnetic Tele-
graph patented in London.
" Anti-rentism "* coached in
the State of New-York.
A great defection from the Ro-
mish cimrch, under the
preaching ol Range, in Ger-
many.
Lord Rosse^s Telescope.
Gutta Percha in use.
Completion of the Thames
Tunnel. March 23.
The Planet Neptune, pre-
dicted by Le Verrier, dis-
coverea by Dr. Gaile, of
Berlin, Sept. 23.
1838. The Exploring
lion sails.
Expedi-
1839. Disturbances o
" disputed territory,
tween Maine and
Brunswick.
1 the
' be-
New-
vered by the United States
Exploring Expedition.
1841. W. H. Harrison,
9th President.
He dies April 4, just one
month after his inaugura-
tion.
John Tyler, sue.
ceeds him, as lOih President.
Congress meets in extra
session. May 31.
Sub-Treasury Act re-
pealed, Aug. 9.
Bankrupt Act passed,
August 18.
1812. The Dorr Insurrection
in Rhode Island.
Treaty between the Uni
Great Britain.
1839. The Bi itish take posae*
sion of Ghuzne.
1840. The uniform Penn*
Postage system osta.ilished
Marriage f Queen Vic-
toria to Prince Albert ol
Saxe Cobourg.
War with Chi; a, to en
force the opium trade.
War in Syria:— Great
Britain taking part with
Austria and Turkey. Lord
Palmerston's foreign
policy excites the ill-will ol
France.
1841. The war with China
ended : $G,UOO,000 received
as a ransom for Canton
1844. T e X- a s annexed to
the United States.
Anti-rent riots in New-
York.
1845. Treaty with China.
James K. Polk,
11th President.
1846. War with Mexi-
c 0 :
Hostilities commence on
the Rio Grande, April 24.
Battle of Palo Alto,
May 8.
Battle of Resaca de la
Palma, May 9.
ted States and England, settling
the north-eastern boundary.
Treaty of peace with
China.
1843. Great "Repeal"
agitation in Ireland.
The Bri'ishgain posses-
sion of Scinde,
1844. Daniel O'Connell's trial
and ill prisonment— the sen-
tence reversed by the House
of Lords.
1845. Sir John Franklin )-a)is
in search of the noith. wesi
passage.
1815-1866.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
151^
.838
IS40
i8i2
l&U
l&^
France.
Talleyrand dies.
Difficulty with Mexico: cap-
larc 01 Saa Juaa d'Uiloa.
Flyjice Louis Napoleon at
tempts a hostile descent on
the coast of France, nea
Boulogne— is taken prisoner,
and imprisoned at Ham.
G u i z o t , minister for fo-
reign affairs.
The remains of Napoleon
removed from St. Helena,
and deposited with great
lionors at the Invalides, iii
Paris.
Austria, &c.
The duke of Orleans, heir to
the throne, killed by a fail
from his carriage.
The Duke de Nemours ap-
pointed Regent, in the event
of the king's death.
Louis Napoleon escapes ft 3m
Him, May 26.
1838. New
Treaty of
commerce
with Eng-
land, July 3.
Ferdinand
crowned at
Milan, Sep
teuiber 6.
The World, elsewhere.
1838. Mexico:— The Castle of San Jua«
d'Uiloa taken by the French.
1839. Peace between France and Mexico.
China : — The Opium trade forbidden,
Turkey at war with Egvpt.
India :— Ghuzne taken by Ilc British.
1840. China :— Canton blockaded by the Eag
lish, to compel the renewal of the opium
trade.
Holland :— William I. abdicates :
William H.^
Syria: — St. Jean d'Acre taker, by the
English, Austrians, a.nd Turks
1841. China :— Canton capitulates, $6,000,003
paid in one week, as a ransom lor the city.
Bfexico : — Santa Anna enters the capi-
tal, and places himself at the head of ih«
government.
1842. Lidia :— Insurrecti(m in Affghanistan.
1843 Temporary surrender of the Sandwich
Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord
Geo. Paulet.
Greece:— King Otho compelled to ac-
cept a constitution, Sept. 15.
The Society Islands seized by a French
squadron— restored by the government.
India: — ^Scinde annexed to the British
empire.
1846. Poland : — A powerful, but unsuccessfuJ
insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23.
Rome :— Pius IX., pope ; elected June !&
Poland : — Cracow deprived of its inde-
pendence, Nov. 16.
152*
THE world's progress.
[Period XL — 50 ymv^.-^'
k.D. Proorbss }f Society, etc.
United States.
1S46. The Oregon T r e a
lling ilie North- Wesierii lio
Commodore Sloat lakes
Jossession of Calilbinia.
uly 6.
New TaiifT bill passed,
establishing ad valorem du-
ties.
Battle of Monterey, Sep-
tember 23.
Tampico occupied, No-
vember 14.
1847. Battle of Buena Vista.
Feb. 22.
Battle of Sacramento,
Feb. 26.
Vera Cruz surrenders,
March 29.
Battle of Cerro Gordo,
April 18.
Battle of Contreras, Au-
gust 20.
Armistice, Aug. 24.
Hostilities renewed, Sep-
tember 7.
Battle of Mulino del Rey,
Sept. 8.
Battle of Chepultepec,
Sep, 12.
Mexico surren-
ders, Sept. 14.
1848. Treaty of Peace with
Mexico, signed at Guada-
loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22.
The cuTtivatioi of the Tea plant in the United States,
commenced by J. Smith, near Greenfield, South Caro-
lina.
Postal convention betw
Great Britain.
t y with Great Britain, set
undary, signed at London^
June 18.
1847. Severe famine in Irc>
land. Large supplii^ of
fdoil sent from the United
States.
The Bogue forts in China
taken and destroyed, April
26.
Suspension Bridge at Nia-
gara Falls, opened July 29.
First deposit of Califor-
nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8.
Emigration from Europe to America during iliis year.
300,090.
1848. Civil war in Ireland.
John Mitchell, tried anj
condemned to transporta-
tion, May 26.
een the United States and
Great Britain.
Habeas Corpus Act su»
pended in Ireland, July 25,
Smith O'Brien arrested
and condemned, Aug. 5.
Return of Roes'a bxpt
dttion. Nov.
jSi5-1865.]
THE world's PltOGRESS.
153^
France.
Reform Banquets in Slras-
buig, Charcres, &c.
Michelet's Lectures interrupt-
ed by the ministers, Dec.
Abd-el-Kader captured, Dec.
•22.
Debate on the Reform Bill,
Feb 8.
Proposed Banquet ai Paris,
abandonetl, Feb 'il.
Revolutio> com-
menced, Feo. 22.
Banicades erected, Feb. 23.
Louis Philippe abdicates and
tlies. Feb. 24.
Provisional government esta-
blished.
L a m a r t i n e , Provisional
President, Feb. 24.
French Republic proclaimed,
Feb. 26.
Mealing of the National As-
.sembly, May 4.
Bloody Insurrection in Paris,
June 23-25,
Cavaignac, military dictator,
June 24.
Paris in a state of siege.
New Constitution adopted,
Nov. 4.
Louis Napoleon Bo-
naparte, elected Pre-
silint, Dec. 10.
Austria, «fcc.
1847. Austria
takes posses-
sion of Cia-
cow.
The World, elsewhere.
1847. Prussia :— Frederic William granti i
constitution, Feb. 6.
Hayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2.
Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner
to France, Dec. 22.
1848. Sardinia :— Charles Albert protests
against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an
army of 25,000 men. Jan 10.
Naples : — Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12,
Sardinia :— Charles Albert proclaims a
constitution, Feb. 8.
Bavaria : — Disturbances on account o/
Lola Montes— the king abdicates in favor of
iris son,
-Maximilian II.
March 22.
Charles Albert
The Ban Jella-
chich ap-
pointed gov-
ernor of
Hungary,
Oct. 3.
Insurrection at
Vienna, Oct.
6.
1848. The Em-
peror leaves
the city. The
Hungarian
army advan-
ces within 6
miles of Vi-
enna, Oct. 11.
Windisch-
gratz ap-
pointed com-
. mander of
tae imperial
army.
enters Milan, March 23.
Denmark : — Revolt of Schleswig-Hol-
stein, March 26.
Sicily declared independent, April 3.
Holland receives a constitution, April 17.
Poland :— Unsuccessful revolt at Cra-
cow, April 25.
Sicily :— The Duke of Genoa elected
king, July 10.
India : — Insurrection in Ceylon. Aug. 16.
Armistice signed between Denmark
Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26.
India: — The British make an unsuc-
cessful attempt on Moultan.
Sicily :— Messina bombarded and taken,
Sept. 2.
Hungary :— K o s s u t h appointed Prs
sident of the Defence Committee, an 1 Dicta
tor, Oct.
154*
THE WORLDS rn OGRESS.
[Period XL — ^Oyean
A.D.
Proqress of Society, elc.
United States.
Great BuiTArN.
1813
A nexD planet, discovered by
1849. Zachary Taylor,
1849. Moultan, in India, takeiv
Gasparis, at Naples.
12th President.
Jan. 3.
Magnetic Telegraph lines in
use in the United States in
ISiy, 10,000 miles.
Rail Roads 6,000 "
Tubular Bridge in Anglesea,
England.
Magnetic Clock, invented by
JJr. Locke^ at Cinciiuiati.
Emigration from Europe to
America, durins; this year, at
the rate of iODO a day.
1850
Great agitation on the Slavery
1850. John C. Calhoun died at
1850. The war /n Lahore fir?
Questio7i in the United
Washington.
ished, and th ■, Punjaub an.
States Congress.
Attempted invasion of
Cuba :— GOO adventurers un-
nexed to the Briti-sh crown.
The Pekin Monitor^ a new
der Lopez, repulsed at Car-
paper, printed in China.
denas, May.
The Sultan of Turkey, grants
Death of Gen. Taylor,
permission to the Jews to
July 9.
build a temple on Mount
Millard Fillmore,
Zion.
13th President.
A University founded at Syd-
California ad-
ney, New South Wales.
mitted, 31st State.
Texas boundary settled,
by the payment of 10,000,000
Deaths in imO:
dollars to Texas.
U. S. A.
EUROPE.
New-Mexico and Utah
A. Jiidson,
Wordsworth,
admitted as Territories.
Bill for the arrest of
S. M. Fuller,
M. L. Davis.
Jeffrey,
Neander,
fugitive slaves passed by Con-
gress.
Slave trade in the District of
Zsch-okke,
Berzelius,
Columbia abolished.
■I»aiz.av;.
A British fleet blockadM
the ports of Greece, to en-
force the alleged claift-S pi
British subjects.
Sir Robert Peel dies
July 2.
Haynau, " the Austria*
butcher," chastised by the
draymen in London, Sept.
1<S15-18S5.J
THE world's progress.
155'
France.
Louis Philippe dies in Eng-
land.
Austria, &c
The World, elsewhere.
The Emperor
issues a pro-
clamation
against the
city.
Kossuth with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27.
The Imperial-
ists take pos-
session ol" Vi-
enna, Nov.
2.
Ferdinand ab-
dicates, Dec.
— F r an c i s
Joseph ^g
1849. A new
Constitution
promulgated
March 4.
Brescia taken
by Haynau,
March 3U.
Rome :— M a z z i n i ' s proclamation,
Oct. 29.
Prussia:— The king prorogues the As-
sembly, Nov. 9.
— The Burgher Guard of Bc-limrefuse to
give up their arms. The city in a state ol
siege, Nov. 12.
Rome :— Count Ro.-^si. the Pope's prime-
minister, assassinated, Nov. 16.
India:— Great battle near Ramnuggur,
Nov. 22.
Rome :— The Pope escapes in disguise,
Nov. 24.
Hungary declared independent, Dec.
1849. India:— Moultan taken by the British,
Jan. 3.
Italy:— The Grand Duke of Tuscany
flies. Provisional Government proclaimed,
Feb. 9.
Rome :— Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9.
Sicily:— A new Cunstitution conceded
by Naples, March 6.
Sardinia :— Charles Albert defeated by
Radetsky, March 21 — again totally defeated
at Novarra, IMarch 23, he abdicates the
throne in favor of his son,
-Victor Emanuel @
India : — The Punjaub annexed to ine
British Empire, March 29.
Italy :— Insurrection in Genoa, April 1.
Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, Aprii
26.
Rome :— The French army arrives un-
der the walls of Rome, April 29.
Haynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary,
June.
Rome surrenders^to the French, July 2.
Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3.
Rome : — The government placed in the
hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3.
Gorgey traitor-ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11.
Kossuth escapes into Turkey.
Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22.
1850. Rome :— The Pope returns, April.
Greece disputes the claims of Great
Britain for losses of British subjects: ia
forced to submit.
China:— The Emperor Tau-Kwang,
-Sze-hing
sicceeds.
156*
THE world's progress. [Period XL- 50 years -
Progkess of SociBTiT, etc.
1S50 On the subject of the Mobbing
of Marahi-.l Haynavi diiriiig
a visit to a London brewery,
notes pass between Austria
and Great Britain, terir.i-
nating in atlireat of retalia-
tion on tlie part of the latter,
Sept. — Nov.
A Memorial for the annexa-
tion of Can.s(la to the U. S.
r«»ceived in five hours tho
signatures of 300 merchants,
landowners, and profe3-
sional men, in Moutreal,
Oct. 10.
WomarCs Rights Con-
vention, held at Worcester,
Mass., Oct. 23.
North-West Pnnsageduc.ov-
ered by Capt. McClure (Br.
Navy) in the Investigator,
Oct. 26.
The British Consul at Charles-
ton calls the attention of
the Governor of South Ca-
rolina to a law of that State,
under which British sea-
men (colored) are impris-
oned when they enter her
ports for trade or in dis-
tress, Dec.
Deaths in 1%^Q'.
V, S. A.
J. G. Calhoun, Senator, U. S.
Sam. Miller, D.D.
Z. Taylor, President, U. 8. A.
United States.
1S50. California admitted as
a State, Sept.
Fugitive Slave Bill
passed, Sept.
Disujiion Meetings lield at
Natchez (many present op-
posed todisunion); at Yazoo
City (rt^oiutions proposed
voted down), Oct. 7; at
Nasliville (tiiis convention
passed resolutions recom-
mending a congress of
slavehoidiug States), Nov.
19.
Union Meetings held at
Mobile, Dayton, and New
York, in Oct.; at l^liiladel-
phia. and Manchester, N.
II., in Nov.; and at Batli,
Me., in Dec.
The Advance and Rescue.
American vessels in search
of Sir J. Franklin, com-
pletely fiistened in the ice,
Sept. 13. In ilieir nortiieriy
di-irt reach lat. 75'^ 23', Oct. 1.
Conventions held to
amend the Constitutions of
theStatesof Indiana (Oct. 7),
Virginia (Oct. 14), Maryland
(Nov. 4), New Hampshire
(Nov. 6).
Lopez and others tried at
New Orleans for engaging
in an expedition against
Cuba, Dec. 17.
Webster replies to Hiilse-
mann on the rights <:f neu-
tral nations, Dec. 21.
Great Britain.
18.")0. Great excitement and
agitation in England respect
ing a dispute on doctrine bo
tween tlie Bisliop of Exeter
and the Rev. Dr. Gorliam,
one of liis clergy. Tiie I'rivy
Council's decision in favor
of tlio latter afterwards rati-
fied by tho Courts.
Searches for Sir J. Frank-
lin— the Norili ftar returns
to Spithead unsuccessful,
Sept. 2S. - Tiie Prince Albert
arrives at Aberdeen with tlio
intelligence that traces of
his party had been found at
Cape Keilly and Beechy
Island, at the entrance to
Wellington Channel, Oct. 1.
Appointment by the
Pope of several Roman Ca-
tholic bishops and arch-
bishops in England, causes
great excitement, and an
indign.ant letter from Lord
J. Russell, the premier,
Nov.
English forces defeated
by the Cafi'res in South
Africa, with considerabla
loss, and obliged to retreat
to their fort, Dec. 29.
1815-1865.J
THE WORLD S PROGRESS,
157^
FftANCE.
1850 President creates his uncle
Jerome a Marshal of France,
Jan. 1.
800 Soldiers drowned at An-
giers by fall of a bridge,
Apr. 15.
French Ambassador recalled
from London, in conse-
quence vf a difficulty con-
nected with an English
claim on Greece, May 16.
New Electoral Law, restrict-
ing the right of suflfragc,
passed. May 31.
Arrangement with England
on the Greek dispute, June
21.
Dotation Bill, giving the Pre-
sident 2,160,000 francs
($4U5,000) per annum,
passed, Juno 24,
Austria, etc.
The Wokld, elsewhere.
1S50. Prussia:— The King takes
the oath required by the Con-
stitution, Feb. 6. Attempt to
assassinate him, May 22.
Treaty signed at Munich
between Austria, Bavaria, Sax-
ony, and Wurtemburg, to main-
tain the German Union, Feb. 27.
"Wurtemburg denounces tiie
insidious ambition of the King
of Prussia, and announces a
league between Wurtemburg,
Bavaria, and Saxony, under the
sanction ot Austria, March 15.
Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws
from the Prussian league, June
30.
Treaty of Peace between Prussia and Denmark, July 2.
A Congress of Deputies from
the States included in the Prus-
sian ZoUverein opened, at Cas-
sel, July 12.
Prussia refuses to join the
restricted Diet of Frankfort,
Aug. 25.
Difficulties occurring in
Hesse- Cassel, between the Elec-
tor and his people, in regard to
the mode of taxation, Austria
and Prussia respectively send
armies to the Electorate, to take
opposite parts In the struggle,
Sept. — Nov.
Austrian ultimatum deliv-
ered at Berlin, directing that
Prussia evacuate Hesse in eight
days, dissolve theErfartLeague,
and recognize the Diet, etc., re-
plied to by the Prussian Kings
signing the order calling out the
whole milit9,ry force of the mo-
narchy, Nov. "6.
The Russian Ambassador at
Vienna announces that the Czar
" would consider the continu-
ance of the Prussian policy in
the Electorate as a casus beUi,'"
Nov. 11.
Treaty of Amnesty an-
nounced at Berlin. Dec. 3.
France protests, and Great
Britain remonstrates, at Vienna,
against the proposed extension
of the Germanic Confederation
beyond the Alps, Dec.
1S50. Denmark: Bloody
but indecisive battle of
Idstedt, between the
Danes and Schleswig
Holsteiners, July 23
Yucatan : — Battle,
near close of the year,
between the Whites
and Indians; latter vic-
torious; 800 Whites
killed.
158*
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Period XL — 50 years.^
Progress of Society, ate.
Jas. Ricliardson, the African
traveller, dies at I lie villaire
of (Jnqurta, six days distant
from Kouka, the capital of
Boriiou, March 4
A Company of Gipsies from
England arrive in Cecil
county, Maryland, U. S.,
bringing; with them all their
wanderino; iiabits and pecu-
liarities, March.
According to the evidence
of Mr. Baines before a Com-
mittee of the House of Com
mons. there were in Great
Britain 13.19.3 places of wor
ship dissenting from the
tenets of the Established
Church, to which may be
added Roman Catholic Cha-
pels, 597, minor sects and
Jews. 5r)0; total noncon
formist churches, 14,^0.
ExldbiUon. of the Works
o? Indastry of all Nations
inauguraled by Queen Vic-
toria, May 1.
AVyld"s monster globe
erected in London ; em
ployed 300 men nearly 30
days in fitting up the inte
rior.
Daguerre, the discoverer of
the Dagiierrean or Photo
graphic Art, dies, aged 61
July 10.
The Oath of Abjuration (Jew)
Bill passes the British
House of Commons, with
only verbal protests from
the objecting minority, July
8; but is refused a second
reading in the House of
Lords, July 17.
UNrTKD States.
1S51. General Quitman of
Mississippi arrested for al-
leged violation of the neu-
trality law of ISIS, by set-
ting on foot a military ex-
pedition against Cuba, lie
resigns his office of Gover-
nor. Feb. 3.
Erie Canal Enlargement
Bill defeated in the N. Y.
Senate by tiie withdrawal or
resignation of Vl democratic
members, Apr. 10 ; but
afterwards p.assed by a new
Legislature.
Minofs Ledge Light-
house, Boston Harbor, car-
ried away. It was last seen
standing about 3 o'clock,
P.M., April 16.
Arrest of a notorious
band of desperadoes in Mi-
chigan. Apr. 21.
Initial point of the Boun-
dary between the United
States and Mexico establish-
ed on the right bank of the
Eio Grande del Norte, in 32
22 north latitude, and 2)9.4
meters from the center of
the bed of the river, by th
American and Mexican
Commissioners, and a mon
UTnent erected recording
the same. Ajtril 24.
President issues a procla
mation, warning all persons
within the jurisdiction of
the United States not to aid
or engage in any expedition
asainst the Island of Cuba.
Apr. 25.
Convention of Delegates
from the Southern Eights
Associations of Soutli Caro-
lina meets at Charleston,
May 5; and adjourns after
resolving that, '"with or
without coi3peration, they
are for a dissolution of the
Union," May 8.
Erie railroad opened
from New York city to
Dunkirk, 469 miles, by
President Fillmore, Daniel
Webster, etc.. May 15.
Riot, with loss of life,
at Hoboken, N. J., between
Germans and "short-boy"
rowdies from New York,
May 26.
Serious conflagrations in
California. San Francisco
alone suffers by them in
Mav and June to tae amount
of $12,000,000.
Great Britain.
1851. A strong force of Catfres
attacks Fort White, Cajie of
Good Hope— repulsed, loss
20 killed. The Caffre chief,
Hermanns, with a body of
Catfres and Hottentots, at-
tacks Fort Beaufort, but is
repulsed, he and his son
killed, his band completely
routed. 3,000 Caflfres attack
the Colonists and their allies
near F«)rt Hare ; driven
back with the loss of 100
killed, Jan. . Col. Somer-
set captures and burns Fort
Armstrong, 90 Caffres killed,
230 taken prisoners, Feb.
23. The Hottentots of the
Theopolis Mission Station
in Lower Albany, join in
the insurrection, May 8i.
They are defeated in actions
with the English troops on
the 3d and 5tii of June.
The Russell Ministry re-
sign, Feb. 22; but after-
wards resume office, the
Earl of Derby not having
succeeded iri forming a
Cabinet.
The Prohibited Affinity
Marriase Bill lost in the
House 'of Lords, Fob. 2."';
Lord Campbell and the Ec-
clesiastical Bench vcting
against it.
1815-1866.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
159*
FliANCE.
Ministry lesign, Jan , 3.
Presidential Dotation Bill,
proposing an additional
grant of 1,800,000 francs,
rejected in the Assembly,
Feb. 18.
The Sub-Committee of the
Assembly appointed by the
Committee of Revision to
authenticate petitions, re-
ports, that up to July 1, the
petitions had been signed
by 1,123,165 persons, thus
classified : For revision.
T41,011 ; for revision and
prolongation of powers.
370,511 ; for prolongation of
powers, 12,lU3— July 5.
Tlie question of revision of
the Constitution again ta-
ken in the Assembly, when
a minority was declared 97
less than the three-fourths
required by the Constitu-
tion, July 19.
Austria, etc.
The Woeld, elsewhere.
1851. Denmark: — The Government ol
Schleswig-Holstein yields to tiie Com
missioners of the Germanic Confedera
tion, Jan. 10.
The Austxians complete their mili-
tary possession of Hamburg. Jan. 31 ^
and the new government issues its pro-
clamation, declaring its resumption oi
the seignorial rule of the King of Den-
mark, Feb. 2.
Danish mining operations in Green-
land produce large quantities of copper
ore, yielding about Gii per cent.
The Austrian Government and the Ottoman Porte come to
the following settlement respecting the Hungarian Refu-
gees: Full and entire amnesty conditioned on their not
attempting to enter Hungary. Eight excepted, among
them Kossuth and Bathyany, Feb. 17.
Charles L.
Brace, an Am-
erican, arrested
and imprisoned
in Hungary, on
a charge of
"beingam.em'
ber of the de-
mocratic com-
mittee, an
agent of Uj-
hazy and Cretz,
and of travel-
ing with revo-
lutionary wnt-
ings, to spread
revolutionary
movements,"
May 28.
Inauguration
of Ranch's co-
lossal statue of
Frederick the
Great at Ber
lin. May 31.
The Ger-
manic Diet, in
answer to Lord
Palmerston's
protest against
annexing the
non-Germanic
provinces of
Austria to the
Germanic Fe-
deration, says,
"That no fo-
reign interfe-
rence should be
allowed in a
purely German
question."July
17.
Australia :— Discovery of large gold
fields near Bathurst, Feb.
East Indies :— Fort of the celebrated
pirate Sultan of Soloo destroyed by the
Spanish Government of Manilla, Feb.
Hawaii :— The difficulties betweeh
the Hawaiian and Fi-ench Governments
are arranged according to the terms of a
"mutual declaration," published at Ho-
nolulu, signed by the minister of foreign
relations "and M. Perrin, the French
commissioner, March 25.
New Granada: — Congress adjourns.
It passed a law abolishing slavery in
the republic, to take effect January 1,
1852. May 29.
Italy : — An earthquake destroys Mel
fl, a city of 10,000 inhabitants, about 100
miles S. E. of Naples, and other towns
in its vicinity. Seven shocks occurred
within 24 hours. Melfi was separated
by a ravine from Mount Volture, upon
wiiich are many extinct craters. Not
less than 3,000 persons are said to have
perished. July 14.
Ecuador :— Gen. Diego Novoa, Presi-
dent of the Republic, seized and put
on board a government vessel by Gen.
TTrblna, who assumes the admin.gtra
tion of the Government. July 17.
60*
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
[Period XL — 50 yeui-i.-^
Peoqress of Society, etc.
United States.
Great Biutain.
The lord major of London,
with several of tlie aKler-
iiien and coininon council
men, the royal commission-
ers of the Exposition of In-
dustry, etc., and tho execu-
tive committee of the royal
commissioners, leave Eng-
lanil for France, by invita-
tion of the prefect of the
Seine. They are entertained
with dinners, balls, sham
flirhts, and reviews of troops
-Aug. 1.
The inauguration of the rail-
way between St. Peters-
burg and Moscow, in Kus-
sia, takes place Sept. 1.
1S51. " Vigilance committee "
at San Francisco hang a
man for stealing, June 10,
and another, July 11.
Gov. McDougal of Cali-
fornia issues his proclama-
tion, warning the citizens of
the State against " vigi-
lance committees," and
calls upon all persons to aid
in sustaining the law, July
21.
Nicaragua route, be-
tween New York and San
Francisco, opened, Aug. 12.
The people of Litchfield
county, Connecticut, cele-
brate the 2()0tli anniversary
of its settlement, Aug. 13
and U.
Great riot in New Or-
leans, growing out of the
Cuban expedition. Houses
of Spanish residents at-
tacked. The Spanish con-
sul is obliged to ask protec-
tion, and is placed in the
city prison for safety, Aug.
21.
Riot, with loss of life, at
Christiana, Pa., upon an at-
tempt to arrest a fugitive
slave, Sept. 11.
U. S. brig Dolphin sails
on an expedition to run a
line of soundings for tele-
graphic purposes' across the
Atlantic, Oct.
Cotton-planters' conven-
tion (800 members) meets
at Macon, Ga. Its object
being to prevent fluctua-
tions in the price of cotton.
Little harmony of views or
concord of actioa manifest-
ed. Oct
U. S. steam frigate Mis-
sissippi sent to Turkey for
Kossuth, receives him on
board in the Dardanelles.
The French government re-
fuses to allow Kossuth to
pass through France. The
Mississippi proceeds on her
voyage with Kossuth's com-
panions, reaching New
York Nov. 10.
Kossuth arrives at New
York in December. Ova-
tions are offered him in the
principal cities of the Union.
He has an interview with
the President, Sept. to Dec.
1851. " The great aggregate
meeting" of Roman Catho-
lics, from all i»arts of the
United Kingdom, for the
inauguration of the Catho-
lic defense association, is
held at Dublin, Aug. 19.
The American yacht
"America," at liie regatta
at Cowes, wins " The cup of
all nations," Aug. 22.
Kossuth arrives by Eng
lish steamer from Gibraltar,
at Southampton, Eng. Ova-
tions are offered him in va.
rious parts of the country
He leaves for the United
States, Nov.
The submarine tele-
graph between Dover and
Calais completed, Oct. 17.
Opened for public use Nov,
13.
A fourth presidency
contemplated for British
India, and a proposal made
to remove the seat of go-
vernment from Calcutta
to Lahore, Nov.
1815-1865.]
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
16V
Feanoe.
AusTEXA, etc.
The World, elsowhere.
1851
Revolution: L. N. Bonaparte
by a coup d'etat seizes the
reins of government; dis-
solves the national assem-
bly; declares a state of
siege ; arrests the principal
red-republicans and social-
ists; constitutes an entire
new ministry. The Presi-
dent orders an instant
restoration of universal suf-
frage; an immediate elec-
tion by people and army of
a President to hold office
for ten years, to be sup-
ported by a Council of State
and two houses of Legisla-
ture. The revolution" cre-
ates an intense excitement.
The vote of the army shows
a large majority for L. N.
Bonaparte. Resistance to
the usurpation is shown in
various parts of France, but
the overwhelming power of
tbe army, and a " state of
siege" in 33 departments,
crushes all opposition. The
election, under various con-
trolling influences, results
in the confirmation of L. N.
Bonaparte as President for
ten years, by a vote of about
seven out of eight millions.
r>oc. 1-20.
1851. Marshal Ea
detzky, by pro-
clamation from
Monga declares
the Lombard©
Venetian king
dora to be in a
state of siege,
July 19.
i3y cabinet
letters.the Em
peror ofAustria
declares that
his ministers
"are responsi-
ble to no other
political au-
thority than
the throne,"
that "the
Reichstadtisto
be considered
as the council
of the throne,"
and the minis-
ter president is
to take " into
ripe and seri-
ous considera-
tion the possi-
bility of carry-
ing out the
Constitution
of March 4,
1849." Aug. 20.
Louis Kos-
suth and 35 of
his country-
men sentenced
to death m
contumaciam,
at Pesth, for
not appearing
after citation,
Sept. 22.
The ques-
tion of the ad-
mission of
Jews to judi-
cial office in
Prussia,
brought to a
partial termi-
nation by their
permission to
study law. Oct.
1S51. Russia: — Her troops repeatedly C9
feated by the Circassians. June.
Nicaragua :— Gen. Munoz, ex-minis-
ter of war, deposes President Pineda,
and sends him and most of his cabinet
prisoners to Tigre Islands and elects
Albaunaz President. The Senate assem-
bles at Grenada, and elects Montenegro
President. Aug. 4.
West Indies :— Volcanic eruptions
from eight craters in the mountains of
Martinique, Aug. 5.
Cuba : — Expedition against Cuba un-
der General Lopez, 500 strong, sails from
New Orleans Aug. 3, and Key West
10th ; effects a landing at Cubanos, llth ;
is routed on the 20th. Lopez is taken,
29th, and publicly garoted, Sep. 1. His
followers shot or condemned to ten
years' labor in Spain. The funeral obse-
quies of the Spaniards and Cubans who
fell in the contest with Lopez, are cele-
brated with great pomp at the Cathedral
in Havana. $70,000 are subscribed by
the inhabitants of Havana, for the bene-
fit of their widows and children, Sept. 9.
Mexico: — General Mariana Arista
inaugurated President, Jan. 15 ; Canales,
Carvajal, and others, issue promincia-
mentos against the general govern-
ment. Some fightinsr follows, with
varied success, Sept. — Oct. — Nov.
Greece :— Lord Palmerston's note to
the Greek government produces a great
sensation at Athens. Isov.
Chili :— Earthquake at Valparaiso —
the most violent since that of 1822, few
lives lost, but great destruction of pro-
perty, April 2. Insurrection at Santiago,
suppressed after two hours' street- fight«
ing, April 20. Rebels under Cruz de«
feated by Bulnes at Longomilla, Dec. &
102^
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
\ Period XL — 50 yean
1851
1852
PB0QKE3S OF SoOIETl', CtC.
The town of Lagos, on the
coiust of Africii, destroyed
by an Englisli force, with i
loss of thirty killed, and ti£
wounded, because tlie na
tive cliief refused to sign a
treaty for llie effectual sup-
pression of the slave trade
in his dominions. The chief
is deposed, and another sub-
stituted ill his place, Dec
20-27.
Deaths in 1S51.
U. S. I EuitoPK.
J. J. Audu-
bon,
S. Olin,
J. F. Ooopfir,
T. II. Gallau-
det,
& G. Morton.
J. Pye Smith,
Bex fey,
JoannaBaillie,
Codrington,
Slicil,
Lingard,
Da^iierre,
Sou It,
Oersted,
Jacobi.
Immigration into California.
U. b., frotn Asia is so large
as ti> require special Legis-
lation—Aijril.
ExtensiveJBlresin the Antilles,
March 2; California, U. S.,
June 17 and Nov. 2 (nearly
destroying two cities;)
Canada, (at Montreal) July
United States.
1551. Principal room of the
library of Congress destroy
ed by fire, togetlier with
paintings, statuary, models,
and about 35,000 volumes
of books, Dec 24.
By joint resolution, the
Governor of Georgi:* i
authorised and requested to
witlulraw tlie block of mar-
ble contributed to the Wash-
ington monument by the
resolution of the General
Assembly of Febr'y, 1S50,
with the inscription, "The
Constitution as it is ; the
Union as it was," and to
cause another to be pre-
pared of Georgia marble,
with tlie State arms thereon,
and to be sent to the monu-
ment, Dec. 31.
Immigration, June 1,
1S50, to" Dec. 31, 1S51,
OoS,UOO.
1552. Deputations from the
various States, in behalf of
the Irish exiles, wait upon
President Filmore — Jan. 23.
Tlie Oliio State House
entirely consumed by fire.
Some of tlie papers saved,
but a large mass of docu-
ments destroyed— Feb. 1.
Senor Laborde, the
Spanish Cons;il at New
Orleans at the time of the
Cuban riots, and v/ho fled
the city from fear of vio-
lence, arrives at New Or-
lean.s, is saluted, and re-
sumes his duties as consul —
Feb. 9.
Gold Medal piesented
to Henry Clay by citizens of
New York. Feb. 10.
MemoriaJ pi-esented to
House of Representatives
of California, from 1,21S cit-
izens of South Carolina and
Florida, asking permission
" to colonize a rural district
with a population of not
less than 2,000 slaves." Feb.
10.
Ho.mcBopathic College
at Cleveland, Ohio, mobbed
and interior destroyed, in
consequence of remains of
subjects, taken from the
burial-ground, being dis-
covered near the College.
Feb. 16.
Gkeat Bbitaid.
1852. Lord Granville, by bla
note to the American mi-
nister, in relation to the
firing into the .\.nerican
steamer Prometheus by the
British man-of-war Ex-
press, states to Mr. Law-
rence, for the information
of his government, that
her majesty's government
entirely disavow the act,
and hiis no hesitation in
offering ample apology for
that which they consider
to have been an infraction
of treaty engagements. Jan.
10.
Dr. Rae returns unsuc-
cessful from his search for
Sir John Franklin, down
the McKenzie river, and
from its mouth eastward,
500 miles. He was sent out
in the spring of 1851 by t a
Hudson's Bay Compai.y.
Feb.
1815-1865.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS,
163*
1851
1852
Fbanoe.
President Bonaparte order;
the confiscation of the Or
leans property, Jan. 22.
AusTEiA, etc.
1852. The Empe-
ror of Eussia
visits the Em-
peror of Aus-
tria at Vienna,
May 8.
The World, elsewhere.
1851. China: — Imperial court seriously
alarmed at the progress of the disturb-
ance in the Soutliern provinces. June.
A large portion of tlie Chinese part of
Hong Kong destroyed by fire : from 470
to 500 houses destroyed, including all
the printing olfices nnd tiie finest edi-
fices and public buildings. Many Uvea
lost. Dec. 26-28.
1852. Argentine Confederation :— General
Urquiza, Commander of the liberating
army, completes the passage of tlie
Parana with 28,()0i) men, 50,000 horse,
and 50 pieces of artillery, and i)reparos
to approacli Buenos Ayres, Jan. 8. Bat-
tle of Santos Lugares, (10 miles from
Buenos Ayres,) between Urquiza with
30,000 men and 50 cannon, and the troops
of Eosas, 25,000 men and 90 cannon ; re-
sults in tlie total defeat of Eosas and his
flight to England. During the night, the
city is saved from pillage by detach-
ments from the various ships of war of
all nations in the harbor, Feb. 8. The
allied army enters Buenos Ayres Feb. 18.
— Urquiza, Director of the Argentine
Confederation, deposed, Sept. 10.
— The Chamber of Eepresentatives
of Buenos Ayres declares the rivei
Parana open to tlie navigation of all na-
tions, Oct. 13.
Belgium: — Formation of a new mi-
nistry at Brussels, of the moderate party
under M. de Brouckrre, Nov. 1. The
law against the liberty of the press is
adopted in the Chamber of Eepresenta-
tives, Dec. 1.
Cuba: — The police of Havana disco-
ver and capture the press of tlie paper,
'• The Voice of the People," with the
materials and forms for the fourth num-
ber. The proprietors and employes are
arrested, Aug. 28. The barque Cornelia,
having cleared at Havana, is brought to
and boarded at the mouth of the harlior,
and the mail-bags rifled, Sept. 28. A few
days after, the United States mail steam-
ship Crescent City is refused permission
to land her passengers and mails at Ha-
vana, and ordered to quit tlie port^
Captain-General Canedoohjocting to the
purser of the vessel, Mr. Smitli, alleged
to be the reporter of false news to the
New York papers. On Oct. 14, the Cres-
cent City again enters Havana harbor,
with Mr. Smith as purser. Gov. Canedo
refuses to allow passengers or mails to be
landed, and forbids all intercoui-se be-
tween the ship and shore. The Captain
protests to the American Consul, and
leaves the harbor.
164--
THE world's progress. [Period XL — 50 years.-^
1852
Progress of Society, etc
Great floods in the United
States, March, April, Sept.
and Dec. ; in England, Nov,
and Dec; on "the conti-
nent of Europe, SepL
Telcgrnphs across the Eng-
lish (JnanneL
Earthquakes in Cuba Ansrust
2 and Nov. 26; in Manilla
and adjacent parts, Sept. 16,
Oct. 18; at Acapulco, Dec.
4; in the Eastern Archipe-
l»:ro. Nov. 27 and Dec. 21.
At Stafford Mouse, in London,
some English ladies, headed
by the Duchess of Suther-
land, adopt an address to
the women of America on
the subject of negro slavery.
It subsoquently receives
576,000 signatures. Nov.
Punishment of Death re-
stored in Tuscany.
Fall in England of the protec-
tionist ministry of Lord
Derby and Mr. Disraeli,
after an existence of nine
months— Dec. 20.
Deaths in 1852.
U. S. Europe.
H. Clay,
8. Nntt,
M. Stuart,
D. Drake,
J. H. Paine,
H.GreenougJi,
Amos Law-
rence,
Milledoler,
J. Vanderlyn,
D. Wehster,
J.L. Kingsley,
J. P. Norton.
Thos. Moore,
Schwartzen-
berg,
Pradier,
Wellington,
Dr. Mantell,
DOrsay,
Lee.
United States.
GUKAT BlUTAIN.
1S52. Southern Rights conven-
tion at Montgomery, Ala.,
passes resolutions against
making resistance to the
compromise measures an
issue of their party, and
against intervention, March
6.
Riot during election at
St. Louis, April 5.
First national agricultu-
ral convention assembles at
Washington, D. C consist-
ing of 151 members, repre-
senting 22 States, and the
District of Columbia, orga-
ni3e<l bv tlio choice of
Ma^^^hal P. Wilder, of Mass.,
president. June 24.
Convention for revising
the Constitution of Louisi-
ana, July 5.
Kossuth continues to bo
feted in ditferent cities, and
finally quits the country
under the name of Alexan-
der Smith, July 16.
Henry Clay dies, June
29. Obsequies celebrated
at New York with great
pomp and magnificence,
July 20.
(jreat Britain insists upon the convention of 181S, re-
specting North American fisheries, being carried out by
the United States, and sends armed vessels to tlie coast
of New Brunswick, etc. Thc'United States government
dispatches the war steamer Mississippi, with Commodore
Perry on biiard, to the disputed fishing grounds; some
sixty fishing vessels are boarded, and fm^nished with in-
formation and advice. July— Aug.
Commodore McCauley.
commander of the United
States naval forces in the
Pacific, by proclamation,
withdraws his protection
from American vessels pro-
ceeding to the Lobos Is-
lands for guano, Oct. 18.
This ditfic^ulty witli Peru
settled by the withdrawal
of American pretensions,
Nov. 15.
1852. Submarine telegraph
wires coated with gutta
percha, laid across St.
George's Channel from Ho-
lyhead, a distance of eighty
miles, completing the com-
munication between Lon-
don and Dublin. June 1.
Queen Victoria issues
her proclamation against
" Roman Catholic ecclesias-
tics' wearing the habit of
their order, exercising the
rites and ceremonies of ihe
Roman Catholic religion in
liighways and places ol
public resort." June 15.
Daniel Webster dies,
Oct. 24. Funeral solemni-
ties celebrated at Boston
with much state, Nov. 15.
_ The United States de-
clines the tri-partite con-
vention respecting Cuba
proposed by England and
France, Dec. 1.
Immigration, 375,000.
Duke of Wellington dies,
Sept. 14. His funeral obse-
quies take place in London
with great pomp, Nov. 18.
Fall of the Protectionist
ministry of Lord Derby and
Mr. D'Israeli, after an exist-
ence of nine months, Dec.
By a decree of the Go-
vernor (reneral of British
India, tht; province of Pe
gu isann-'t •^.1 to the Eiitisll
dominioD^j Dec, 20.
1815-1865.]
THE world's progress.
in5«
Fkanoe.
Presiflent Bonaparte com-
mences his tour through
Soutliern France, Sept. 16.
Visits the Chateau D'Am-
boise, and releases Abd-el-
Kader, who had been a
prisoner for five years, Oct.
10. Returns to 'Paris, ma-
king a pompous entry into
the city, Oct. 16.
A decree of the President
convokes the Senate for
Nov. 4, for the purpose of
deliberating on the restora-
tion of the empire. Oct. 19,
The Senate decrees the re
establishment of the em
pire, subject to the ratifica-
tion of the people, Nov. 7,
The vote is taken through-
out France and Algeria.
Nov. 21 and 22; result—
7,824,189 in favor of reestab
lishing the empire, asainst
253,145 negative, and 63,326
void ballots.
The Senate goes in a body to
St. Cloud, to announce ofii
cially the result of the elec-
tion to Louis Napoleon, and
haU him Emperor, Dec. 1.
At the Hotel de Ville, in Paris,
Louis Napoleon is publicly
proclaimed Emperoe of
THE French, under the
name of Napoleon III,
Dec. 2.
Austria, etc.
The World, elsewhere.
1852. Greece: — Signing of a convention in
London by the five powers, England,
France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece, in
reference to the affairs of Greece. None
but a prince of the Greek religion is
hereafter to ascend the throne of Greece.
Nov. IS.
Hawaii: — Eruption of Mauna Loo;
lasts several weeks. Feb.
India:— The Burmese evacuate and
burn Prome, Sept. 10. The British un-
der Godwin take it with a loss of 38 men,
Nov. 21.
Italy :— The Grand Duke of Tuscany,
refuses to give audience to an English
Protestant deputation in favor of Rosa
and Francisco Madiai, Oct. 25.
— The punishment of death is rees-
tablished in Tuscanj% for treason, crimes
against religion, murder, and robbery
wilh violence, Nov. 10.
— Tlie Pope addresses a letter to the
King of Sardinia, strongly adverse to
the bill under consideration in the Pied-
montese parliament, permitting mar-
riages without religious ceremonies; it
is consequently withdrawn by the mi-
nistry, Dec. 20.
—At Rome, Bishop Ives, of North
Carolina, U. S., formerly an Episcopa-
lian, is received into the Catholic
Church by the Pope, Dec. 26.
Liberia :— President Roberts attacks
and gains posses.sion of the native chief
Beyer's principal town, Jan 15.
A treaty of peace between the courts of Vienna and
Rome is ratified, stipulating that the former shall main-
tain in the territories of the Pope, 12,000 infantry and
1,400 cavalry, for whom $18,000 monthly are to be paid
by the Papal government. Nov. 10.
Mexico: — Carvajal attacks Camargo
and is defeated, Feb. 21.
The French Count Boulban de Ra-
ousset, who led an enterprise upon So-
nora, is defeated at Hermosillo, and liia
expedition completely overthrown, Nov.
1.
Spain: — A priest, aged 63, attacks
with a dagger, and wounds the Queen
of Spain, on'her return from celebrating
at the cathedral a Te Deum for the
birth of her child, Feb. 2. He is tried,
convicted, degraded from his priestly
ofla.ce, and suffers death from the garote,
7th.
— Ninety-five Americans belonging
to the Lopez expedition, who had been
sent to Spain, arrive at New York,
March 13, having been liberated by the
Queen.
— The Cortes dissolved by royal de«
cree, for having elected De la Rosa, th«
anti-ministerial candidate, their presi-
dent, Dec. 2.
1852. The Empe-
ror of Austria
visits the King
of Prussia at
Berlin, Dec. 17.
Prussia : —
The bill for bi
ennial parlia
ments becomes
a law, Dec. 23.
166*
THE -WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XL— 50 years.-
A. D. I'aOQRESS OF SOCIETY, OtC. UNITED StATE3.
1853
Firmans accorded to all sub-
jects of the Porte (not Mus-
sulmans) conflnning tlieir
religious rights, June 22.
The first Norwegian railway
opaued July 4.
The American expedition un-
der Com. Perry arrives at
Japan, July 8. On the 14th
he lands and delivers to the
Imperial commissioners the
letter from tlie American
President; a few days after
leaves the island, to return
in the spring.
Over 60,000 pilgrims enter
Aix-la-Chapelle, to visit the
exhibition of the relics, Ju-
ly 17.
1S53. Caloric ship Ericsson
makes her trial trip to the
Potomac, Jan. 11.
Adverse decision of Na-
toloon, arhitcr between the
fnitcMl Slates and I'ortiigal,
in case of the General Ann-
strung, read at Washington
Jan. 17.
Franklin Pierce and
William K. King declared
duly elected President and
Vice-President for four
years from 4th March next,
Feb. ».
W. R. Kin? sworn in as
Vice-President, at Cumbre,
Island of Cub;i, Consu
Sharkey administering the
oath, March 24.
Second American Arctic
expedition leaves Hew
York, May 31.
Important amendments
to the city charter of New
York, restraining the power
of municipal oflScers
money matters, adopted by
a vote of 36,672 in favor.
3,351 against, June 7.
Crystal Palace at New
York opened in presence of
the President of the United
States, etc., July 14.
GuEAT Britain.
1853. Mr. Ingersol, American
envoy, feled at Liverpool
and Manchester, Jan. 4-7.
Sandilli and other Caffra
chiefs send in their sulmils-
sioii to General Catlieart,
thereby closing the war,
Feb. 10. Peace concluded,
March 9.
Doncaster church, built
In 1070, destroyed by fire,
Feb. 28.
Warlike stores, supposed
to be for Kossuth, seized,
April 14.
Mrs. H. B. Stowe, au-
thoress of "Uncle T(mi's
Cabin," received at Stafford
House by many of the no-
bility and statesmen ol
England, May 7.
Dublin Industrial Exhi-
bition opened, May 12.
The "strike" at Stock'
port ceases, and 20,000 men
resume labor, having ac-
complished their object, an
advance of ten per cent, in
their wages, August S. Si-
milar strikes occur at Leeds,
Kidderminster, and othoi
cities.
1815-1865.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
167^
A.D.
Feanob.
The Pantheon at Paris re
oi'sned as the Church of
St. Genevieve, Jan. 3.
Eussia, Austria, and Prussia,
at last acknowledge Napo-
leon III. Emperor of the
French, Jan. 11.
Marriage of the Emperor and
Eugenie de Montijo, Count-
ess de Tebii, celebrated at
Cathedral of Notre Dame,
Paris. Amnesty granted
to 4,."12 political prisoners
and exiles, Jan. 30.
Oeneral St. Priest, and many
other legitimists, secretly
arrested in I'aris, on the
charge of political commu-
nication with the Count of
Chambord, and some of
having sent false intelli-
gence to foreign journals,
Feb. 5.
Application is made by the
French government to the
English for Napoleon's
will, Feb. 17. Subsequent-
ly granted.
Funeral of Mme. Easiail at
Paris, tlie occasion of a
formidable socialist domon-
stration. 40,000 persons
march in procession to Pere
la Chaise, March 13.
Fleet sent to Turkish waters,
March 20.
A peace address, signed by
4,000 English merchants,
bankers and traders, is pre-
sented to Napoleon III. at
the Tuilleries, by English-
men, March 28.
A bill restoring capital pun
ishment for attempts on the
life of the Emperor, or to
subvert the Imperial go-
vernment, is passed, May
ArsTEiA, etc.
1S53. Austria of-
fers herself as
a mediator bC'
tween the
Turks and
Montenegrins,
Feb. 1.
Attempt on
the life of Em-
peror of Aus-
tria at the ram-
parts of Vien-
na, Feb. IS.
Baden: —
Prof Gervinus
tried for high
treason, in pub-
lishing his "In-
troduction to
the History of
lOtii century."
Sentence, ten
months' im-
prison mem,
and book to be
destroyed,
March 5.
Prussia : —
Democratic
conspirac^y dis-
covered at Ber-
lin, March 29.
Austria re-
cals her miyiis-
tcr from Berne.
May 20.
The "Wokld, elsewhc
1852. Switzeriand :— The Canton cf Ticino
suppresses the order of Capuch'.n monks,
and e.xpels all of that order under 65
years of age, Nov. 25.
Turkey :— War breaks out between
the Turks and Montenegrins, Dec. 15.
1853. Belgium: — A maritime congress as-
sembles at Brussels, Aug. 23.
— Marriage of tlie Duke of Brabant,
heir-apparent of the throne, and th(
Arch-Duchess Maria, Aug. 23.
Canada and New Brunswick :—Ga-
vazzi lectures at Quebec and Montreal;
riots ensue; military called out; June
6-9.
—The first sod of the European and
North American Railroad turned at St.
Johns, by Lady Head, assisted by the
Lieutenant-Governor, in presence of
25,000 persons, Sept. 14.
China :— Nankin taken by the rebels ;
Tartar garrison (20,000) m.-issacred;
March 19. Amoy captured. May 19.
Denmark:— Parliament prorogued,
and a "fundamental" law issued, by
which the government becomes hereaf-
ter an absolute one, July 19.
Hawaii: — Small-i)OX rages, having
carried off since May 1,805 out of a po-
pulation of 60,01)0 ])ersons, Aug. 31.
Holland : — The first chamber adopts
the much-disputed law on religious li-
berty, Sept. S.
India: — Battle of Donabew, in Bur-
mah : Sir J. Cheape defeats Mea Toon,
March 19.
Italy :— An insurrection breaks out
at Milan, but is visorouslv suppressed
by Radetsky, Feb. ^6. The property of
the Lombardo- Venetian refugees seques-
tered till they can prove they are not
implicated in this outbreak, and 10,000
Ticinese expelled from Austrian Italy,
Feb. 26. Protracted diplomatic contro-
versies between Austria and both Sar-
dinia and Switzerland, follow— Sardinia
solemnly protesting. April Ki.
—The Pope prohibits the circulation
of " Uncle Tom's Cabin" in his domini-
ons. May 10.
Guerazzi tried at Florence for high
treason, and found guilty, June 11.
—Conspiracy in Rome, 146 arrests,
Aug. 15.
— Order signed for Immediate release
of Miss Cunningham at Lucca, Oct. 9.
—New church, built for the Wal-
denses, opened and consecrated at Turin,
Dec. 15.
Mexico: — New revolution; Aiista
resigns the presidency, Jan. 5.
— Santa Anna having teen elected
President, is received in Mexico with
great enthusiasm, April 17.
108^
THE world's progress. [Period AT— 50 yccus.^
A great nutlonal horse-show
at Sprinirfield, Mass., U. S.,
Oct. 19-21.
The first Presbyterian Chinese
church organized at San
Francisco, U. iS., Nov. 6.
Duel between 8onl6 and
De Turgot, American and
French ministers to Sjjain
Dec 18.
Cholera prevails In Europe.
Several new asteroids discov-
ered, raising the number to
27, between the planets
Mars aad Jupiter.
Deaths in 1858 :
U.S.
O. B. Adams,
JuniusSmith.
W. R. King,
B. Bates,
Sim. Oreen-
Etteope.
Arago,
Von Buch,
D acres,
Mrs. Opie,
"Wardlaw.
1853. Great heat throughout
tlie country — therniouieter
every where 100" Fah.
Deaths from it in New
York city in four days, 400,
Aug. 11-14.
Remaining portion of
"Tabic Rock," at the Falls
of Niagara, breaks oflf, Sept.
9.
"Groat Republic," ves-
sel of 4,000 tuns, largest
merchantman in the world,
launched at East Boston,
Mass., Oct. 4.
Captain Gunnison and
party massacred by the
Indians in Utah, Oct. 26.
Inauguration of the
"Washington aqueduct.
President Pierce turns the
first turf, Nov. 9.
A mob of men and wo-
men demolish the railroad
track near Erie, Penn., Dec.
9, and repeat the outrage,
Dec. 27.
Tellow fever epidemic
In the States bordering on
Gulf of Mexico, carries off
from 12,000 to 15,000 per
sons.
Bedini, the Papal Nun
cio, tries to influence the
RomanCatholic laity to give
up their church property to
the Bishops, but does not
succeed. He quits the
country ignominiously.
Immigration, 368,000.
1S58. Naval Review at Spit-
head, in presence of the
Queen, Aug. 11.
Queen Victoria visits
Ireland, Aug. 29. «
Deputation from the
Protestant Alliance, headed
by the Earl of Shaftesbury,
waits upon Lord Clarendon.
to state the case of Miss
Cunningham, arrested at
Lucca for distributing Ita-
lian Bibles, etc., and to
urge the government to
procure her immediate li-
beration, Sept. 28. A depu-
tation of clergymen and y
others, headed by Sir Ciil-
linjT Eardiey, wait upon
Lord Clarendon and thank
him and the government
for the exertions which had
been made, Oct. 27.
Bronze statue of Sir Ro-
bert Peel erected in front
of the Royal Infirmary at
Manchester, Oct. 3.
Captain Inglefield, of the
Phoenix, arrives from the
Arctic regions, with the
news of the discovery of
the North-west Passage, on
Oct. 26, 1850, by Captain
McClure of the Investiga-
tor, Oct. 7.
The first stone of a Ro-
man Catholic cathedral
laid at Shrewsbury, by
Bishop Brown— the young
Earl of Shrewsbury giving
£15,000 towards its erection
—Dec. 12.
The Dublin Exhibition
building is formally opened
as a winter garden, by the
Lord Lieutenant and the
Countess St. Germain^
Dec. 15.
1815-1865.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
169^
1858
Feance.
Plot to assassinate the Empe-
ror, wliile on his way to the
Opera Cooiique, discovered
at Pai-is, Juiy 7.
A Roman circus of great size
discovered at Tours, Aug,
81.
The Duke de Nemours, on
behalf of the entire Orleans
House, eflfects a reconcilia-
tion with the Count de
Cbambord, Nov. IT.
Inauguration of the statue of
Marshal Ney, on the spot
where he was shot, and the
anniversary of his execu-
tion, Dec 7.
Austria, etc.
The 'Woeld, elsewhere.
1S53. Persia:— Earthquakes destroy Shl-
rar, (12,000 lives lost,) May 9 ; and Tehe-
ran, July 11.
Peru ; — ^Difficulty at Chincha Islands
between Peruvian commandant and
American shipmasters, Aug. 17.
Portugal :— Maria (Queen) dies, Nov.
1853, AnAustrian
war vessel in
tlie port of
Smyrna, seizes
and attempts
to carry off
Martin Koszta,
a Hungarian
refugee, travel-
ing under an
American pass-
port, who
claims protec-
tion of Ameri-
can flag. An
American fri-
gate places the
Austrian un-
der her guns,
and Koszta's
release is impe-
ratively de-
manded, June
21.
Austrian go-
vernment pro
tests against
proceedings of
Captain In gra-
ham at Smyr-
na, in a circu
lar addressed
to the Earoj^e-
an courts, Aug.
1, and through
its envoy ad-
dresses a note
to the Ameri-
can govern-
ment on the
same subject,
Aug. 29.
Eastern Affaies. — Wae between Ttjekey and
EussiA.— Prince Menschikoff sent by the Emperor of Eus-
sia with demands which are rejected" by the Porte, May 21,
June 15. The Russians cross the Prutlj, 120,000 ^strong,
June 21-28. — The Porte addresses a protest to the Russian
cabinet against the occupation of the Principalities, July
14. The" Conference of Vienna draw up the celebrated
" Vienna note," for the joint acceptance of Russia and
Turkey, July 26. Russia at once accepts; Turkey re-
quires modifications, Aug. 20; which Russia will not ac-
cede to, Sept. 1,4. Military congress at Olmutz, Sept. 20.
The note is dropped, Sept. 30. Turkey declares war
against Russia, Oct. 3. Hostilities commenced on the
Danube, Oct. 30. Turks capture Fort St. Nicholas in the
Black Sea, Oct. 31. Turks defeat Russi.ins at Oltenitza,
Nov. 4. Russia declares war against Turkey, Nov. 11.
The Anglo-French fleet enters the Dardanelles, Oct. 4,
and the Bosphorus, Nov. 15. Turks beaten and massa-
cred at Sinope by Russians, Nov. 30. The Vienna Con-
ference continues its eflforts to effect an arrangement be-
tween the belligerents, Dec. Decided manifestation of
the people of Constantinople in favor of war, Dec. 21.
Russians uniformly victorious in Asia. The religious fana»J
ticlsm of both parties is aroused.
10.
Spain: — New and stringent law
against liberty of the press pnblisbed,
Jan. 2. Queen Isabella, in commemo-
ration of her birth-day, orders three
screw-frigates to be constructed, to be
called after the three queens from whom
she derives the crowns of Castile, Arra-
gon, and Navarre, Oct. 10.
Switzerland :— Insurrection in Fri-
burg by the Jesuit pai'ty speedily sup-
pressed, April 22.
Venezuela :— Earthquake at Oumaim;
600 persons killed, July 15.
170*
THE world's progress. [Period XI.— 50 pears.
D. Pkogbess of SociETr, etc
1864
Deputation of " Friends" pre-
sents to the Emjieror of
Itussia a peace memorial,
Feb. 10.
Complete equality before the
law secured to all subjects
of the Porte, wilhoiit dis-
tinction of creed, by treaty,
March 12.
Commercial treaty concluded
between the United States
and Japan, March 23.
In Turkey, the possessions of
tlie Mosques to be declared
the property of the State
from March 27.
Tho first railway Is opened
in Brazil, the Emperor and
Empress being present at
the inauguration, April 30.
Tho changes introduced in the
Ottoman Empire by the in-
fluence of the Allied Pow-
ers, amount to a revolution
in its social condition.
Marked increase in the num
bers and prosperity of
Christians in Turkey ; Mo-
hammedan population, ex-
cept in Bosnia, rapidly dy-
ing out.
Cross raised In a Catholic
burying ground belonging
to the French, in Turkey.
Unitkd States.
1S54. The steamer San Fran-
cisco founders at sea; 240
U. S. troops washed over-
board ; the rest of 700 res-
cued by the Three Bells,
Kilby, and Antarctic, Jan.
5.
Astor Library opened
for use of the public, in New
York city, Jan. 9.
Outrages on the railroad
near Eric, I^a., renewed by
mobs of women, Jan. 17, 31
Skirmishes between U.
S. troops and Apache and
Utah Indians, March 5, 80.
Certain sections of the
"Maine Liquor Law" deci-
detl to be unconstitutional
iu Massachusetts, March 13.
Miss Dix's bill for ame-
liorating the condition of
the indigent insane, vetoed,
April 20.
Great flood In the Con-
necticut river, hundreds
driven from their dwel-
lings, May 1.
Mass meetings at Bos-
ton, Feb. 23 ; New Market,
N. IL, Feb. 27; New York,
May 13, against the Ne-
braska bill, which, how-
ever, becomes a law, May
Uiots in Michigan, April
17; at Boston, (attempt to
rescue a fugitive slave,)
May 26; at New York and
Brooklyn, (papist interfe-
rence with street-preach-
ing,) May 28, June 4, 11.
San Juan, Nicaragua,
bombarded and burnt by
the U. S. sloop-of-war^Cy-
•ne, July 13.
Great Britain.
1854. Parliament opened by
Queen, who expresses a de-
sire that exertions for an
.amicable settlement of tho
Eastern difliculties should
be persevered in, Jan. 31,
The Queen reviews th«
fleet on its departure for
the Baltic, March 11.
A day of Immiliation
and prayer observed, April
26.
Launch of the "Royal
Albert," tho Queen chrlt-
tening the vessel, May la
Crystal Palace at 8f*
denham opened \>j u«
Queen, June 10.
1816-1865.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
■71«
171
Feanob.
AirsTEiA, etc.
1654
The Emperor and Empress
attend tlie first agricultural
exhibition ever held in Pa-
ris, June 9.
The Emperor reviews a di
vision of troops about to
proceed to the Baltic, July
The "W'okld, else^iiere.
1854. Alliance,
offensive and
defensive, be-
tween Austria
and Prussia,
signed April
1854. Brazil :— San Salvador destroyed by
an earthquake, causing a loss, in less
than one minute, of 200 lives, and
$4,000,000 of property, April 10.
Canada:— Parliament House at Que-
bee burnt, including government library
and philosophical apparatus, Feb. 1.
India: — The Ganges Canal, a work
of vast magnitude opened, April 8.
— Day of humiliation and prayer for
success of the British arms, observed at
Bombay and all over India, by the na-
tives, as well as the Europeans, July 16.
Italy:— Shocks of earthquake in the
country between Florence and Eome,
May.
— Kailway from Lusa to Turin inau-
gurated in presence of King and Queen
of Sardinia, etc.. May 22.
Mexico : — Battle of Guyamas, be
tween some Frenchmen under Count
Eaousset de Boulbon and the Mexicans,
July 13. The Count is defeated, taken
prisoner, and, Aug. 12, shot.
Eussia:— An imperial nkaso calls out
nine men in 1,000 souls in eastern por-
tion of the Empire, May 9.
Spain : — Earthquake at Fiana, crum-
bling down the greatest part of the Al-
cazaba, an ancient castle of the Moors,
and causing large chasms in nearly all
the streets, Jan. 13.
— Strike at Barcelona; 15,000 arti-
zans demand of the municipal authorities
that the price of provisions be reduced,
and wages increased, March 31.
— Th.e insurrection of the people
at Madrid (July 17) triumphs, and the
Eivas ministry resign, July 19. Espar-
tero enters the city, and is received
with great enthusiasm, July 29. 3,000
defenders of the barricades defile before
the Queen's palace, her Majesty present-
ing herself on the balcony, July 31.
— Doiia Maria Christina, the Queen
Mother, leaves Madrid for Portugal, un-
der escort of troops, but against the will
of the people. She was indebted to the
State 71,000,000 reals, Aug. 28.
Turkey:— Fire at Constantinople,
400 houses destroyed, Jan. 1.
— Fire at Salonica, destroys 600 build-
ings, April 8.
-Banquet given by the Sultan to
Prince Napoleon, May 8.
— Fire at Yarna, destroys 180 housea
and vast quantities of military storea,
Aug. 10.
172*
THE world's progress.
IPeriod XT. — 50 years.'^
A.D.
Progress of Society, etc.
United States.
Great Britaih.
1854
The Sultan issues a firman for
JS54. Grisi and Mario, the two
the constructiou of a church
most renowned lyric ar-
at Scutari, Sept.
tists of the old world, arrive
at New York, Aug. 19.
DeatM in 1854.
U.S.
Europe.
N. B. Blunt,
Anglesea,
Jacob Bur'
Bodisco,
neU,
Cockburn,
Extensive drought pre-
John Davis,
Forbes,
vails several weeks.
Com. JDownes,
Jameson,
J. Harring-
Maitland,
ton, last sur-
Melloni,
vivor of bat-
Montgumery,
tle of Lex-
Paixhans,
ington.
Pellico,
Mrs. E. Jud-
Plankett,
Cholera prevails, June-
son.
Kubini,
Nov. ; yellow fcrer prevails,
Bin/top Wain'
Schelling,
Aug.-Nov,
Wright.
Mine. Sontag,
Mrs. C. South-
ey,
Talfourd,
Wiison,
St. Arnaud,
Immigration, about 500,000.
Denman,
"Ostend Conference" be-
Lockhart.
tween Buchanan, Mason,
Soul6,OctlO,lL
'■'■ Immaculate Conception of
Law passed for the en-
the Virgin" proclaimed as a
dogma hj the pope, Dec. 8.
listment of foreisrners in the
British service, Dea 22.
1855
J 855. Panama railroad com-
1855. Southern Commercial
1855. Visit of the Emperor
pleted, first train on it Jan,
Convention at New Orleans,
and Empress of France,
28.
Jan. 8.
Aprilie.
Financial^a7i^cin California,
Soul6 quits Madrid Jan.
Death of Lord Eaglan,
Feb.
81.
Commander-in-chief at Se-
bastopol, June 28.
Suspension Bridge at Niaga-
U. 8. S. Waterwitch fired
ra first crossed, March 14.
on, on the Paraguay, Feb. 1.
The Queen and Prince
Albert visit the Emperor
Louis Napoleon at Paris,
Difficulty In Phila. about
U. S.Dist. Court in Wis-
slaves of J. H. Wheeler of
consin pronounces the Fu-
Aug. 18.
N. Carolina, July 18.
gitive Slave Law unconsti-
tutional, Feb. 3.
Election riot at Louisville,
Ky., between Americans
Convention at Lawrence,
and foreigners, Aug. 6.
Kansas, Aug. 14.
Walker (filibuster) takes
possession of Granada, Oct.
16.
Kansas: Convention at
i
Topeka, Oct 23.
Passmore Williamson re-
leased from jail (where he
had been three months in
the Wheeler slave cav^),
Nov. a
1815-1865.]
THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
1Y3«
Fbahob.
1856. Subscriptions to the
French loan of 500 millions
of francs amount to 2,000
millions of francs, offered
by 171,000 persons.
Death of Don Carlos,
claimant of the Spanish
throne, March 10.
Indust'l Exhibition open-
ed at Paris, May 15.
Attstkia, etc
The "Woeld, elsewhere.
1854. Venezuela: — Slaves
April 25.
emancipated,
1854. Saxony:—
The King
thrown from
his carriage at
Innspruck, and
killed, Aug. 10.
Eastern Affairs.— The Anglo-French fleet enters
the Black Sea, Jan. 4. Turks defeat Russians at Citate,
Jan. 6. Negotiations for peace continue through the Vi-
enna Conference, Jan. Russian ambassadors "quit Lon-
don, Feb. 6, Paris, Feb. 7. English and French ambassa-
dors dismissed St. Petersburir, Feb. 16. England and
France resolve to summon Russia to evacuate the Prin-
cipalities by the 30th April, Feb. 28. Russians cross the
Danube, March. Treaty of alliance concluded between
England, France, and the Porto, March 12. Anglo-French
ultimatum forwarded to St. Petersburg. Russia refuses
a reply. England and France declare war against Russia,
March 28. Counter declaration of war by Russia against
England and France, April 12. Convention between
England and France, April IS. Odessa bombarded, April
22. Anglo-French fleet scours the Baltic, May, June.
Austro-Turkish Convention, June 4. Russians raise the
siege of Silistria, June 23. and re-cross the Danube, July
7. Russians defeated by Turks at Rutschuk, July 12 and
13. Are compelled to evacuate the Principalities and re-
cross the Pruth, Aug. 16. Bomarsund capitulates to the
Allied fleet and French army, Aug. 16. Austrian armies
enter the Principalities, Aug. 20. Allies land in the Cri-
mea, Sept. 14. Defeat the Russians at the Alma, Sept
20. Commence the siege of Sebastopol, Sept. 28. Fire
opened, Oct. 17. Battle of Balaklava, Russians repulsed,
Oct. 25. Battle of Inkermann, Russians again rtpulsed,
Nov. 5. Siege of Sebastopol progresses, Dec. 31.
1855. Russia : Death of the Emperor Nicholas I., March 2.
— The allies take possession of Kertch and the Sea of
Azoph, May 24.
— The allies repulsed In an assault on the outposts of
Sebastopol, June 18.
— Kars invested by the Russians, June 23.
FALL OF SEBASTOPOL—
The Malakhoflf carried by the
French, Sep. 8.
Terrific attack of the Rus-
sians on Kars repulsed, Sep. 20.
Mexico : Santa Anna
abdicates. Aug. 9. Car-
rara chosen to succeed
him.
174^
THE WOKLd's PEOGEESS. [Period XL- 50 years.-^
A.D. Peogkess of Society, etc.
><^55
IS56
Deaths in 1855 :
U.S.
S. H. Cone,
Abbott Law-
veil ce,
J jbii C. Spen-
cer,
T. E. Beck.
EtTROPE.
Sir H. Bishop
Silk Bucking
ham,
Jos. Hume,
Miss Millbrd,
Nicholas I.
"Currer Bell.'
Sir W. E. Par
•y-
Lord Eapclan,
Saml. Kogers
Ans. Eoths
child.
Lord Truro.
Launch of the stm. Adriatic
(the lai'gest yet afloat) at
N. Y., April T.
Personal Assault on Senator
Sumner of Mass., in the U.
S. Senate by Brooks of S.
Ca., May 22.
Submarine Telegraph cable
laid from Cape Breton to
Newfoundland, July 12.
Burlinghame's acceptance of
Brooks's challenge, July
21.
Brooks and Keitt re-elected
to Congress from S. C, July
28.
Dudley Observatory Inaug.
at Albany. Aug. 28.
Preston S. Brooks, the as-
saulter of Sumner, publicly
welcomed and presented
with a cane, at Columbia,
B. C, Aug. 29.
Charles Sumner received in
Bo.ston with public hon-
ors. Nov. 3.
N. Y. and Newfoundland
Telegraph Une,'ni5 miles,
opened to St. John's, Nov,
10.
United States.
Great Britain.
1855. Proclamation against filibus-
teriam by President Pierce, Dec.
8.
British Arctic ressel Eesolute
found and brought to New London
by an American whaler, Dec. 2i
1856. N". P. Banks, jr., of Mass., elect-
ed Speaker of House of Eepresent
of U. S., after a contest of 9 weeks,
by plurality of 3 votes, Feb. 2.
Gubernatorial contest in Wiscon-
sin, Jan. — Feb.
Mr. Fillmore nominated for Pres't
by Amer. Con. at Phila., Feb. 2$
Free State Legisl. at Topeka,
Kansas, elect Eeeder and Lane as
delegates to Congress, Feb. 8.
Kansas Investigation Committee
appointed, March 19.
Padre Yigil recognised as Minist.
fi-om Nicaragua, May 14.
President's message announcing
difficulty with Brit. Gov. on enUst
ments in the U. S., May 29.
Buchanan nominated for Pres't
by Dem. Con. at Cincinati, June 7.
Fremont nominated for Pres't by
Eepub. Conven. at Phila., June 17.
H. Eepres. U. S. pass a bill ad-
mitting Kansas under Topeka Con.,
July 3.
Topeka legislature dispersed by
U. S. troops under Col. Sumner,
July 4.
John W. Geary confirmed as Gov.
of Kansas, July 31.
"Whitefield and Eeeder both re-
jected by H. Eepres. as delegates
from Kansas, Aug. 1.
Extra session of Congress ad-
journed Aug. 30.
Municipal' olectioc riot at Balti-
more, 9 ^., Oct. 8.
U. S. troops in Kaasas arrest and
disarm parties of emigrants from N.
E.. Oct. 10.
Buchanan elected Pres. No'«'. 4
1855. Visit of the
King of Sardinia to
England, Nov. 30.
Captain McClure
receives the re-
ward of £5,000 for
discovery of " the
2f. W. passage,''"'
and is kuiglitcd
Nov
Brit, fleet bom«
biird and partially
destroy CaiitoUj
China, Oct. 23.
1815-1865.1
THE WORLD'S PKOGRESS.
115'
A.D.
1855
France.
1856
EiTEOPK, elsewhere.
1S55. Omar Pasha defeats
the Eussians at the Ingour,
Nov. 5.
Explosion of 100,000 lbs.
of powder at Sebastopol,
Nov. 15.
Surrender of Kars to the
Eussians after a famous de-
fence by Gen. Williams,
Nov. 25.
The Woeld, elsewhere.
1S55. Jfecdco : — Alvarez rc«
signs the presidency, and ifl
succeeded by Comonfort^
Dec
Peace Conference at Paris
opened Feb. 25.
Birth of an heir to the throne,
March 16.
Trent'}/ of Peace with Eussicf
signed at Paris, March 80.
Destructive floods near Ly-
ons, &c., whole villages de-
stroyed, June.
1856. Preliminaries of Peace
signed, at Vienna, Feb. 1.
The Crimea wholly eva-
cuated by the Allies, July
12.
Russia : — Alexander IL
crowned emperor, Sept. 7.
— Railways of 2600
miles contracted for by
Government. Capital, 1000
millions of francs, Oct. 28.
ITaples : — French and
English ministers leave.
Oct. 28.
1856. Costa Rica :—Schlessin-
ger and Walker's invasion
defeated, IMar^h 20.
— Walker defeats 3,000
Costa Paeans at Rivas, Ad.
11.
Panama: — Riot on the
Panama R.E., 30 passengers
killed, April 15.
Gunpowder explosion at
Salonica, Turkey, 700 h.
and w., July 17.
Earthquake in Egypt,
Syria, and isles of Med.
About 1200 lives lost, and
many thousand buildings
destroyed, Oct. 12.
Granada, city of, de«
stroyed by Walker, Nov.
20-25.
116*
THE world's progress. [Period XI— 50 ytars.-^
Progress of Society, etc.
United States.
British Empire.
1S56
Revival of the African Skn-e
Trade recommended by
Gov. Adams in S. Ca.
Arctic discovery ship Reso-
lute presented to Queen
Victoria by Lieut Hart-
stene for the U. S. Govern-
ment, Dec. 30.
Deaths in 1856 :
1S56. BarrierForts, near Can-
ton, China, destroyed by
U. S. squadron, for an at-
tack on an American boat,
Dec. 6.
Resolution ngainst the
Slave Trade passed by H.
of licps. U. S., Dec 15.
U. S.
J. ^r. Berrien.
Ogden Uoff-
man.
Com Morris.
J. G.Perceval.
Jno. C. War-
ren.
J. M. Claytop,
u. s. s.
George Steers,
naval archi-
tect.
T. Crawford,
sculptor.
Louis AI-Lane.
ElTROPE.
Jno. Braham,
vocalist.
Sir W. Hamil
ton, meta-
physician.
Von "Biela, as
tronomer.
L'd Ilardinge
Father Mat-
thew.
Hugh Miller.
Sir Jno. Ross
Westmacott
Yarrcll.
PL Delaroche.
185T Geo. Peabody gives $300,000
j to establish a free Literary
and ScientifiG Institute at
Baltimore, Feb. 12.
The Chief-Justice of the TJ.
S. proclaims that negroes
have no rights which white
men are bound to respect,
March 6.
'^ Dred Scot decision" de
nounced by the Ledslatnre
of N. Hampshire, June 25.
The Atlantic Telegraph Ca-
hie first joined at sea by
the Niagara and Agamem
non, Aug. 5, but breaks
Aug. 11.
Loss of the Central America
and 450 lives, Sept. 8.
Mass meetins* of unemployed
workmen in N. T., Nov. 2
and 10.
Stra. Adriatic starts on first
voyage to Liverpool, Nov.
185T. Four members of H.
of Representatives of U. S
from N. Y. and Conn, ex-
pelled for corrupt conduct,
Feb. 19.
Buchanan inaugurated
President, March 4.
Lord Napier recognised
as British minister, March
16.
The Dred Scot Deoi-
siox delivered by Chief
Justice Taney, March 6.
E. J. AValker accepts ap-
pointment as Governor of
Kansas, March 26.
Attempt to arrest Mayor
Wood in N. Y. for an as-
sault on the Street Com
missioner, June 16.
General Financial Pa
nic begins with suspension
ot Ohio Life and Trust Co.,
Aug. 24.
Lecompton Coiwention
Kansas, meets Sept. 7.
Suspension of Philad.
banks, Sept. 25 and 26, fol-
lowed by general suspen. of
banks in Pa., Md., D. C,
E. L
Suspension of N. Y. city
banks, Oct. 1-3-14, and Mas-
sachusetts banks same day,
Payments resumed, Dec.
12.
1857. Treaty of Peace with
Persia signed March 5.
Palmerston Ministry out-
voted on the Chinese ques-
tion, March 5.
New septennial Parlia-
ment meets, April 30.
The Manchester Art Ez-
hibition opened. May 5.
Rebellion in India begins
May 9 ; King of Delhi pro-
claimed sovereign of India.
Havelock defeatg th« re-
bels under Nena Sahib, and
recaptures Cawnpore, July
13.
The Emp. and Empress
toria, Aug. 6.
Sir Colin Campbell, the
new com. -in-chief, arrives
at Calcutta, Aug. 14.
Delhi taken after an aa^
Bault of 6 days, Sept 14.
1815-1865.]
THE world's PEOGRESS.
Fkanck.
Europe, elsewhere.
World, elsewhere.
1857. Austria :— Amnesty to
Eolitical offenders in Loru-
ardy, &c^ Jan. 25.
1857. Mexico: New constltu«
tion promulgated, March 11.
Costa Eica : — "Walker sur-
renders Eivas, and agrees to
leave Nicaragua, May 1.
of the French visit Queen Vic-
Sweden and Norway: —
Charles Louis, Prince-
Eoyal, made Eegcnt Sep,
26.
Emperors of France and Eussia meet at Stuttgart,
cept, 25.
Nicaragua : — "Walker
and his men surrender tc
U. 8. ship Wabash, Com.
Paulding, Dec. 8.
ITS-*
THE world's PKOGRESS. [Period IX.— 60 years.—-
A.D. Pbogkess of Societt, etc.
United States.
Great Britain.
L857 Deaths in 1857.
U. S. I Europe.
C. Colton, Beranj^er.
E. K. Kano. C. Bonaparte.
W. L. Marcr. -J. W. Cioker.
Thos. J. Rusk. Thos. Dick
Eli Smith. ^^al•shall Hall.
Earl of Elles-
inere.
Douglas Jer-
rold.
W. Scoresby.
Euirene Suo.
And. Ure.
Cavaisnac.
Aug. Ooinpte.
Havelock.
Chris. Rauch,
sculptor.
Commercial failures in one
year, ending Dec. 25, 1857,
amount to 6,123 : liabilities,
$291,750,000.
Launch of the monster steam-
er Great Eastern at Lon-
don, Jan. 81.
Crawford's 3fonument to
Washington, at Richmond,
inaugurated, Feb. 22.
Exten.sive and remarkable re-
Urjious '■'■revival'" through
out the U. S. in February,
March, &c.
Gold mine excitement in
Washington and Oregon
territory.
New ^'"Divorce CourV open-
ed in London, May 10,
Donati's Comet seen in June
and July.
" Vigilance Committee" in
N. Orleans, June 2.
New Prohibitory Liquor
Law voted in Maine, June
7.
Turkish Admiral, Mehemet
Pacha, and suite leave Bos-
ton, after an extended visit
In the U. States, July 14.
A Jew in Brit. Parliament,
July 26.
Atlantic Telegraph.
National Teachers' Associa-
tion— 1st Ann. Convention
at Cincinnati Aug. 11.
1857. " Lecompton Constitu-
tion" adopted by Conven-
tion, Nov. 9.
Walker resigns as Go-
vernor of Kansas, Dec 15.
W. Walker reaches N. Y.
"on parole," and surren-
ders to U. S. marshal, Dec.
28.
1857. English and French
ture the city, Dec. 2S-80.
1858. French and English
the Governor, Yeh, Jan. 5.
The Princess-Royal of
England married to the
Prince of Prussia, Jan. 25.
Steamer Great Eastern
first floated, Jan. 81.
Resignation of Palmer-
ston's Ministry, and acces-
sion of Lord Derby, Feb. 20.
1858. Mr. Buchanan's "Kan
sas Message" to H. Reps.,
with Lecompton Constitu-
tion, Feb. 2.
" Anti- Lecompton De-
mocratic " meetings in
Phila., N. Y., &c., Feb. and
March.
Bill to admit Kansas as a
State, under Lecompton
Const., passes the Senate,
March 23.
The House passes another
bill.
New Free State Conven-
tion of Kansas, at Leaven-
worth, March 25.
The " English Kansas
bill" passed both Houses of
Congress, April 80.
Minnesota State Govern-
ment organized at St. Paul,
May 23. \
Atlantic Telegra/ph fleet sails from Plymouth, Eng-
land, June 10,
The President sends a
message announcing peace-
able settlement of trouble
in Utah, June 10.
Treaty of Peace and Ami-
ty with China, signed at
Tien-Tsin, June 13,
Eng. steam. Cyclops bom-
bards Jeddah, July 25-26.
Baron Rothschild takes
his seat in H. of Commons
July 26.
Queen Victoria and Pr.
bourg, Aug. 4.
News of the completion of Atlantic Telegraph re
ceived with joyful demonstrations, Aug. 5.
Magnificent celebration
at New York, Sept. 1.
The English bill voted
on by the people of Kan-
sas and rejected, August
9.
Queen Victoria's message to President Buchanan sent and received, August 16.
Slaver Echo captured and carrried to Charleston, Au-I
gust 27. I
1815-1865.]
THE WOELD'S PROGRESS.
179^
Fkan 3E.
EtTEOPE, elsewhere.
Tub World, elsewhere.
1857. NapUn : Terrible earth-
quake,14,000 persons killed.
fleets bombard Canton, and cap
troops enter Canton and capture
Attempt by Orsini and
others to assassinate the
Emperor with a hand gre
nade : 8 persons k. and 156
wounded, Jan. 14.
Albert visit the Emperor at Cher-
1858. Mexico :— Revolution ,
Comonfort gives up the Go-'
vernment to Juarez; Zulo-
aga proclaimed president by
a B. of Eepresentatives.
Turkey : — Massacre of
Christians at Jeddah— iK
kUled, Juno 15.
.80*
THE world's progress. [Ftriod IX.— 50 yem
A.D.
Progeess of Society, &c.
Unitkd States.
Great Britain.
i
ISSSJThe K T. State quarantine
1858. The East India Com-
buildings at Staten Island
pany ceases to exist, and
destroyed by the citizens
its vast possessions pasa
as a nuisance, Sept. 1.
into the hands of the Brit.
First ovetland mail for Ca-
Government, Sept. 1.
lifornia leaves St. Louis,
Sept. 16.
Boston Public (Free) Library
opened, costing $450,000,
Sept. 17.
The " General Admiral" stm.
1858. U. St. stm. Niagara
fri'jrate, built for Russian
sails from Charleston for
government, launched at
Liberia, with rescued slaves
N. Y., Sept. 21.
of the " Echo," Sept. 20.
Cry.stal Palace, N. T., burnt.
Oct. 5.
The yacht Wanderer lands 8
)0 Africans near Brunswick.
Ga.. Nov. 23.
The Grand Jury at Colnmbia, S. C, refuse to indict the
slaver " Echo," Nov. 80.
First railroad in Egypt.
BeatU in 1858.
U.S.
Europe.
T. H. Benton.
P. Brown, bo-
Rob. Hare.
tanist.
H.W. Herbert.
Geo. Combo.
Freem'nllunt.
" Rachel."
Coin. Perry.
Marshall Hall.
Gen. Quitman Duchess of
Gen. P. F.
Orleans.
Smith.
Reschid Pa-
N. W. Tavlor.
cha.
B. F. Butler.
Radetsky.
Parker Cleve-
Ary ScheflTer.
land.
Robt. Owen.
Wm. Jay.
Sir W. Reid.
Foresti.
1S59
U. S. Agi-icultural Conven-
1859. New Hall of the U. S.
1859. D'Israeli introduces a
tion at Washington, D. C,
Senate first occupied, Jan.
new Reform Bill, Feb. 28.
Jan. 8.
4.
Lord Lyons, new British
Siidell's bill, giving $30,000,00
0 to facilitate the acquisition
minister at Washington, re-
of Cuba, introduced Jan. 10. 1
ceived, April 12.
Sickles kills Key at Washing-
Mr. McLane recognises the
England protests against
ton, for seduction of his
Juarez government in Mex-
Austrian menaces of Sardi-
^•ife, Feb. 27 ; he is tried
ico, April 4.
nia, April 21.
English court in mourn-
and acquitted, April 26.
Southern Convention at Vicksburgh discusses the opening!
ing for the tyrant king of
of the Slave Trade. May 11. I
Naples (May).
Great tire at Key West. 110
New Parliament meets,
housoa; loss $2,750,000,
May 80. J. E. Dennison
May 16-
elected speaker.
Telegrams— India to Eng-
land.
Telegrams to India acce-
Several slavers captttred by
lerated seven days by cable
U. S. vessels.
- 1
on the Red Sea, June 8
1815-1865.]
THE world's PEOGEESS.
181
Fkaxce.
EtTEOPK, elsewhere.
The Woeld, elsewhere.
185S
1859
The Emperor's Kew- Year's
speech to Hnbner, Austrian
minister, causes a war sen-
sation, Jan. 1.
Prince Napoleon marries
the Princess Clothilde, Jan.
1858. Egypt: — First train
on the Suez Eailroad crosses
the isthmus in eleven hoars,
from Suez to Alexandria,
Dec. 5.
Hayti : — Eevolution —
Eaustin banished — General
Jelfrard proclaimed Presi-
dent, Dec. 21.
1859. Austria demands that
Sardinia shall disarm.
Ap. 23. England protests
against this menace.
Sardinian army on a war
footing.
French troops reach Turin and Genoa, April 26-30.
War declared, in alliance
with Sardinia, against Aus
tria. May 3,
Subscriptions for loan of
500 million jTrancs exceed
four times that sum, from
525.000 persons.
Tuscany :— Grand Dnke
abdicates: his troops fra-
ternize with revolutionists,
April 27.
Austria declares WAE
AGAINST SAEDINIA.
and her troops cross the
Ticino, April ^.
The Emperor L. Napoleon arrives at Genoa, May 12.
Empress made Eesrent. |
Battle of Montehello : Austrians defeated, May 20.
I Garibaldi enters Como,
I May 27.
Battle of Palestro : Austrians defeated. May 30.
Battle of Magenta : Allies victorious, June 4; and enter
Milan, June 8.
1859. Ifexieo. — ^Miramon ap-
pears before Vera Cruz,
March 18-27.
Peru : — Earthquake de-
stroys part of Quito, March
Naples :— Death of Ferdi-
nand II., and accession ol
Francis II., May 22.
182-^
THE world's rr.OGRESS. [Period XZ— 50 years.-^
1859
IPSO
Progress of Society, etc.
Remarkable reliyiouJ! revi
val in Ireland, June, July
etc.
Exceftsive heat in California
and in Europe, June-July.
Wise travels 1200 miles In a
balloon from St. Louis to N.
York state, July 1.
Gold imajies foun^l in Indian
graves at Chiriqui, July.
Cosmopolitan celebration of
100th birthday of Schiller,
Nov. 10.
Brilliant meteor seen in N. T
and N. England, Nov. 15.
Deaths in 1859 :
U. S. Europe.
United States.
Great Britain.
French and English In
the forts of the Peiho, June
Com. Tatnall.
1859. Gen. Harney takes possession of the island of San
Juan (now Vancouver's island) July 9.
J. "W. Alexan-
der.
W. C. Bond.
Rufns Choate.
Bp. Doane.
HoR. Manx.
Den. Olmsted.
W. H. Pres-
COTT.
Pvich. Rush.
Geo. Bush
J. T. Mason
Theo. Sedge-
wick.
Linn Boyd.
"Washington
Irving.
Dr. Abbott.
T. K. Hervey.
HUMBOLDT
Leiffli Hunt.
Jejeebhoy.
D. Lardner.
C. K. Leslie.
La<ly Morgan.
JdS. Sturge.
Ue Tocque-
ville.
Metternich.
De Quincey.
J. A. James.
J. P. Nichol.
Thos. Nuttall.
[. K. Brunei.
Carl Eitter.
Louis Spuhr.
Sir J.Stephen.
Macaulay.
Robert Ste-
phenson.
Law passed in Arkansas, Jan.
1, to banish free negroes
from the state.
Decree by the Emperor of
Austria in favor of rights
qfthe Jews, Jan. 10. '
Kansas Const. Conven-
tion meets at Wyandote,
July 5.
Gen. Harney proclaims
Eossession of the island of
an Juan for the U. States,
July 27.
Mr. Ward, U. S. minis-
ter, reaches Pekin, July 8u.
Treaty with China rati-
fied, Aug. 16.
J. Y. Mason, U. S. mi
nister to France, dies at
Paris, Oct,
John Brown's Raid for
the liberation of slaves, at
Harper's Ferry, Va., Oct,
17. 12 of hi.«» men and 1
marine killed. 2 of his men
hung. Dec. 16; and 2 more
March 16, 1860,
Congress assembles, Dec
1860. Pennington of N. Jer-
sey elected speaker of the
House of Representatives,
after a balloting for nearly
iwo months, Feb. 1.
Builders' strike begins in
London, July 25.
Captain McClintock re-
turns, bringing relics of
Franklin's expedition, Sep.
21.
Steamer Royal Charter
wrecked in British Chan-
nel ; 445 persons lost, and
£1,000,000 in gold.
Death of Lord Macaulay,
Dec. 28.
1860. Lord Clyde proclaims
the rebellion in India as
subdued, Jan. 7.
Commercial Treaty with
den and Lord Cowley and
1815-1865.]
THE world's PKOGRESS.
183^
Feance
Europe, elsewhere.
The Woeld, elsewhere.
1859 Pernsia sacked by papal troops, June 20.
Battle of Svl/crino, June 24. Austrians under the Empe
ror in person defeated by the allies: great loss on both
sides.
China repulsed in an attack on I
25. They are aided by American!
Treaty of Peace signed by the Emperors of France and
Austria, at Villafranca, July 11
The Emperor returns to St
Cloud, July 27.
Entrance of "the Army of
Italy" into Paris, Aug.*14
Political amnesty, Aug. 17.
Treaty with Japan, ratified
at Jeddo, Sept. 22.
The Emperor advises Victor
Emanuel a programme for
the Regeneration of Italy,
Oct. 20.
Exchange of ratifications of
the Treaty of Zurich, Nov,
21.
1859. Tuscany :— Council of
State votes in favour of
annexation to Sardinia,
July 12.
Confisrence at Zurich
opened, August 8.
Sardinia : — Cavour dis-
missed from the ministry,
July 13.
fw^cany ;— Th e N ati on .
Assem. decrees the perma-
nent exclusion of the Aus-
tri;)Ti dynasty, Aug. 16.
Modena .--^Farini dicta-
tor, opens the Nat. Assem-
bly, Aug. 16, aud assumes
government of Parma,
Aug. IS.
Jionie : — Concordat be-
tween the Pope aud Spain,
Aug. 26.
liussia : — Schamyl taken
prisoner in Caucasia, Sept.1
6. i
Bologna : — Assemb. Nat.
under pres. of Minghetti
decree independence from
the Pope. Sept. 7.
Sardinia : — The king
receives deputations from
Modena and Parma, ten-
der! na: annexation to Sar-
dinia, Sept. 15.
Eomagna : — Decree of
annexation to Sardinia,
Oct. 7.
Spain declares war
asainst Morocco, Oct. 22.
6'Donnell named com.-in-
chief of Spanish army.
Sardinia .-—Prince Oa-
rignan made regent of Eo-
magna, Parma, etc., Nov. 6,
but declines in favor of
Buoncompagni,
1859. Mexico : — Juarez do
crees the covfiscation oj
chitrch projyerty, July 12.'
Venezuela .•— Ci v i 1 w ar ;
downfall of Castro, the Prt-
sident, July.
Costa Rica .-—E evolution
— fall of Mora, Ansr. 14.
The Emperor's letter to the Pope, advising cession of
Eomagna, Dec. 31.
1860! Treaty with Nicaragua rati-
fied, Jan. 11.
France, signed at Paris by E. Cob-
the French ministers, Jan. 23.
1860. /§)«m;— The Moors
defeated at Castellejor, Jan.
Rome : — The Pope re-
plies to the Emperor, refus-
ing to cede the Legations,
Jan. 8.
Sardinia ;— Cavour re-
called to the premiership,
Jan. 15.
Buenos Ayres .•— Battla
with the troops of Argen-
tine Confederation, Oct."2&
184^
THE TVOKLD's PKOGKESS. [Period /X— 50 years:-^
A.D. Progress of Society, etc.
United States.
IggO'First '"Pony Express"' reaches Carson Valley in eight and
a half d;iys from Missouri; and news thence by telegrai)h
reaches San Francisco in nine days from New York.
1860. The "Covode Com-
mittee" (House of Repre-
sentatives) appointed to ex-
amine alleged corruption
of the government, March
5.
U. S. corvette Saratoga
captures Miramon's vessels
at Vera Cruz, March 7.
Japanese Embassy arrives at San Francisco, March 28 ;
at WiishinsTton. May 14; at l>alliniore, June 8; at Phila-
delphia, June S ; at New York, June 16. Sails for Ja-
pan, in the U. S frigate Niagara, June
Universal Suffrage in Cen-
tral Italy.
Papal bull against agitators
and reformers.
Fight of Ileenan and Saycrs
for the championship of
England, April 17.
Great Britain.
1860. French treaty ratified
by 116 majority in the Com-
mons, Feb. 24
Lord J. Eussell proposes a
new Peform Bill, March 2,
but abandons it, June 11.
Ministers defeated on a
bill for repeal of j(a[)er duty
— passed by the Commons
but rejected (89 majority)
by the Lords, May 21.
Eevfew of 18,000 volun«
teers by the Queen in Hyde
Park, June 23.
Democratic Convention
at CUiarleston, April 23.
Mr. McLane's treaty with
Mexico (Juarrez) rejected
by the Senate, May bl.
National Kepub. Conven
tion at Chicago meets May
16, and nominates Abraham
Lincoln for President, and
Hannibal Hamlin for Vice
President of U. S.
Law of Maryland prohibiting the manumission of slaves
takes effect, June 1.
Tornado in Iowa and Il-
linois destroys whole vil-
lages, June 3.
Nat. Democratic Conven-
tion (adjourned) at Balti-
more, June 18, nominates
Douglas and Fitzpatrick:
a seceding Convention no-
minate Breckenridge and:
Lane, respectively for Pre-
sident and V.-Pres. of U. S.'
The Great Eastern arrives at New York, from Southampton, June 28.
Dr. Hayes's Arctic Expedition from Boston, sails July 7. i
Eemarkable meteor in various northern states, July 20. |
Visit of the Prince of Wales to British North Ame-
rica and the United States. He lar ds at St. Johns, July
24; arrives at Quebec, August 18; Montreal^ 24th;
Ottawa, August 31; Niiigara," September 14; Detroit,
Sept. 20 ; Washington, Oct.
3; Philadelphia, Oct. 9;
New York, Oct. 11 ; Bos-
ton, 17th; Portland, 2uth;
Plymouth, England, Nov.
15.
Lincoln and Hamlin
elected Pres. and V.-Pres.
of the LT. S. by the votes of
all the northern states ex-
cept New Jersey, which
chose4elect'irsfor Douslas
and 3 f>>r Lincoln, Nov-^G.
This election is made the
pretext for rebellion and
" secession" of the cotton
stales— S. Carolina leading,
andado[itingin Convention
an ordinance of secession
from the U. S., Dec. 20.
DeatM in 1860.
U. S.
J. A. Alexan-
der.
W. E. Burton.
C. A. Good-
rich.
S. G, Good-
rich.
Theo. Parker.
J. K. Pauld-
ing.
W. C. Preston.
Europe.
Sir C. Barry.
Lady Noel
Bvron.
G. P. U.James.
Anna Jame-
son.
Jullien.
SirW. Nippier.
Baden row
ell.
H. H. Wilson.
1815-1861.]
THE world's Progress.
185
IHi
Feancb.
Thouvenel foreign minister,
Jan, 24.
" Wnivers,'''' ultra-montane
journal, suppressed, Jan. 29.
Diplomatic correspondence of
Antouelli, Feb. — March.
Negotiations respecting an
nexation of Nice and Sa-
voy. Treaty for cession to
France signed at Turin,
March 24 ; but Switzerland
protests.
Nice votes for annexation to
France 24,448 for, and 160
againat.
Savoy gives 131,744 for and
233 against.
EtJEOPE, elsewhere.
The Emperor refuses an ap-
plication from Naples to
act as mediator, June 7.
French troops sent to Syria
to punish the murderers of
Christians, Aug. 5.
A French fleet placed before
Gaeta; for which side is
not proclaimed.
ISCO. Spain: — Decisive viC'
tory over the Moors at T6-
touan, Feb. 4.
Sardinia : — The army
raised to 50,000, Feb. 26.
Thouvenel with Cavour and
Buoncompagnl resigns as
governor of Central Italy,
March 3.
Tuscany : — Eesult of vot-
ing on annexation to Sardi
nia piib., viz : For. 366,571 ;
againut, 14,925 (for sej)a
rate kingdom)
Austria advertises for
new loan, March 24. and
protests against Sardinian
occupation" of Tuscany, &c
Spain : — Peace with Mo-
rocco ratified, March 29.
Home : — Papal hidl
asainst revolutionists. Mar.
29.
Revolution in Sicily be-
gins at Palermo, Messina,
and Catania, April 4.
Rome:— Antonelli pro-
tests against Sardinian an-
nexation of Eomagna.
Sicily: — Garibaldi lands
at Marsala, with 2,000
men, from Genoa, May 10
Proclaims himself dictator
on behalf of Victor Ema-
nuel, 14th.
Naples: — Concessions pro-
claimed to the people, Mav
19.
— Garibaldi takes Pa-
lermo, May 27.
— A liberal ministry
formed at Naples, June 28.
The King grants new con-
stitution and amnesty, J'ne
25.
Garibaldi's victory at Me
lazzo, July 20-21.
Sicily (excepting the ci
tad el of Messina) evacuated
by the Neapolitans, July
30.
Garibaldi's troops land in
Calabria, Aug. 8.
— Enters Naples.
The King of Naples re-
tires to Gaeta, Sept. , and
is besieged there by the
troops of Garibaldi and
Yictor Emauuel.
Garibaldi resi|:n3 bis
power to Victor Emanuel,
and retires to Caprera.
The "VVokld, elsewhere.
1S60. A)'gentine QoniQd.. Det'
qui president, Feb. 5.
Mexico : — ^Miramon at-
tacks Vera Cruz, March 7-
13.
Japan, : — The Regent
wounded in a riotous at-
tack.
Mexico : — Zuloaga pro-
claims himself president,
and denounces Miramon,
May 1.
Asia Minor: — Horrible
massacre of the Christians
and Maronites, May. 3,000
killed at Damascus, July 9.
Honduras: -W. "Walker
the " filibuster," taken pri-
soner and shot, Sept. 12.
Syria .•— Fuad Pasha sent
against the Druses, Aug. 5.
167 Moslems implicated in
the massacres are executed
at Damascus, Aug. 20.
18G*
THE world's PR0G113SS. {Period XL — ^d years.—
<661
PiioGKESS OF Society
1862
Heresy of "SECES-
SION " or Treason
in the United States.
Deaths in 1801 : Prince
A Ibert, Mrs.Brown-
iny, Count Cavour,
Czavtoryski, Dr. J.
W. irrancis, Geof.
St.HiJaire, Pr.Gort
ehakoti", Nathaniel
Lyon, Euy'e Scribe
United States.
July— First "War Loan
of the United State;
Government, $250-
000,000.
Oct. 1. Commercial
treaty bet'n France,
England and Bel
gium in force.
Nov. 1. Telryraph be
tween Malta and
Alexandria opened
May 1. International
Exhibition at Loe
don.
1861. This example fo<low^d by Mississippi,
Jan. 9, Alabama, Jau. 11, .Florida, Jan. 12,
Georgia, Jan. 19, Louisiana, Jan. 26.
Attempt to carry 7irg:=nia, Kentucky, Ten-
nessee, N. Jarolina, Missouri, and Arkan-
sas tor secession defeated, Jan.— March
1861. Texas carried for secession, but a
strong reaction for union follows. Gen,
Twiggs surrenders the U. S forces in Tex-
as, and the military stores, to the state,
Feb.
Inauguration of Lincoln, (Repub.) Presi-
dent U. S., March 4.
WAR of REBELS against U. S.
April 13. Fort Sumter suiTenders to rebels
April 15. 75,000 men called for by proclama-
tion.
April 15. Great meeting in New York to
support the Government.
Apni 19. Attack on Massachusetts troops
in Baltimore.
April 21. Harper's Ferry arsenal bunied by
its garrison.
Api'il 25. Virginia secedes.
May 6. Arkansas secedes.
May 20. North Carolina secedes.
May 21. Tennessee secedes.
June 8. The Savannah privateer captured.
June 10. Big Bethel defeat.
Jvily 4. Congi'ess meets.
July 11. Eich Mountain victory.
July 21. Bull Run defeat.
Aug. 29. Fort Hatteras taken.
Oct. 21. Ball's Bluif disaster.
Nov. 1. McClellan Commander-in-Chief.
Nov. 7. Port Royal forts taken.
Nov. 8. Wilkes seizes Slidell and Mason.
Nov. 30. Jetf. Davis elected President of the
Confederate States.
Dec. 2. Union armies have 660,971 men.
18G2.
Jan. 1. Mason and Slidell released.
Jan. 19. Mill Springs defeat.
Feb. 6. Fort Henry taken.
Feb. 7. Roanoke taken by Bumside.
Feb. 16. Fort Donelson taken.
F'eb. 23. Nashville taken.
March 9. The Cumberland and Congress lost
at Hampton Roads.
March 10. Manassas found evacuated by
Rebels and is occupied by Union troops.
March 11. McClellan takes command of
Army of Potomac.
March 14. Ncwbern taken by Burnside.
April 1. Beaufort taken by Burnside.
April 4. Slavery abolished in D. Columbia.
April 5. McClellan "besieges" Yorktown.
April 6. Shiloh defeat— A. S. Johnson kiUed.
April 11. Fort Pulaski taken.
April '^6. New Orleans taken.
May 5. Yorktown occupi jd by McClellan—
Action at Williamsbuigr..
May 10, Norfolk tiken— the Merrimac
biirnt— Fakragut asoends the Mississippi
1 —Little Rock takexi, ,
May 13. Queen's
proclamation of
" neutrality " in
the American con-
flict.
Nov. 8. Excitement
about seizure of
Mason and Slidell
in British steamer
Trent.
Dec. 23. Death ov
Peince Axbeet.
April 7. Treaty with
U. S. to suppress
slave trade.
May 1. Internation-
al Exhibition
opened at Lon-
don.
1815-1865.]
THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS.
187*
1861
FllANCE.
June 10. " Neutrality " in
American conflict pro-
claimed by the Emperor.
Oct. 31. Convention witli
England and Spain for in-
tervention in Mexico.
Jan. 7. French army lands
at Vera Cruz.
March 28. French victories
in Cochin China — six pro-
vinces ceded to France.
A-pril 16. War against Mexi-
co declared.
ExjEOPE, elsewhere.
1861. Gaeta surrenders to
Victor Emanuel's troops.
Feb. 13— The King of N a-
ples escapes on board a
French frigate.
End of Boukbon Ritle
in Italy.
The Italian Parliament
declares Victor Emanuel
KING OF ITALY, Feb
1861.
" Italy " recognized by Eng-
land, March 31, and by
France, June 24
Oct. 18. William I. crowned
King of Prussia.
Feb. 13. Military revolt in
Greece.
Would, elsewhere.
Oct. 2 . Canton restored t«
the Chinese by the French
and English.
188*
THE tvorld's phogkess. [Pcviod XL — 50 years. —
A.D. I Progress of Society
United States.
British EMPiiii
1862
Deaths in 1862 : Brodie
(surgeon), M. Van
Buroii, T. Hartwell
Home, Sam. Hous-
tou, T. J. Jackson,
A. Sid. Johnson,
Phil. Kearney, Du-
chess of Kent, J.
Sher. Knowlcs, Sir
James Boss, Joseph
Wollf.
September — Internal
Me venue Tax en-
forced in the U. S.
Jan. 2. Abolition of
Slavery in the U.
S., by proclamation
of the Commander-
in-Chief.
Feb. 9. The Geo. Gris-
woJd,^-iW\ tood given
by New Yorkers for
Lancashire opera-
tives, arrives at Li-
V erpool.
Mar. 4. Nat. Academy
of Arts and Sciences
founded by Congress
June— G rant and
Speke arrive in Eng-
land from Sowce of
the Nile.
Jv''y 13-16. Irish anti-
negro and anti-drafl
riots at New York.
D athsin 1863: R.Hil-
dreth. Mar. Lans-
downe, Mulready,
Mrs.TroUope, Arch-
bishop Whateley.
Sept. — Eussian squad-
ron entertained at
New York.
Dec. 24. Thackeray
dies.
May 27. Hanover C. H., Va., taken.
May 31. Fair Oaks battle— indecisive. Co-
rinth taken.
June 6. Memphis taken.
June 27. Pope takes command of U.S. forces
in N. Virginia.
June 2o-30. McClellan's skirmishes on Pen-
insMla.
June 2(i-tTuly 1. Seven days' battles on the
Jhickahominy.
July— Taritf duties raised— 300,000 more
volunteers called for.
Z ily 17. Emancipation and Confiscation Act
cigned by the President.
July 26. Ualleck Commander-in-Chief.
U. S. debt $1,222,000,000.
Aug. 9. Banks defeated at Ced-.r Mountain.
Aug. 16. McClellan retreats from Harriscn'«
Landing.
Aug. 30. Second defeat at Bu" 3uii.
Sept. 5. McClellan agai:. Ccmmander-in-
Chiet.
Sept. 17. Antietam victory.
Sept. 18. Harper's Ferry lost.
Sept. 22. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclama
tion issued.
Sept. 25. Habeas Corpus suspended.
Oct.— Premium on gold, 29.
Oct.— Piracies of the Alabama.
Nov. 4. Democratic victory in New York
elections.
Nov. 7. Burnside supersedes McClellan.
Dec. 10-13. Defeat at Fredericksburgh.
1863.
Jan. 1. Murfreesboro' victory (Eosecrantz
over Bragg).
Jan. 2. Proclamation of Emancipation is
sued.
Jan. 26. Hooker supersedes Burnside.
April 7. Monitors repulsed at Charleston —
the Keokuk lost.
May 2-4. Chancel lorsviUe defeat— Jackson
kdled.
May 18. Vicksburgh invested by Grant.
June 14. Maryland and Pennsylvania in-
vaded by Lee.
June 27. Meade supersedes Hooker.
July 1-3. Gettysi'.urgh victory.
July 4. Vicksburgh occupied.
Julv 8. Port Hudson taken.
July 13-16. Eiots at New York.
Aug. 7. Sioux war ended by Gen. Pope.
Aug. 20. Chickamauga defeat.
Aug. 21. Fort Sumter bombarded.
Oct. 19. Grant, Thomas and Sherman su-
persede Eosecrantz in Tennessee.
Oct. 17. President calls for 300,000 mOre
volunteers.
Nov. 23. Chattanooga victory by Sherman
and Thomas.
1864.
Feb. 1. Draft for 500 000 men ordered.
Feb. 20. Olustee (Fla.) defeat.
Feb. 27-March 1. Kilpatrick and .Dalghren's
raid on Eichmond.
Mar. 10. Marriage of
Prince of Wales
to Alexandra of
Denmark.
Oct. 31. Steam rams
built by Laird for
U. S. Eebels seized
by Government.
Oct.— British Con-
suls dismissed
from Eebel States
of U. S.
1815-1865.]
THE world's progress.
189*
France.
EuEOPE, elsewhere.
"World, elsewhere.
1862
Jxme 7. Ghreece: Insurrec-
tion spreads.
1863 i
Oct. 15. Drouyii de L'huyi
Foreign Minister.
Oct. 30. Mediation proposed
in Amer. conflict declined
by Russia and Gt. Britain.
Jan. 9. Mediation of France
again offered to U. S,
Aug. 19. Garibaldi in Sicily,
irroclaims a Provisional
Government.
Aug. 29. He is "wounded and
taken prisoner by the
king's troops.
Sept. 30. Bismarck, Premier
of Prussia.
Oct. 5. Garibaldi and his fol-
lowers released under
general amnesty, and the
state of siege in Sicily
abolished.
Jan. 18. Egypt : Ismail,
Viceroy ; succeeds Said
Pasha.
March 30. Greece ; George I
of Schleswig-Holstein pro-
claimed King — England
agi-eeing to give up Ionian
Isles to Greece.
July— Income-Tax Bill
passed in Italy.
Aug. 16. Congress of Ger-
man Sovereigns at Frank-
fort—" One Federal State'
proposed— Russia dissents,
Nov. 15. Denmark: Chris-
tian IX. succeeds Freder-
ick vn.
1864.
Jan. 21. "War of Austria and
Prussia against Denmark
about Schleswig-Holstein
—German troops enter
Holstein.
190*
THE world's peoqress. [Period XL — 50 years.^
1865
Pbogkess of Society,
Feb. 29. Peabody fund
— Dwellings for the
poor in London —
First block opened.
April 3. Garibaldi's
visit to England.
jMay 16. Convention
between France,
Brazil, Italy, Portu-
gal, and Spain, fc;
United States.
Deaths in 1 864 : Frank.
Bache.Josh'a Bates,
W. J. Fox, T. C.
Grattan, Nathaniel
Hawthorne, Edw.
Hitchcock, Leonard
EaiTisH Empibi:.
March 2. GEAJfT succeeds Halleck as Qova.
mander-in-Chief.
May .>-o. Battle of the "Wilderness.
May 11-12. Battle of Spottsyiva.nia.
Juno 1."). Grant befor Pet-er^' rgh.
June li). Kearsage sinks tie Alabama.
JiUy 1-13. Maryland again invaded by a
ftijb«:!l raid.
July 20-28. Sherman's victories at Atlanta,
Oa,
ie/e<7rop/i to America 'July 30. Chambersburgh, Pa., burnt by Re-
June — Oct. — Vat II ;i bcls.
plague in England. ;J aly 30. Grant's mine at Pett^rsturjh, Va,
i exploded.
, July liO. Secretary Chase resig^is— Fesscnden
Aug.— Abd-el-Kader'£| Secrotary of the Treasury,
visit to England, ..* 'ig. S. Farragut's victory in Mcbiie Bay.
Sept. -McGlalian nominated lor President.
by i->emooratic Convention at (.hicago.
F pt. 2. AtliUita captured by Sherman,
b -pt. 19. Shendau's vict'ry at Winchester.
Oct. li). Cedar Creek defeat made a victory
by t^heridan.
O -t. 21. Rebel raid at St. Albans, Vt.
|N V. 8. I/incoln re-elected President— Mc-
Horner, Archbishop Cleliiia resigns his command in army.
Hughes, Jasminhsov. 30. Thomas repulses Hood at Nash-
(poet.),O.M.Kirkland,j villc.
W. iSavage LauJi Dftc. '5-16. And again totally defeats him
John Leech, J. 11.. tbiTC.
Macculloch, Meyer-lo«;. 13. Fort McAllister stormed, and
beer, W. Curtie'Dec 21. Savannah occupied by Sherman. |
Noyes, Pellisier, Jo-|Doc. 24-5. Butler and Porter repulsed at
siah Quincy, Edw. WiOnington.
Robinson, H. R.|l8G.i.
Schoolcraft, _R. B. Feb. 1. Cngress abolishes slavery cy .n
amendment to the Constitution.
Feb. 3. Lincoln and Seward's interview with
lU'beLs at Fort Monroe.
Feb. \h. Lee takes command Rebel armies,
and ui-g.c arming of negroes.
Feb. 22. Wilmington captured by Schofield.
Feb. 22. Charlestot •. vacuatcd by Rebels.
April 1. New and higher taritf comes in
force.
April 2, Richmond and Petersbux-gh occupied
by U. S. foixjes, after three days' lighting.
April 6. Grant's victory at Farmville.
April 9. SuBKENDEB OF Lee with his whole
army.
April 12. Mobile taken.
April 14. Fort Sumter occupied.
April 14. Assassination of President Lin-
coln and attack on Seward.
April 15. Andrew Johnson sworn in as
President.
April IS. Sherman's convention with John-
ston.
April 25. Johnston's surrender.
April 26. Booth, the assassin, shot.
May 4. Gen. Dick Taylor surrenders.
May 10. Jeff. Davis captured.
May 26. Kirby Smith surrenders in Texas.
April 24. European
conference at Lon-
don on Schleswig-
Holstein question.
July 10. Palmer.itoa
sustained in the
general electir a.
Aug. 15. English
fleet visits Cher-
bourg.
Aug. 30. French fleet
visits Portsmouth.
Oct. 18. Death cf
Lord Palmerston.
Taney, J. G. Totten.
Slavery Abolished
in the U. States.
Feb. 22. Rebel Con-
gress decrees the
arming of slaves.
April 2. Dsatii of Rich-
ard Cobden.
Deaths in 1865 : Bishop
Browuell, Adm. Du-
pont, "Val. Mott
Edw. Everett, Mrs.
Gaskell, Sir W. J.
Hooker, Kist
(sculpt.), Leopold L,
Ab. Lincoln, Dr.
Lindley.
END OF THE REBELLION.
March— Fenian out-
breaks in Ireland.
May 6. Reform
League meeting
in Hyde Park in
defiance of Go-
vernment.
1815-1865.]
THE WORLD S TROGEESS.
191^
France.
Etjkope, elsewhere.
WoKUD, elsewhere.
1864
May 22. Death of Marshal
PeUisier.
May 20. Convention between
France and Japan signed
1864.
March 10. Louis H., King
of Bavaria.
April 18. Duppel taken by
Prussians.
June 1. Ionian Isles made*
over to Greece.
July 8. Prussians take Al-
sen.
Sept. 15. Franco-Italian Con-
vention signed — French
troops to quit Eome in
two years.
Florence made the capital
of Italy— Riots at Turin
in consequence, Sept. 21-
22.
Oct. 30. Peace between Den-
mark and the Allies, to
whom Schleswig and Hol-
stein are suirendered,
Prussia retaining posses-
sion of them.
July 18. China : Nankin taken
(" a heap of ruins") by Gor-
don for the Imperialists.
March 31. Valparaisa bom-
barded by Spanish fleet.
Famine in Bengal and Madras.
1865.
May 7. Hayti: Military in-
surrection against Getirard.
192*
THE world's PR0GRK«».
iS66
Progress of Society,
United States.
Aug.— Treaty of Com-
merce between Italy
and Japan.
Sept. — Several Soutli-
ern States pass ordi-
nances annulling Se-
cession, abolishing
slaviT!/, &c.
RindKr-pest or cattle-
plague in England,
July, 1865, to Feb.,
186G.
Cholera prevails in
Fi-ance, Spain, and
Naples.
Jan. 27. Death of Gib-
son, Eng. sciilptor.
July 28. Atlantic
Telegraph success
fully completed
cable landed at New
foundland and re-
portsPEACE between
Prussia andAustria.
Deaths in 186G : Mar
quis D ' A z e g 1 i o
Jared Sparks, Wm.
AVliewell.
18G7.
April 1. Opening of
the Great Exposition
of Industry of ail
nations at Paris.
.1 uly 1 . Awards of the
juries in the Great
Exposition.
July— 1800th anniver
s.iry of St. Peter's
martyrdom cele-
brated at Rome.
May 22. Proclamation opening fciouthern
ports and exceptional amnesty.
June 1. National Fast.
June 29. Trial of assassins ended.
July 7. They are hung.
July 29. Prisoners of war released on oath of
allegiance.
July 31. U. S. debt $2,757,253,000.
August— Ilebcl privateer Shenandoah de-
troyed about thirty vessels.
Nov. 2. National thanksgiving.
Nov. 9. Shenandoah at Liverpool — crew re-
leased.
Nov. 10. Wirz executed for cruelty to U. S.
prisoners.
18li6.
May 3. Colorado bill vetoed.
May 29. Death of Winfield Scott,
June — Resignation of Speed, Att. Gen. ;
Dennison, P. M. Gen. ; and Harlan, Sec.
Int.
July 23. Congress adjourns, having passed
Freedmen's Bureau (continuation) bill ;
Civil Rights bill ; Pacific Railway (supp.)
bill ; Army bill, and other important
measures.
July— Grant appointed General-in-Chief;
Sherman, Lieut.-General ; Farragut, Ad-
- miral; Porter, Vice-Admiral.
Aug. 14. "National Union Convention" at
Philadelphia.
Sept. 3. Southern Loyalist Convention at
Philadelphia.
Sept. 6. Corner stone of Douglas Monument
laid at Chicago by President Johnson.
Oct. 6. Elections in Pennsylvania, Ohio, In-
diana, and Iowa result in increased Re-
publican majorities.
Nov. — Republicans also victorious in Mass.,
N. H., N. Y., N. J., Mich., Minn., Nevada,
and Mo. In Delaw. and Md. the Demo-
crats are successful.
Dec. 13. Suifi-age given to colored men in
Dist. Columbia, by act of Congress.
1867.
Feb. 9. Nebraska admitted into the Union
as a State.
March 2. " Tenure of OflB.ce " bill passed.
March 2. Mililary government for the South —
bill passed over the President's veto by 135
to 48 in the House, and 38 to 10 in the
Senate.
March 4. 40;/i Congress meets.
March 23. Supplementary Bill on Military
Government of the South, passed over
President's veto — Senate, 40 to 7 ; House,
114 to 25.
Southern States divided into five military
districts, under
Gen. \Schofield, at Richmond ; Sickles, at
C^olumbia, &c. ; Pope, at Montgomery ;
Ord, at Vicksburgh ; Sheridan, at New
Orleans.
April 10. Treaty for purchase of Russian
America approved by the Senate.
Great Britain.
British and French
Governments re-
scind their recog-
nition ofAmerican
" Confederates."
October 18. Deatli of
Lord Pahnerston.
Oct. — Movements of
Fenians at Now
York, Phila., &c.
October 7. Riots m
Jamaica ; Gordon,
a Baptist minis-
ter, hanged by
Governor Eyre aa
a rioter.
November 27. Trial
of Fenians at Dub-
lin.
18G6.
Jan. 6. Gov. Eyre
in Jamaica super-
seded by Storks ;
hot discussions in
England as to his
conduct in the
riot.
1867.
May 9. Conference
at London on the
question of Lux-
emburg. Treaty
signed making the
Duchy neutral
territory — fortress
to be razed..
July — The Viceroy
of Egypt and I he
Sultan of Tuikey
visit London.
1S65-1867.]
THE WOKLD'S progress.
193*
A.n.j Fkance
Europe, elsewhere.
1865
867
Sept. 7. Death of Lamori-
ciere.
January — Railway between
Boulogne and Calais
opened.
Jan. 19. Emperor decrees
greater freedom of discus-
sion in Legislature and the
Press.
Jan. 15. Death of D'Azeglio, the
patriot.
June 18. Prussia and Italy declare
"War against AUSTRIA.
June 2i. Italians defeated at Cus-
tozza.
June 27-29. Austrians defeated by
Prussians in three battles won by
needle guns.
July 3. Great Battle of SADOWA ;
250,000 on each side. Prussians
victorious ; Austrians lose 44,000
K and W., and 100 guns.
Austria cedes Venetia to France.
Jxily 11. Prussians defeat Bavarians
at Kissengen.
Jvlj 14. Prussians occupy Erank-
fort.
July 18. Italian fleet defeated of
Lizza.
July 26. Preliminary treaty of peace
Prussia requires Hanover, Hesse
Nassau and Frankfort.
October 3. Treaty of Peace between
Austria and Italy, signed at
Vienna.
Nov. 5. Venetia proclaimed to be
part of Kingdom of Italy.
Nov. 7. K. Victor Emanuel's public
entry into Venice.
Feb. 18. Hungarian Constitution
restored by Austrian Emperor.
Feb. 24. First parliament of the
German Confederation opened by
K. olTPrussia.
War in Crete continued with
various fortunes.
April 4. New ministry in Italy.
April 1. Great Exposition
opened by the Emperor.
Waleswski resigns as Pres.
of Corps Leg is.
May. 18. Emperor signs
Luxemburg treaty.
June 6. Attempt on life of the Czar, while riding with the Em-
peror, in Paris.
The Sultan, Viceroy of Egypt, King of Prussia, Prince of Wales,
and other notables, also visit the Great Exposition in Paris in
June and July.
World, elsewhere.
Sept. 18. Brazil : Uru-
guayano surrenders
to the allies.
Sept. — Greeks in Crete
rise in revolt against
the Turks.
Oct. 7. Jamaica riots.
1867.
Feb. 5. Mexico: The
City of Mexico
evacuated by the
French troops.
May 15. Mexico:
Maximilian and his
generals captured at
Queretaro.
Egypt declared by the
Sultan to be a, se-
parate sovereignty
after June 11, 1867.
July 1. Execution of
Maximilian in
Mexico.
July 1. Cuba: Decree
of the Queen of
Spain freeing all
children of slave
parents born after
this date.
194*
THE world's progress.
-867
Progeess of Society,
Jxily— England visited
by the Sultan : first
time in history.
Reform in England.
Deaths in 1867 : Vict.
Cousin, Charles
Anthon.
XTntted Ssatfs,
May 13. Jeff. Davis released on bail.
July 1. Congress meets in extra special ses-
sion, and enacts, over President's veto, a
bill to confirm and strength' n the Mili-
tary Government bill passed in March.
July 15. Passage rA
New R E F 6 li M
BiLii, nominally
D'Israeli's, r.aily
Gladstone's I
British Empire.
'865-1867.]
THE world's progress.
195*
Tbance.
EuEOPE, elsewliere.
WoKLD, elsewhere.
186;
July — Great excitement in Europe respecting the death of Maxi-
milian in Mexico.
July 1. The Emperor dis-
tributes medals of honor
at the Qreat Exposition.
Russian America sold to the U.
States.
July 1. Great assem-
blage of Prelates of
R. C. Church at
Rome.
BIOGEAPHIOAL IIs'DEX
TO
UNIVEESAL HISTORY.
N. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of course, intended
to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in theil
several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full
lists are given in their proper place.
This list may be useful in two ways, viz. .
First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " World's
Progress ; " and
Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con-
temporary public characters during the life of each person in the list.
Thus : Socrates, the G-reek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 B. o. The tables
on page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates'
life.
Milton was bom A. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ;
six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended
the throne ; the same year that the Protestant Union was form^ed in G-ermany ; one year
before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII. became
king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he
was 17 when Charles L succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be-
headed. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor,
Algernon Sydney, Sir C. "Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in
England ; Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton,and Eliot, in America ; Richelieu, Mazarine,
Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moli^re, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent.
He died a. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London, 14 years after Charles IL
was restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English.
And thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be
found at a glance, on referring to the tables.
Abbreviations. — See list in the Introduction. Bar. (^Barbarian) includes several different
nations, som,e not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ
are indicated &?/ b. o. ; all others are A. d. Jn some cases the dates are necessarily left
blank.
NATION. NAME AND PBOFESBION.
Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian . , , ,
Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest , , •
Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician , ,
Egypt. Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-Ali)
Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author .
Amer. Abbott, Benjamin, distinguished educationist
Amer. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religious works .
Amer. Abbott, Jno. S. C, historian and biographer . .
Arab. Abd'el Kader, distinguished warrior . ,
Turk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey . • •
Eng. A'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer , ,
Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels •
ETor. Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician . , ,
BOBN.
DIED.
. f. 1188
B. c. 1570
1453
. f. 622
1813
1854
1562
1623
1763
1849
1803
. 1805
1806
1866
1822
1810
1856
1804
1848
1802
2 THE WORLD'S PEOGUESS.
KATIOK. NAMB AND PBOFBSSION. BORK. DIED
Sp. Abenezra, an astronomer, philosopher, poet, philologist, Sco. . 1119 1174
Eng. Aberdeen, Earl of, stateeujan and antiquary . , 1784 I860
Scot. Abercronibie, Jolin, author of IntellectualPowers' , , 1781 1844
Eng. Aborcromby, Sir Kalph, military commander . , 1733 1801
Eng. Abemethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer , 1764 1831
Ft. Ablaccourt, N. p. D,, translator of the Classics . • 1606 1664
Fr. About, Edmoud, novelist, traveller, «&c. . , , ,
Jew. Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation , B. c. 1995 B. 0. 1821
Fr. Abrautes, duchess d\ biographer .... 1784 1838
Dan. Abi^alom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. ' 1128 1203
Ara. Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet . , 561 Q24
Syr. Abulfuda, the geographer .... 1273 1345
Rom. Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) , b. 0. 171
Ital. Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic . , , 1229
G«r. Accum, Ered., operative chemist (in England) . . , 1769 1838
Pruss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 1834
Qt. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war . f. b. 0. 1100
Gr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author 3d cent.
Ital. Achilli, Giovaimi G., protectant preacher . . , 1803
Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 1220 1282
Eng. Adam. Alexander, schoolmaster and author , , 1741 i809
Eng. Adam; xiobert, an architectural author . , , 1728 1794
Amer. Adams, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. S. , , I735 1326
Amer. ^, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. , 1757 1848
Amer. , Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic . 1726 1808
Eng. Add'son, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 1672 1719
Ger. Adelung, John C, philologist and lexicographer , , 1732 I8O6
Eng. Adolphus, John, author of history of England, «&c. . , 1766 1845
Ire. Adrain, Robert, mathematician (at New York, &c.) , , I775 843
Rom. Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) ... 76 133
Eng. uElfric, archbishop of Canterbury, author of Anglo-Saxon works 10C5
Gr, ^lian, the historian and rhetorician . , , IgO
Gr. ^neas, son of Priam, king of Troy . . , f. b. 0. Ile3
Gr. ^schines, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Socrates ,
Gr. , orator
Gr. .^sop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . , . f. b. 0. 600
Rom. -^'tius, military commander (defeated Attila) , , 451
Rom. Africanus, Julius, historian . . , < ^ 030
Sp.Moor , Leo, author of travels in Africa , ,
Gr. Agamemnon, " the king of kings" , ,
Gr. Agathius, historian and poet • , ,
Svdss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist . , ,
Gr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks)
Scot. Aginhard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne
Gr. Agis rV., the greatest of the Spartan kings . ,
Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible ,
Rom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander , ,
Ger. Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Aiitinomiana .
Rom. Agrlppa, military commander, governor of Judea ,
Tr. , Cornelius, philosopher, &c.
E. Jew Aguilar, Grace, novelist . . • ,
Pers. AhasueruB, king of Persia (Artaxerxes Long.) .
o. 393 B. 0. 323
B
. C. 904
f.
565
1807
> B,
. 0. 361
771
83d
B.
0. 251
1610
40
93
1490
1568
40
94
1486
1535
1816
1847
f. B.
c. 456
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
SATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Eng. AlMs, John, M. D., an elegant writer, editor of poets, &o,
"Ewg. • , Lucy, biographer and historian , •
Fr. Aime-Martin, Louis, writer on education • ,
Eng. Ainsworth, Bobert, grammarian and lexicographer «
Eng. ' , Wm. Francis, traveller, geologiat, &0. •
Eng. ■ , "Wm. Harrison, novelist • «
Eng. Airy, Geo. B., astronomer-royal , . • ^x-
Tartar. Akbar, Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign • •
Eng. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet , . •
Swe. Akenblad, philologist . • • •
Bar. Alaricl., king of the Visigoths . • •
Span. Alberoni, Julius, cardinal statesman . •
Eng. Albert Edward, Prince of "Wales, heir to the British throne
Ger. Albert, Prince, husband of the Queen of England •
Ital. Alberti, an eminent writer, painter, sculptor, &c. •
Ger. Aibertus-Magnus, philosophic writer, tutor of Aquinas
Bar. Alboin, the Lombard conqueror . . •
ital. Alboni, Marietta, eminent contralto singer . •
Port. Albuquerque (the great) military commander •
Gr. Alcaeus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet . , ,
Ital. Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian and author .
Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman •
Gr. Alciphron, author of Letters, &c. . . .
Amer. Alcott, A. Bronson, philosopher and educationist •
Amer. ■ , "Wm. A,, writer on education and philosopher
j£ng. Alcuinus, founder of schools at Paris, &c. •
Amer. Alden, John, one of the first Plymouth Colony •
Eng. Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet . •
Aldus, see Manutius ....
Alembert, John Le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher
Alexander, A. H., claiming to be Earl of Stirling ,
, Archibald, theologian and author ,
, J. Addison, theologian and commentator
Fr.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Bom.
Bar.
Rus.
Bus.
3.US.
Ur.
Ital.
Eng.
Ital.
Bar.
Bar.
Scot.
Scot.
Amer,
— , James "W., theologian , . •
— , Severus, emperor
— the Great, founder of the Macedonian Empire
— , Nevskoi, a saint and hero ; def. of the Tartars,
— , I., emperor (coalition agaiEist Napoleon)
— , II., (became emperor 1855) , ,
Alexius Commenue, emperor of the East .
Alfieri, an eminent tragic poet . ,
Alfred, justly called the Great, king ,
Algarotti, a general, scholar, and critic •
Ali Bey, gov. of Egypt, revolted against the Turks
Ali Tepelini, pasha of Jannina . ,
Alison, Archibald, rev., ' Essays on Taste ' ,
■ , Archibald, sir, ' History of Europe,' ' Essays '
Allen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution .
Amer. , "Wm., author of Amer. Biog. Dictionary
Eng. AUeyn, Edward, actor and manager (temp. Shakspeare)
Amer. Aliston, "Washington, painter and poet •
Sar. Almamou, caliph, patron of learning . •
BORN.
BIED.
747
1623
•
•
1846
. 1660
1743
• 1807
• 1805
1801
. 1555
1605
1721
1770
•
1819
•
411
. 1664
1752
1841
. 1819
1861
• 1398
1490
. 1205
1280
•
574
1826
1452
1515
f.B. C. 606
1492
1550
B. C. 450 B
. C. 404
f. 170
1799
1798
732
804
1598
1687
•
709
. 1717
1783
1783
. 1772
1851
1809
1860
1S04
1859
209
235
B. 0. 356 B. 0. 323
&e. . 1218
1262
1777
1825
1818
1048
1118
1749
1803
849
900
, 1712
1769
1728
1773
1744
1822
1757
1839
•
1867
1737
1789
1784
1566
162*
. 1779
I84a
THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS,
NATION. NAJTE AND PROFESSION.
Sol-. Almansor, caliph, patron of learning • •
Eng. Almon, John, political writer . • •
Mex. Almonte, Juauet, general and statesman • •
Span. Alphonso X., king of Castile, Leon, and author •
Port. Alphonso I., Henriques, founder of the Portuguese monarchy
Amer. Alsop, Richard, poet and linguist . ,
Eng. Althorp, Viscount, statesman and book-collector .
Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous military commander
Mex. Alvarez. Juan, leader of Mexican Revolution • •
Ger. Amalie. duchess of Saxony, di*amatic poet •
Jew, Amaziah, king of Judah . . . •
Ital. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, author • •
Itah Araericus Vespucius (of Florence), explored the S. American
coast ...*••
Amer, Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator . •
Amer. , Nathan P., machinist and bronze founder •
Eng. Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com. in America, «&c. •
Rom. Amnaianus, Marcellinus, historian . . ,
Ger. Amm(m, Christ. F. von, Protestant theologian •
Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher . •
Eng. Amory, Thomas, humorous writer, ' Jno. Buncle'
Fr. Ampere, Jean J., traveller and essayist , ,
Fr. , Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philosopher
Fr. Amyot, James, bishop of Auxerre, translator of Plutarch
Bar. .-^nach arsis, a Scythian philosopher and disciple of Solon
Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet . . •
Gr. Anastasius I., emperor of the East • •
Gr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher . « • .
Gr. Anaxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great
Gr. Anaximaiider, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher ,
Gr. Anaximenes, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher •
Fr. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist . •
Pruss. Ancillon, J. P. F., historian and statesman • •
Dan. Andersen, Hans Christian, poet and novelist •
Scotch. Anderson, Adam, commercial writer . • •
Eng. , Sir Edmund, a judge and author •
Swe. Andersson, Chas. John, explorer in Africa . •
Fr. Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine •
Eng. Andre, John, British officer in American war . •
Eng. Andi-ews, Lancelot, bishop of Winchester .
Gr. Andronicus, of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, ,
Amer. Angell, Jos. K., author of legal works . .
Eng. Anglesey, Henry "W., marquis of, general at "Waterloo .
Fr. Angouleme, duchess d', daughter of Louis XVT. .
Ital. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masanielo), a fisherman of
Naples, who rose to great power . . ,
Gr. Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis L, historian
Aust. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France •
Sng. Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry YIIL • •
iGng. Annet, Peter, a deistical writer . . .
Car. Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general •
Fr. Aitquetil du Perron, a classical scholar and author
BORN.
"DIED,
712
775
1738
1805
bU. im
1203
1284
. 1094
1185
1761
1815
. 1758
1834
1508
1582
• 1790
1794
840
387
. 1451
1517
1750
1808
1803
1847
1717
1797
•
30'
1766
185/
• B.
c. 24
1719
1789
, 1800
1864
1775
1836
1513
1593
B. 0. 592
. B
C. 474
618
B. 0. 500 B.
0. 428
B. c. 840
B. C. 611 B
0. 547
B.
0. 504
1794
1767
1837
1805
1692
1765
1605
,
1856
1797
1751
1780
1555
16-26
r. B. C. 63
1794
1857
1768
1854
1778
1851
1623
lfi48
1083
1148
1604
1C66
1500
1536
1703
1778
B. 0. 247 B.
0.183
. 1731
1805
EIOGEAPHICAL INDEX,
HATION.
Eng.
Eug.
Eng.
Irish.
Amer.
Egypt,
Xtal.
Mace.
Mace.
Gr.
Ttal
Rom.
Rom.
Rom.
Pers.
Fr.
Rom.
Egypt.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Amer.
Rem.
Ital.
Fr.
Eng.
Gr.
Scotch.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
ItJ.
Ital.
ItaL
Eng.
Pruss.
Span.
Span.
Scotch.
Ital.
Mex.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
BOEN.
1033
1697
1750
1793
I79T
251
1195
B. C. 42S
121
B. C.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Anselm, archhishop of Canterbury, a learned divine
Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander •
Anspach, Eliz., margravine of, author of memoirs •
Ai^ter, Jno., translator of ' Faust ' . , ,
Anthon, Charles, classical scholar and author ,
Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions .
, of Padua, a divine . . .
Antlgonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great
Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great •
Antisthenes, a philos., founder of the sect of Cynics
Antonelli, Giacomo, cardinal, premier of Pius IX . .
Antoninus Pius, emperor ....
, Marcus Aurelius, emperor, sxiriia::..ec: the philosopher
Antony, Mark, military commander and statesman
Auveri, a celebrated poet . . • •
Anville, Jean B. d', geographer . , ,
Apicius, the name of three Roman ejjicures • ,
Apion, a grammarian and bitter enemy of the Jews
Apoliodorus, the name of several vrriters and statesmen
ApoUonius, sur named Rhodius, a poet . . .
■ , Pergamensis, a geometrician . .
, Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher .
Appian, an historian . . • . .
Appleton, Jesse, president of Bowdoin College and theologian
Apulcius, a Platonic philosopher and writer . ,
Aquinas, St. Thomas, ^a celebrated theologian ,
Arago. Dom. Fr. Jean, astronomer and statesman . •
Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder
Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman , ,
Arbuthnot, John, Dr., apoet . . • • .
Archelaus, Ionic philosopher • . . , f. b. c. 450
Archius, a poet . . • • , f. b. c. 719
Archilochus, a poet . . • , • f. b. c. 685
Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician , . b. c. 287
Archytas, a mathematician . , . , B. c. 408
Aretino, Guide, inventor of the gamut of music , . , 995
, Leonard, an historian ....
, Peter, a satirist ....
Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy-governor of Virginia
Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer ...
Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet , ,
, Bartholomew, historian . • .
DIED.
1109
1762
1828
1867
358
1231
c. 301
0. 319
161
180
B. C. 30
1201
1782
1st cent.
1697
A. D
f. 80
B. c. 5th to 2d cent.
B. c. 194
t B. 0. 242
f. 143
. 1772
A. D.
1224
1786
1705
B. c. 273
1369
1492
1572
1779
1565
1566
Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman , , 1678
Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . . , • 1474
Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna ... 1802
Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher . f. B. o. 280
-, grammarian and critic . , . B. C. 160
Aristides, an Athenian statesman . , , • ]
, ^li^s, an orator and sophist ... 129
. , one of the fathers of the church . , , f. 127
Aristippus, of Gyrene, philosopher, founder of the Cyreniacs f. b. c. 392
Aristomenes, a ■warrior and patriot . . . f. b. c. 662
91
1819
2d cent.
1274
1853
1759
B. c. 2n
1735
C. 212
0. 360
1414
1555
1639
1613
1631
1743
1533
1855
0. 467
185
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
KATION. NAUE AND PBOFESSION.
Gr. Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet . •
Gt. Aristotle, philosopher, founder of the Peripatetics
Gr. Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect
Span. ^ Montanus, Benedict, orientalist
Eng. Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies
Fr. Arlincourt, Victor, vicomte d', novelist
Ger. Armiuius, the deliverer of Germany
Dutch. , James, a celebrated divine, founder of a sect
Eng. Arrastr>ig, John, M D., poet
Amer. , John, general, statesman, and historian
Ital. Arnaud, Daniel, troubadour . . .
Jr. , Francis Baculard, dramatist and poet •
Eng. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer ,
Gr. Aruobius, a defender of Christianity , •
PrusB. Amim, L. A., poet and novelist , ,
Amer. Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country .
Ital. , of Brescia, a learned monk, disciple of Abelard
Eng. , Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. ,
Eng. 1 Thomas, D. D., theologian, historian, and philologist
Eng. — — — , Thomas K., author of classical text-books . .
8cot. Arnott, x'^iel, popular scientific writer . , •
Gr. Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus . . •
Eng. Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts ,
Bar. Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . .
Bar. Artaxerxes I., king of Persia . . ,
Bar. ■ , founder of the new Persian kingdom , •
Flem, Artevelde, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader •
Eng. Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable . , ,
Amer Arthur, Timothy S., author of tales and essays
Eng. Arundel, Thos. H., earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles
Eng. Asbury, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States
Eng. Ascham, iioger, a learned writer ....
Bar. Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general . . •
Eng. Ashb-arton, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . . •
Amer. Ashmun, John K., jurist, professor of law . ,
Eng. Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield • •
Gr. Aspasia, the accomplished wife (?) of Pericles . •
Eng. Asser, John, historian . . . , ,
Ger. Ast, George A. F., philologist, 'Lexicon Platonicum' ,
Ger. Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York ,
Amer. Atchison, David. i., senator, United States, from Missouri
Gr. Athanasius, St., oil e of the fathers of the church
Gr. Athenagoras, philosopher ....
Gr. Athenais, Empress o^he "West and authoress, called also Eu-
doxia .....
Gr. Athenaeus, a celebrated grammarian, the Greek Varro .
Bar. Attains, founder of thi monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of
parchment .....
ejj., , Ehodius, matherLatician . . . . t
ET?.g. Atterbury, Francis, bishop of Bochester, exiled for eonsjriracy
TJora. Atticns, a knight and author (works lost)
F*. Auber, D. F. E., famous musical composer .
BOEN.
DIES
0.889
0. 884
438
1527
1598
1732
1792
1789
1856
20
1560
1610
1709
1779
1758
1843
1220
1718
1805
1710
1778
f. 803
1781
1831
1740
1801
1555
1822
1795
1842
1800
1853
1788
f. 140
, c. 250
1823
B. 0. 425
1832
472
542
1809
1646
1745
1816
1515
1568
B.
c. 220
1774
1848
1800
1833
154";
eo9
1778
1^41
1763
1848
1807
371
£ 177
t 190
B.
c. Iy8
c
173
1662
1731
c
109
B.
0. 32
1784
BIOGEAPHICAI. INDEX,
HATlOir. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN.
Swiss. AubignS J. H. Merle d', historian of Keformatioii • • 1794
Eng. Auckland, William, lord, statesmau • • •
Fr. Audoin, J. F. zoologist . . • • • 1797
Fr. Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, mil. com • • 1757
G.Jew. Auerbach, Ber thiol d, novelist . . , • 1:^12
Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church . , 3-54
, the Apostle of the English — 1st archbishop of CantevbMry
Augustulus Romulus, the last emperor of the "West
Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar Octavius— 1st emperor , :r. 0. 63
Aurungzebe, last Mogul emperor in India • • • 1818
Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet • • • ,
Austen, Jane, novelist . , • . . 1775
, Sarah, essayist and translator . (abt) 1800
Rom.
Rom.
Rom.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Fr.
Ara.
Ital.
Ara.
Eng.
Scot.
Fr.
Ital.
Eng.
Fr.
Port.
Gr.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Dan.
En?.
Ger.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Bc>-,.t.
Fr.
En?.
Amer.
Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas
Auvergne, Theophilu^— republican— military commander ,
Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author .
Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York •
Avicenna, philosopher, physic' an and author .
Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &c. •
Aytoun, Wm, E., professor, poet, and essayist
Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer . . .
Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d', statesman and author
Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist
Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author
Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . •
Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . , £ :n
Bache, Alex. D. scientific engineer and writer
Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian
Back, Geo. Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author
Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian .
Bacon, Delia, writer on Shakespeare . .
Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher
, Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge
, Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and t^toa-
man ......
Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature
Baffin, "Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin's Bay
Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist . ,
Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, &c. •
, Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer .
, Philip James, poet, author of Festus . ,
, Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist , •
BaUlet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer
Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist . .
, Matthew, physician and anatomist . ,
Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revo-
lution .....
Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician , .
Bainbridge, WiUiam, naval commander , (Princeton)
17^
1797
1813
1736
1811
1341
1816
604
476
14
1707
394
1817
1836
1800
1197
1087
1804
1865
1845
17S0
1734
1797
1724
1806
450
1806
1867
1790
1796
1724
1806
1802
1214
1292
1561
1626
1735
1804
1584
1622
179S
Ic-il
1857
1742
1787
1649
1706
1762
1851
1761
1823
1736
1793
1774
1344
1774
i339
THE WOELD'S PEOGKESS.
HATIOK. ITAMB AND PBOFESSIOK.
Amer, Baird, Robert, D. D., author of travels • • •
Stot. , Sir David, military commander • •
Turk. Baja-set, sultan— conquered by Tamerlane • • •
Am3r. Baker, Edward D., U S. senator and general , (Ball's Bl
Ital. Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer .
Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America
Fr. Baldwin, who became emperor of the East • •
Irish. Balfe, \/m. Michael, musical composer • •
Scot. Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . • •
Scot. Ballantyne, Jas,, printer, publisher for Sir "Walter Scott
Amer. Ballou, Hosca, universaJist minister and author . •
Eng. Baltimore, Geo. Calvert, Ist lord, founder of Maryland
Fr. Baltic, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XL . •
Fr. Balzac, Houor6 de, novelist , . .
Amer. Bancroft, George, historian of the TJ. S., secretary of navy, &o.
6we. Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander . •
Irish. Banim, John, novelist ....
Amer. Bangs, Nathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author
Amer. Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of
Engi Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Royal Society •
Fr. Baraguay d' Hilliers, Achille, marshal of France .
Fr. Barante, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . . •
Pruss, Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age
Eng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer •
Turk. Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, usurper of Algiers •
Amer. Barber, Francis, ofticer in revolutionary army • •
Ft. Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer • •
Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . •
Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court .
Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers •
Ital. Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer — author of Travels, &c.
Eng. Baiham, Richard Henry, humorist — ' Ingoldsby Legends*
Amer. Barker, Joseph, noted financier • . •
Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet • • •
Amer. Barnard, Henry, distinguished educator • •
^mer. Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. .
]3ng. , Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar . ,
Amer. , Daniel H. a distinguished conchologist . •
Dutch. Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) . ,
Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander •
Fr. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution
Eng. Barre, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America . ,
Iiish. Bariington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author , ,
Amer. Barron, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake)
Eng. , Isaac, a divine and mathematician . .
Eng. , Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty •
Insh. Barry, John, the first American commodore , ,
Eng. , Sir Charles, architect ot houses of parliament ,
Amer. , "W". T., statesman and diplomatist, . ,
Ger. Barth, Henry, traveller in Africa . , ,
Fr. Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharsis,' &o. .
Amer. Bartlett, John E., author of explorations, &c , ,
BOSK.
DIED
1798
1863
. 1757
1829
1413
uflf) 1811
1861
1782
1517
1206
. 1808
1259
1314
1833
1771
1852
. 1582
1632
1799
1850
1800
1596
1641
. 1800
1842
r 1778
1862
B. 1816
1743
1820
, 1795
1782
. 1721
1740
1743
1825
1518
1751
1783
. 1674
1728
Va. 1775
1842
Va. 1783
1841
1648
1690
1716
1789
1788
1845
1779
1756
1812
1811
1798
. 1654
1712
1818
. 1547
1619
1759
1818
1755
1829
1726
1802
1767
1834
. 1768
1851
1630
1667
1764
1848
. 1745
1803
1795
1860
Va. 1785
1835
1821
. 1716
179»
1805
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX,
HATION. NAME AND PEOFESSION.
Amer. Bartlett, Josiah, statesman, gov. N. H., &c. , •
Eng. , Wra. H., artist and author , . •
Amer. Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist
Eng. , Bernard, the Quaker poet . . .
Amer. Bartram, John, an emineut botanist . . •
Gr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church • •
Eng. Baskei-villa John, eminent printer and publisher •
Er. Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian - . .
Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman
Fr. Bastiat, Frederick, political economist . . •
Amer. Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . •
Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, •
Eng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . •
Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. . ,
Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer
Hung. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman . . •
Hung. , Lajos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) •
Ger. Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity •
Ger. Baur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author .
Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author . ,
Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander . . .
Amer. , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer •
Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer ....
Ger. , TheophiluB, chronologist and historian
Fr, Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (' Bayle's D
tionary') .....
Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet • • • .
Eng. Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet . , ,
Fr. Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland . .
Fr. , Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil. com.
viceroy of Italy, «fec. .
Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist • •
Fr. Beaumont. Elie de, mineralogist and geologist . •
Eng. — , Francis, dramatic writer . • •
Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian . •
Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher
Ital. } Marquis, professor of political economy and author
Amer. Beck, Lewis C, chemist and mineralogist . •
Amer. , Theo. Romeyn, author of medical jurisprudence .
Eng. Becket, Thomas a, celebrated prelate and statesman •
Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist (' Vathek') •
Ger. Beckmann, Johann, ' History of Inventions,' &c. . •
Fr. Becquerel, Antoine Csesar, natural philosopher
Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and historian
Amer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator .
Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander • •
Amer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (son of Lyman) . ,
Amer. , Henry Ward, theologian and politician • •
Amer. , Lyman, theologian and preacher . ,
Eng. Beechey, Frederick "W., admiral, Arctic voyager . ,
Pruss. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet, (brother of Meyerbeer)
Ger. Beethovsn, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer
1729
1809
1766
17S4
r.ci
326
1706
1653
17o8
1-a
1790
17«8
1662
1684
1713
1"07
ISOn
181/J
1792
1615
1476
1767
1694
1647
1797
1735
17 0
1733
17 y8
1^55
1.-4
1716
'1735
1800
1791
1119
1760
1739
1788
672
1793
1796
1800
1770
10
THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS.
NATION. NAMK AND PROFESSION.
Ger. Behaim, or Beliem, navigator and geographer • •
Eng. Behn, Aphra, dramatic writer . • • <
Eixss. Behring, Vitus, Arctic navigator • • •
Ger. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist . • •
Eng. Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral, Arctic navigator • ,
Ecm. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror •
Hal. Belgiojoso, Christina, princess of, accomplished & philanthropic
Amer. Belknap, Jeremy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire .
Scot. Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe ,
Araer. , John, statesman . . • •
feco^. , John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist • ,
fcJcot* , Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . •
Araer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author .
Ita^ Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church
Ft. Bellau, Remi, poet . . . , •
Fr. Beileisle, count de, military commander . . •
Eng. Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts •
Ital. Be'lini, Vincenzo, musical composer . . •
Amer. Bellows, Henry W., Unitarian clergyman and author ,
Eng. Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &c.
Fr. Bel&n, William, naturalist and traveller ,
Eng. Eelshim, William, historical, political and miscellaneous writer
Ital. B.^lzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt . .
Pol. Bem, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria ,
ItaL BemI o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature •
Eng. Bemb: rf-, John, a gallant admiral . , • <
Ital. Benedict, St, one of the originators of monasteries •
Ital. , XIII., pope, theological writer , • ,
Ital. , XIV., " " " . .
Fr. Benezet, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (died in America)
Ger. Bengel, Johann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist
Eng. Benger, Elizabeth Ogilvy, author of historical memoirs .
Amer. Benjamin, Park, poet, lecturer and journalist . •
Sp. Jew , of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East • ,
Bar. Bentadad, king of Syria . • • •
Scotch. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist • • •
Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . . •
Eng. Bentham, Jeremy, a political and philosophical "writer ,
Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar •
Amer. Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian • .
Fr. B6ranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . •
Fr. Berenger, A. M. M. P., statesman and jurist •
Egypt. Berenice, the name of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria
Ger. Perghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer , .
Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal . •
BeL Beriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . .
Irisn. Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher
Amer. , William, governor of Virginia • . .
.Ft. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer ...
Fr. Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV.
Eng. Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . •
Amer. , Francis, governor of Massachusetts . •
BOBN.
1459
1640
1680
1785
1799
1808
1744
1767
1797
1763
1781
1719
1542
1528
1684
1634
1808
1814
1756
1518
1752
1778
1795
1470
1650
480
1649
1675
1713
1687
1778
1809
1800
1612
1742
DIBQ,
1508
1689
1741
565
1798
1825
1842
1790
1626
1577
171
1-^72
1 35
1817
1564
1827
1823
1^50
1542
17C2
547
1728
1758
17S4
1762
1827
1864
1173
C. 896
1691
1882
1742
1858
1857
1782
178t
1«85
c. Ist to 3d cent
1797
1736
1802
1684
17S4
1753
1667
IM 1844
1688 1697
1779
BIOGKAPHICAL INDEX.
11
KATIOH.
Dutch,
Ft.
Fr.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Ft.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Swe.
Ger.
Fr.
Amer.
Eng.
ItaL
Ene.
Eng.
Fr.
ItaL
Gr.
Fr.
Irish.
Eng;
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
NAME AND PKOFESSIOlf.
Bernard, John Frederick, bookseller, editor and author
, St., preacher of Crusades and author ,
, Simon, engineer and military commander
Berrien, John McPiierson, TJ. S. Senator from Georgia •
Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,*
in 11 vols. 4to ......
Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d son of Charles XL, (assassinated)
, Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician
^ Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine)
Berryer, Pierre A., statesman ....
Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander
Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist . •
Bertrand, Henri G., general in I?apoleon'8 army
Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Philllpshurg)
Berzelius, John James, chemist . . , •
Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer . ,
Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed at Lutzen)
Bethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet .
Betterton, Thomas, famous actor . . , ,
Bettioelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer •
Betty, "William Henry W., actor, the 'Young Roscius * ,
Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver ,
Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer , , ,
Bezout, mathematician • . • •
Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author • •
Bias, one of the seven sages . . . , f.
Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist • ,
BickerstafF, Isaac, dramatist . . • ,
Bickersteth, Edward, theological writer . , ,
Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy
, John, an eminent Socinian writer . . ,
, Nicholas, a captain in the United States Navy •
, " , financier and litterateur . , «
Biela, "William, baron von, astronomer • . ,
Amar. Bigelow, John, medical writer • • • •
Fr. Bignon, Louis E., historian » • ♦ ,
Gr. Bion, pastoral poet .....
Gr. , of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Cyreniac) • •
Fr. Biot, Jean B., mathematician ....
Eng. Birbeck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions
Amer. Bird, Bobert M., M. D., novelist . . , ♦
Amer. Bim3v, James G., anti-slavery politician . •
Fr. Biror ., uke of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy)
Eng. Bish 1.', Sir Henry E,, musical composer
Amer. Bissell, "William H., governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico
Scot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer , ,
Ft. BisBot, John, a i-evolutionist and author ...
S^^.an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the
name of tho Cid .....
Scot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. provost of Edinburgh •
In. Am. BlacV Hawk, Indian Chief ....
Eng. Blackstone, Sir "William, an eminent lawyer and author
1091
1779
1781
1681
1778
1798
1814
1790
1753
1748
1778
1670
1775
1784
176?
1805
17S5
1718
1791
1753
1519
1730
1662
c 606
1771
1733
r.786
1783
1615
1750
1786
i782
,.?87
ITll
1774
1776
1803
1792
1561
1775
181'
1759
1757
1040
1784
1768?
1723
DIBS,
1T51
11?3
1U$
1''51
1820
1815
1823
1844
1734
1813
1862
1810
1801
1828
1605
1783
1729
180T
1787
1850
1«48
1662
1778
1844
1856
}M1
C. 300
C 240
1862
1841
1854
XSbl
1302
18i:§
180t
>.19?
178«
12
THE WOfiLD'S PEOGKESS.
VATIOK.
Eng.
Bcot.
Amer.
Amer.
Scot.
Amer.
Eng.
Bcot.
Amer.
Irish.
Eng.
Prus.
Ger.
Swec
Brit
Ital.
Ital.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Ger.
Ger.
Dutch.
Rom.
Ger.
Fr.
Eng.
Ital.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Colom.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ft.
Fr.
Amer.
Eng.
Swiss.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Amer.
NAME AND PKOFESSION.
Blackwell, Ellz., first female M. D. in the United States
Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician • •
, Francis P., journalist and politician . .
, Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soilers •
, Robert, a divine and poet . . •
Blake, John L. Rev. author of Dictionary, &o. «
Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral . ,
Blanchard, Laman, essayist and journaliftt • •
Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist
IBlessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and littirateur
Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar . •
, Rohert, a poet . . , ,
Bluchcr, a celebrated military commander •
Blum, Robert H., publicist and politician • •
Blumenback, John Fred., naturalist , ,
Boadicca, the warlike queen of the Iceni ,
Boccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy
Boccalina, a satirist ....
Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist
Bodin, John, a lawyer and author . , «
Sodley, Sir Thos., founder of library ,
Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author • •
Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist
Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern physicians
Boethins, a statesman and philosopher
Bogatzky, Chas. Henry, theologian, (' Golden Treasury')
Bohemond, a Norman adventurer . . ,
Bohn, Henry G., publisher and editor
Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (' Orlando Innamorato') •
Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet . ,
Boissard, Jean J., fabulist . , , ,
Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies . .
• , d'Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist
Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII.,
Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer
Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . ,
Bonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia ,
, Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain •
, Louis, ex-king of Holland
, Louis Napoleon, 1st president republic of France and
emperor ....
— — — , Lucien, Prince of Canino , ,
, Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon ,
, Napoleon, emperor of France , ,
Bond, William C, astronomer . . •
Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants ,
Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist ,
Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician • ,
, John, " , •
Bonpland, Aim6, traveller and hotanist • •
Booth, Junius Brutus, tragedian . •
Boone, Daniel, the first settler in Kentucky • •
80EK.
suca.
1821
1718
1800
1791
1821
1699
1777
1788
1857
1599
1657
1803
1845
1757
1783
1789
184{>
1788
1846
1766
1823
1742
1819
1807
1848
1752
1840
61
1313
1373
1556
1613
1509
1507
1530
1596
1544
1612
1575
1624
1668
1738
455
526
1690
1744
nil
1434
1494
1636
1711
1743
1831
1694
1758
1756
1826
1507
1536
1678
1751
1785
1831
1784
1859
1768
1844
1778
1846
1808
1775
3840
1750
1836
1769
1821
1789
1859
1569
1720
1793
1840
1821
1840
1796
1852
1730
1823
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
1^
KATlOir. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Ger. Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar . • •
Ital. Bregli, pTiilosoplier and mathematician • •
Ital. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian «
ItaL. Borgi, G-iovanni, originator of ragged schools ,
Ital. Borgia, Caesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL
ItaL , Lucrezia, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VI.
Ital. Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer . .
Eng. Borrow, George, author of ' Gipsies of Spain' •
Fr. Bosc, Louis A. "W., naturalist . , •
•Eng. Boscawen, Edward, brave and BMlful admiral .
Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical wiiter .
Fr. Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France , ,
Fr. Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian • •
Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician . •
Scot. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author . , •
Eng. Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson .
Eng. Boswoith, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer •
Ital. Botta, Carlo G. G., historian . , •
Ital. Bottiger, archaeologist and antiquarian . ,
Amer. Botts, John Minor, politician . ,
Gr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution
Amer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist
Fr. Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author
Fr. Boufflers, Duke of, military commander •
Fr. Boulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian •
Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . •
Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer
Irish. Boucicault, Dion, dramatist ...
Fr. Bourdaloue, a noted preacher , ,
Fr. Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician , •
Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author .
Fr. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France
Fr. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet ,
Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon • ,
Fr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer •
Fr. Boussingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist . ,
Ger. Bouterwek, Fred., ' Hist. Spanish Literature' ,
Amer. Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . .
Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, &c
Eng. Bowiller, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c.
Amer. Bowdoin, James. LL. D., philosopher and statesman
Amer. , John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain
Amer. Bo wen, Francis, biographical and metaphysical author
J3ng. Bowles, William Lisle, poet
Eng. Bowring, James, statesman, poet and linguist
Scot. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet . • •
Eng. Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher •
Fr. Boyer, Abel, lexicographer
Fr. , Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris)
Irish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher . ,
Amer. Boyleton, Zabdiel, an eminent physician ,
Amer. Bozman, John Leeds, historian and jurist . .
BORN.
DISD.
1791
1507
1781
1736
1802
1608
1679
15th Cent.
1538
1584
1803
1759
1828
1711
1761
1711
1787
1810
186-
1627
1704
1730
1814
1676
1732
1710
1795
1788
1766
1837
1835
1802
178C
1823
1740
1821
1729
1811
1344
1711
1658
1752
1728
1809
1700
1780
1822
1632
1704
1799
1854
1616
1680
1773
1846
1747
1834
1807
1802
1766
1S28
1787
1851
177£
1838
1754
1825
1727
1790
1752
1811
1811
1762
1850
1792
1562
1601
1719
1804
1667
1729
1776
1850
1626
1691
1680
1776
1767
1828
u
THE WORLD S PEOGRESS,
MAIION.
Amer.
Amer.
"Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng,
Amer.
Eiig.
Eng.
Dan.
Amer.
Amer.
N.A.In
Fr.
Mez.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Ger.
6we.
Bax.
Scot.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Ft.
Ft.
Eng.
Ger.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Irish.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Fr.
Eng.
HAME AND PROFESSION.
Brace, Charles Loring, philanthropist and traveller
Brcckenridge, Henry M., jurist and diplomatist .
Braddock, Edward, general, defeated and killed in Virgfinia
Bradford, Alden, author of History of Massachusetts
-, Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in Phila. 1686
-, William, attorney-general of the U. S.
-, "William, first printer in Pennsylvania ,
-, 'William, second governor of Plymouth eolony
Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician ,
Bradstreet, Anne, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley
Bradwardine, mathematician and theologian , ,
Brady, Robert, physician and historian • •
Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer • •
Bralnard, David, misionary to the Indians •
, J. G. C, a poet . • • •
.Brant, Joseph (Thayendanega), a Mohawk chief .
Brarjtome, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler •
Bravo, Leonardo, a revolutionaiy patriot • •
Bray, Ann Eliza, novelist . , •
Breckinridge, John, D. D., thiologian , •
, John C, Vice-President U, S. , •
, Robert J., D. D., Presbyterian theologian
Breitkl opf, John G. E.., an eminent printer and type-found
Bremer, Fredrica, novelist ...
Brennus, the leader of the Gauls . . •
Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher . ,
, W'lliam, elder of the Plymouth Pilgrims ,
Bridgewater, .'7uke of, introducer of canals in England
, l':-ancis H. E., duke of, founder of 'Treatiser'
Briggs, C J arias F., novelist and journalist . ,
-, Een' y, mathematician . , ,
Brigham, Ainariah, writer on insanity and philanthropist
Bright, John, reform politician and M. P. , ,
Brinvilliers, Marie, marchioness of, poisoner •
Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist . , ,
Brittan, John, architectural and antiquarian writer
Brockhaus, Fried. A., founder of the publishing house .
Brodhead, John E., author of ' History of New York'
Brodie, Sir Benj. C, F. R. S., surgeon and surgical author
Broglio, due de, statesman ....
Bronte, Anne, 'Acton Bell.' novelist • •
, Charlotte, novelist . • • •
-, Emily Jane, ' Ellis Bell,' novelist ,
Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer . ,
, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, and author •
Brooks, Charles T., author of ' Translations from German '
, Erastus, journalist and politician. . ,
, James, journalist and politician • •
, John, LL.D., governor of Massachusetts •
, Maria, poet, (' Maria del Occidente ') , ,
Brotier, G., a Jesuit, editor of ' Tacitus ' . ,
Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist •
BORN.
DIED
•
1826
1788
a •
1716
1758
1715
1753
in Phila. 1686
1742
1755
1795
,
1659
1753
1588
1657
•
1692
1762
1612
1672
•
1709
1349
•
1546
1661
1718
1747
•
1697
1826
1742
1807
•
1540
1614
1692
1854
. (abt.) 1800
1797
1841
•
1821
1800
3er .
1710
1794
1802
1865
. f.B.
C.390
1785
•
1560
16:4
1736
lo03
•
1756
1829
,
1536
1630
179&
1849
•
ISil
1676
•
1723
1806
1771
?857
•
1772
1814
lo23
.
1783
1862
.
1785
1820
1649
,
1816
1855
1818
184S
•
1706
1803
1783
•
1813
1815
,
1810
1752
1825
,
1795
1845
1723
1789
,
1779
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
15
MATIOX.
Irish.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ir.Am.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Scot.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Bcot.
Eng.
Scot.
Irish.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Scot.
Scot.
Fr.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Hues.
Ger.
Ger.
Eng.
Rom.
Rom.
Fr.
Dutch,
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
KAME AND PROFESSION.
Brougham, John, actor and author , •
Brougniart, Alexander, mineralogist and geologist •
, Adolphe T., botanist, . . •
Broussais, F. J. V., medical and physiological writer
Brown, Alex., father of the eminent merchants 'Brown Brothers
, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister
, (Blackwell), Antoinette L., preacher and philanthropist
, Charles Brockden, a novelist . , •
, Captain John, abolitionist and martyr . •
— , Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet • •
, Goold, grammarian, . • ,
, Henry Kirk, sculptor . . • •
, James, senator, minister to France • •
, James, eminent publisher (Boston) . . .
, John, D. D., a miscellaneous writer . ,
, John, a divine and author ....
, Major-General Jacob, general in war of 1812 ,
, Nicholas, principal patron Brown University •
, Robert, eminent botanist . . ,
, Samuel, chemist and poet • • •
, Thomas, satirist, . . # . .
, Thomas, metaphysician ...
Browne, George, count de, an officer in the Russian service
, Sir Thomas, a physician, and philosophic writer
, "William George, a traveller in Africa, &c.
Brownell, Thomas C, Prot. Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, poet, • • •
, Robert, poet, • . . •
Brownson, Orestes A., metaphysical writer • •
Bruce, Jamee, a celebrated traveller . , »
, Robert, the deliverer of his country - •
Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral . , •
Brummell, George Bryan, « Beau Brummell' • •
Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author . , ,
Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist
Brunei, Isambard K., engineer of Great Eastern, &c. •
Brunei, Sir M, I., engineer of Thames tunnel, &c. .
Brunet, Jacques Charles, 'Bibliographer's Manual' •
Bruno, St., founder of the Chartusian order . ,
Brunnow, Baron, diplomRtist . . , ,
Brunswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander .
, Luneburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, military com.
mander ... ...
Brunton, Mary B., novelist, 'Discipline, ' &c.
Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government
, Marcus Junius, conspirator against Caesar . ,
Bruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer . •
, Bruyn, Cornelius de, traveller • . • •
Bryan, Michael, ' Dictionary of Painters ' • ,
Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary » «
, "William CuUen, poet, traveller « ,
Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric litterateur •
BOBN.
DMA
1810
1770
1801
1772
IBS?
rs' 1764
1801
1825
1771
1810
1800
1859
1777
1820
1791
1857
1814
. 1766
1835
1800
1855
. 1715
1766
1722
1787
1828
1769
1841
. 1781
1858
1817
.1856
1663
1704
1778
1820
1698
1792
1605
1682
1814
. 1779
1865
1809
1860
. 1812
ms
1730
1790
1329
1750
1798
1778
1840
168.^
1742
. 1763
1815
180-^
1859
176£
1845
1377
1444
1797
1721
1792
1735
130S
. 1778
1818
B.
0. 505
B.
0. 42
1644
1697
1652
• 1757
■^859
1715
1804
• 1794
1762
1837
10
THE world's progress.
Fr.
Fr.
Ger.
Scot.
Beet.
Scot
Amer.
Bug.
Eng. .
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Buat K'anfay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer
Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the Reformation
Buch, Leopold von, geologist . •
Buchan, William, a physician and author . •
Bach?.nan, Claudius, a divine . •
, George, an eminent writer . •
, James, 15th president of the United States
Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman
— , George Villiers, son of the former
, James Silk, traveller and author
— — , Joseph T., journalist and author .
Buckland, Wm., D, D., geologist.
Amer. Buckminster, Joseph, D. D., theologian.
Amer. , Joseph S., author of ' Sermons,' &c«
Sng. Buckstone, John B,, actor and playwright
Amer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer
Polish. Bulfier, Claude, a Jesuit and miscellaneous writer
Butfon, George Leclerc, count of, celebrated naturalist
Bugeaud, T. B., marshal of France . . ,
Buhle, J. G., ' History of Philosophy,' &o. ,
Bull, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist . •
, Geo., Bishop of St. David's, theological writer
— , Ole, famous violinist . , , ,
Bullinger, reformer and author . . . .
Bullions, Peter, D. D., author of educational works •
Bulwer, Sir Henry L. diplomatist and. political writer
, (now Sir Edward Lytton), novelist and dramatist
, Lady Bulwer Lytton, novelist
Buol-Schauenstein, K. F., count of, statesman . ,
Buc- on, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian
Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim's Progress' ,
Burckhardt, John Charles, mathematician . ,
, John Louis, oriental traveller ,
Fr.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng.
.^or.
Swii^a.
Amer.
Fug.
Eng.
Eng.
Aust.
Buss.
Eng.
Ger.
Swiss.
Scot. Am. Burden, Henry, inventor and mechanic
Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician
Ger. B-.;.rger, G. A., poet
Eng. Burges, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist
Amer. Burges, Tristram, statesman and orator
Eng. Burgess, Thomas, Bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological
Eng. Burgh, James, author ' Dignity Human Nature '
Eng. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author
Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer .
Svrfss. Burlamaqui, John James, writer on civil law .
Eng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman ,
Dutch. Burman, Peter, critic and editor . ,
OejL*. Burmeister, Herman, naturalist . , ,
Amftr. Bumap, George W., clergyman and author .
Eoot. Burnes, Sir Alex., 'Travels in Bokhara, Cabool,' &o
Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian. Bishop of Salisbury
, Jacob, pioneer of Cincinnati and author
, John, engraver, painter, and critic ,
Scot.
Amer.
Eng.
*^g.
Burney, Charles, a doctor of music
1491
1774
1729
1766
1506
1791
1592
1627
1784
1779
1784
1751
1784
1800
1778
1661
1707
1784
1763
1786
1634
ISIO
1504
1791
1803
1807
1797
1791
1628
1773
1784
1791
1770
1748
1786
1770
author 1756
1714
1730
1694
1520
1668
1807
1802
1805
1643
1776
1784
1726
BIOGEAPHlCAIi INDEX,
17
I
ATIOK.
:ng.
!ng.
cot.
umer.
mer.
Liner.
ing.
!ng.
kr.
oner.
uner.
fex.
:ng.
rish.
Lmer.
Liner.
Liner.
:ng.
:ng.
:ng.
iDg.
Lmer.
Liner.
Lmer.
i^er.
;ng.
rer.
^e^.
Lmer.
:ng.
:ng.
Ing.
:iig.
NAME AND PROFESSSON.
Burney, Frances, (see Mme. d'Arblay), novelist •
, James, admiral and author . • •
Burns, a popular and national poet . . .
Burr, Cul. Aaron, vice-president U. S. , • •
Burritt, Eliliu, ' the learned blacksmith ' and philanthropist
Burroughs, Stephen, notorious adventurer . •
Burton, Robert, author of the ' Anatomy of Melancholy'
, Wm. E., actor and author . . •
Busching, Anthon Frederick, philosopher and geological writer
Bush, George, D.D., theological and philosophical writer .
Bushnell, Horace, D.D., theological and metaphysical author
Bustamente, Anastasio, president of Mexico
Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman, premier •
Butler, Alban, ' Lives of Saints'
, Andrew P., United States senator from South Carolina
, Benj. F., statesman and jurist, attorney-general XJ. S.
, Benj. P., major-general U. S. army in war for Union
, Charles, Catholic historian and jurist
, Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author .
, Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, editor of "-^schylus," &c.
, Samuel, a humorous poet . . •
, Richard, colonel, an officer in the Revolution
, Wm. Allen, poet ....
, Wm. O,, statesman and general , •
Buttman, Philip C, philologist . • .
Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, legisl. and philanth. .
Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic lexicographer .
, John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer
Byles, Mather, clergyman and author . .
Byng, Honorable John, admiral ...
Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet • •
, Honorable John, admiral . • •
, Lady Noel, wife of the poet . • ' •
jOEN.
niESK
1752
1840
1739
1820
1759
1793
1756
1838
:8ii
1765
1840
. 1576
1639
■^804
1860
1721
1893
1796
1859
1802
i782
1851
. l-TSS
1792
1710
1773
1796
1857
1858
1750
iss*^
1692
175ii
1774
1841'
. 1612
1683
1791
. 1825
1793
. 1764
1829
1786
1845
1564
1629
1599
1644
1706
1788
1704
1757
1788
1828
1723
1786
• 1793
1860
ۥ
Cabet, Etienne, communist , , . .
Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer of Il^orth America
, Sebastian (son of John), navigator
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator .
Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos
Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator .
Cade, the noted rebel, ' Jack Cade ' . . •
Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott's works, &c.
Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher
Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet . . ,
Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . .
Caesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author
Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer •
Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller . , •
Caill6, Ren6, ' Voyage a Timboucto,' &o. . •
2
• x/oa
. 1477
1800
1557
1500
. 1810
f. 1456
1450
1742
1803
1769
1821
680
. 1743
1786
B 0. 100 B.
c. 44
. 1743
1795
1787
1839
i
(
18
THE WOELD'S PROGBESS,
NATIOK. KAME AND PROFESSION.
ItaL Cajetan, Oardinal, diplomatist and author , ,
Gr. Calaber, Q-iintuB . . . . •
Eng. Calamy, Edirund, Presbyterian divine and author , •
Span. Calderon ce la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist . ,
Amer. Caldwell, Charles, eminent physician and author • •
Amer. ^ Rev. James, revolutionary patriot , •
Ital. Calepino. Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 languages •
Amer. Calhcun, John C, senator of the United States •
Rom. Caligula, Roman Emperor ....
Gr. Calippu:;, astronomer and mathematician . .
Ger. CalixLus, Geo., Lutheran theologian • • .
Gr. CalliziachuB, a poet . . • •
Gr. Calli.3ihene8, philosopher and historian . , •
Fr. Calmat, Augustine, an erudite divine and author •
Ital. Cf/.ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author . •
Ir. Calonne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state .
Fro Calvin, John, of the Apostles of the Reformation • •
Amer. Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author . .
Amer. , Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore)
Fr. Cambaceres, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist
Eng. Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George IIL . .
Pers. Cambyses, second king of Persia
Sng. Camden, "William, an eminent antiquary and historian .
Bcot. Cameron, Richard, ' Covenanter,' founder of Cameronians
Scot. -, Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel . . .
Port. Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country •
Fr. Campan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author •
Amer. Campbell, Alex., founder of a religious sect . ,
Scot. ■ , George, a divine and author
Scot. , John, a multifarious writer, 'Admiral,' &c.
Scot. , John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich
Scot. , John, lord chancellor, jurist, ' Lives of Chancellor
Boot. ' , Sir Cohn, British com. in India, &c., Lord Clyde
Scot. ■ , Thomas, poet, ' Life of Petrarch,' &c.
Ger. Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . . •
Fr. Campiston, John G. de, dramatist . , ,
Fr. . Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian
Eng. Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet . •
Fr. Canrobert, Franc. C, general in Crimea . ,
Ital. Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher . •
Dan. Canute, King of Denmark and of England, ' the Great '
Fr. Carefigue, A. H. A., historian ....
Eng. Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . •
Span. Capmany, Don Antonio, historian . • •
Gr. Capo d' Istria, president of Greece, 1827-31 . •
Rom. Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor • ,
Ital. Caraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Nelson ,
Brit. Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior. •
Brit. Carausius, usurper of Empire in Britain . .
Ital. Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician
Eng. Cardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava
Fr. Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientaliflt •
BOEN.
BIKB
1510
1593
t
250
1600
1666
, 1600
1687
1772
1853
1734
1781
1435
1511
1782
1850
12
41
f. B. c. 830
1586
1656
f. B. c. 150
B.
0. 828
1672
1757
1699
1768
. 1734
1802
1509
1623
. 1803
1676
1753
1824
1774
1850
» B
0. 521
1551
1623
16 BO
1719
1517
1579
1752
1822
1792
, 1709
1796
1708
1775
1678
1743
•s'
1778
1861
1791
1863
1777
1844
. ■ 1722
1789
1656
1723
1610
1688
1770
1827
1809
1805
995
1035
1799
1713
1781
1754
1810
1776
1831
188
217
1770
1799
(«
bt.) 100
250
293
1601
1576
1797
1720
1788
BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX.
1«
ua.
mer.
ag.
mer.
ng.
er.
.mer.
.mer.
ng-
pan.
.mer.
mer.
r.
;al.
om.
ng.
;al.
ort.
al,
ng.
.aa.
us.
pan.E
pan.
ng-
,. Fr.
ng.
NAME AND PEOPESSION.
Carfime, Mark Antony, famous cook • •
Carew, Bamfylde Moore, 'king of the beggars *
Carew, Thomas, poet . . • •
Carey, Alice, author of poems and tales . ,
, Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator • •
, Henry C, political economist . •
, Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, &c. ,
, William, missionary to India , •
Carissimi, James, musical composer • • •
Carleton, Wm., novelist . • ,
, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada
Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author
Carlisle, G-. W. F,, 7tb earl of, statesman and author •
, Sir Anthony, physician and medical writer
Carlos, Don, son of Philip IL, (hero of Schiller's tragedy^
■ , Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne ,
Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico •
Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ' Memoirs of his Times' .
, Thomas, historian and metaphysician .
Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy,
Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . •
Carpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author •
, Wm. B., physiologist . . ,
Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician •
Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . • ,
Carroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Dec. of Indep.
Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator . .
, Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller •
Cartvsrright, Thomas, puritan divine . . - ,
Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology ,
Carver, John, 1st gov. Plymouth colony . .
, Jonathan, traveller and author , •
Cary, Henry F., poet, translator of 'Dante' . •
Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian
Cass, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist . , .
Cassin, John, ornithologist . , ,
Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer . « •
Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian
Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Caesar •
Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer .
Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author , •
Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal ,
Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist . • ,
Catesby, Mark, naturalist . , ,
Catherine I., wife of Peter the Great , ,
II., empress the " Great " and the vicious
, , of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. . ,
, of Braganza, queen of Charles II. of England
-■■ Howard, queen of Henry VIII. . ,
de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France .
, Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIII, ,
Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator •
BORIC.
raziK
1784
A%3
16&3
1770
1589?
1639
1822
1596
1661
1792
1760
1S39
1761
1822
1600
167S
1798
1724
1808
1720
1795
1802
1864
1768
1840
1545
1568
1788
185S
18-
1721
1805
1795
0. 218 B. 0. 128
1753
1823
1780
1840
18-
1800
1836
1814
1737
1832
1717
1806
1830
1535
1603
1789
1732
1780
1621
1772
1840
1474
1564
1782
1866
1813
1625
1712
470
516
B.
0. 42
1606
1686
1468
1525
1355
1782
1849
1680
1749
1682
1727
1729
1796
1483
1536
1638
1703
1521
1542
1519
1589
1548
B.C. 63
I
I
i
20
THE W0RL1>S PEOGEESS.
NATIOK.
Pr.
Amer.
Rom.
Eom.
Eom.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ital. E.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Ital.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eom.
Gr.
Ital.
Eom.
Gr.
Ital.
Eom.
Irish.
Span.
Ital.
Ital
Eng.
Scot.
Scot.
Scot.
Eng.
Scot.
Fr.
Ger.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr,
Ger,
Swe.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Catinat, Nicholas, military commander , .
Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians .
Cato, Maraus Fortius, the censor, statesman and author
, Marcus Porcius, of Utica, statesmaa •
Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet , . • ,
Cauchy, Aug, Louis, mathematician . ,
Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist .
Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the ♦ Holy Court *
Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1848
Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Philos.
Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . •
Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer .
, Thomas, navigator , . ,
Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman .
Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England
Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer •
Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator , •
Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . , ,
, Bobt., earl of Salisbury, statesman • •
, Wm., Lord Burleigh, statesman . .
Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music
Cecrops, 1st king of Athens . • ,
Collini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music •
Ceisus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician
, an Epicurean philospher . . •
Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed ,
Censorius, a critic and grammarian , , ,
Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer . .
Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of ' Don Quixote'
Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian .
Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author , ,
Chalmers, Alex., ' General Biographical Dictionary,' &c.
, George, miscellaneous writer .
, Thomas, D. D., theologian and political economist
Chambers, Robert, publisher and author • ,
, Sir "William, an architect . ,
, William, publisher and author .
Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon
Chamisso, A. von, author of 'Peter Schlemihl,' &c.
Champollion, the younger, 'Monuments de I'Egypte,' &c
. Figeac, historian and antiquary .
Channing, Edward T., essayist and reviewer
, William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist
, William Henry, Unitarian minister and author
Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor
Chapin, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and orator
Chapman, George, poetical translator . •
Chapone, Hester, naiscellaneous writer • •
Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist ....
Charlemagne, emperor of the West and King of France
Charles V. the Great, see Prescott's History, &c. •
Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior .
BOSN.
DIED.
. 1637
1712
•
B. C. 232 B.
0. 147
, B. 0. 95 B.
0. 46
B. 0. 86
1780
1857
. 1773
1807
1583
1651
1802
1857
1749
1809
1691
1754
• 1505
1557
. 1564
1591
1809
1861
. 1410
1492
1720
1765
. 1752
1805
1748
1810
(abt.) 1550
1612
1520
1598
lusic 2d cent
,
. (abt.) B.
C. 1500
. 1500
1570
f. 30
. f. 60
1599
. f. 240
1667
1723
1547
1616
1783
1856
• 1730
1808
1759
1854
• 1744
1825
1770
1848
, 1802
1726
1796
1800
1820
• 1781
c. 1790
1832
1779
1790
1856
copist 1780
1842
1810
. 1781
1841
, 1814
. 1557
1634
1727
1801
• 1756
1832
742
814
1500
158)*
1682
176*
BIOGRAPHICAL INTDEX.
21
KATI'IN. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Entr. Charles Edward, grandson of James II. and Pretender
Fr , J. A. C, natural philosopher . ,
Ft. Charlevoix, Peter F. X., a Jesuit historian .
Amer. Chase, Philander, bishop of Prot. Epis. Church, Ohio ,
Amer, , Salmon P., senator of United States and governor of Ohio
Fr. Chasles, Y. E. Philarete, miscellaneous writer .
Dutch. Chass6, David H., baron, military commander .
Ft. Chastelet, Gabrielle, marchioness, scientific author •
Fr. Chasteilux, F. J., marquis de, general and author
Fr. Chateaubriand, F. B., vicomle de, poet, statesman and traveUe
Fr. Chatel. Abbe, Fer. F., theological reformer
Fr. Chatelei, 1 aul du Hay, lord of, (Bertrand Duguesclin) ,
Eng. Chatharr, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman . ,
Eng. Chattertou, Thomas, famed for precocious learning •
Eng. Chaucer, Geolirey, the father of English poetry
Amer. Chaunoey, Charles D. D., president of Harvard College
Amer. , Commodore Isaac, naval commander
Amer. Chesebi'o, Caroline, novelist and essayist . ,
Amer Cheever, Geo. B., congregational clergyman and author
Eng. Cheselden, "William, an eminent anatomist
Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer
Ital. Cherubini, M. L. C, musical composer
Ft. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller and statesman .
Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemisi; . . . ,
Acer. Child, Lydia Maria, author of various works , •
En^'. Chillingworth, Wm., theologian and author . ,
•' r. Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta, one of the seven wise men ,
Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman . ,
Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . ,
Chlopicki, J., military commander, dictator of Poland .
Choate, Rufus, advocate, jurist and senator
Choiseul-Stainville C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author
Choules, John Overton, D. D., Baptist minister and author
Christina, queen, (daughter of G. Adolphus) . .
Chtistophe, a slave, afterwards King of Hayti •
Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher . . • B.
Chrysostom, John, Christian father and orator • •
Church, Benj., military commander and author •
Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet . , ,
Cibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators •
Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer •
Cimon, an Athenian general ....
Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius, the patriot . , • f.
Cinna, Lucius, Cornelius, partisan of Marius , f. b
Cirillo, Dominic, a botanist and physician .
Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished ofacer in the revolution
Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician , ,
Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College •
Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa • ,
Clare, John, poet
Clarendon, Gt. W. F., Villiere, eaxl of, statesmaii •
BORN.
DIGS
. 1720
173?.
1746
1821
1682
1761
1775
i3£"
lO 1808
1799
1765
1849
, 1706
1749
1734
1788
jr 1769
1848
1795
185^
. 1593
1636
1708
1778
1752
1770
1328
1400
1671
1840
1807
. 1688
1T52
1694
* 1773
1760
1840
1806
, 1786
1802
1602
1644
B. C. 598
. 1752
1843
1776
1841
1772
1854
1799
1859
1762
1801
1856
1623
1689
176V
1820
0. 280
2C7
844
407
. 16r.9
1718
17SI
1764
. 1671
1757
J. C. 105 E
. C. 43
1754
1801
B.
C. J40
J. 0. 456
B. C. Sv
. 1734
1799
1818
1713
1763
1703
1767
. 1788
1821
1793
:m
. 1800
22
THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS.
NATION. • NAME AND PROFESSION.
Amer. Clark, Louis G-aylord, editor of ' Kuickei-bocker* • •
Amer. , Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist •
Arc tr. , Wm., general, explorer of liocky Mountains .
EiLg. Clarke, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator
Eng. , Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mii;eralogist
Amer. Clarke, James Freeman, clergyman and author
Eng. , Mary Cowden, author of ' Concordance to Shakespeare,
Amer. , McDonald ' the crazy poet,' . . •
Eng. , E.ev. Samuel, 'Annotations on the Eible' •
Eng. , Samuel D., theologian and philosopher • ,
En^. , Sir Jtimes, medical author . • •
Eng. Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist • • •
Eoro, Claudius, Appius, decemvir ... ,
Eng. Claverhouse, John Graham of, Viscount Dundee
Span. Clavigero, Francis X., historian of Mexico . •
Amer. Ciay, Cassius M., anti-slavery politician . ,
Amer. , Clement C, ex-senator of U. S. from Alabama •
Amer. , Henry, statesman and diplomatist . , .
Amer. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist •
Amer. Clayton, John M., senator and secretary of state • •
Gr. Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher . . .
Amer. Cleaveland, Parker, mineralogist and chemist . ,
Amer. Clemens, Jeremiah,U. S. senator from Alabama •
Clement, the name of 14 popes and 3 antipopes
Gr. , of Alexandria, a * father of the church* ,
Gr. Clementi, Muzio, musical composer , •
Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men . ,
Ital. Cleon, an Athenian politician and demagogue • •
Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen . . ,
Swies. Clerc, Jean le, theological writer . . •
Er. Am. , Laurent, the oldest living teacher of deaf mutes ,
Amer. Clinton, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New York
Amer. , James, general Amer. Rev.
Amer. —., George, governor of New York and vice-president of U
Ei.g. Ciive, E,obert, lord, military commander
Fr. Cloquet, Hyppolite, (brother of Juhs), anatomist .
Fr. Clot, or Clot-Bey, surgeon and medical writer in Egypt
Amer. Cobb, Lyman, lexicographer and author . • .
Eng. Cobbett, "William, political writer . • ,
Eng. Cobden, Richard, statesman and reformer • •
Eng. Cobham, Sir Jno, Oldcastle, lord, martyr , •
Eng. Cochrane, Earl Dundonald, naval commander . •
Eng. Oodrington, Sir Edward, vice-admiral , ,
Eng. Cofhn, Sir Isaac, admiral, (b, in NsuitTicket) , ,
Eng. Cocan, Thomas, physician and miscellaneous writer .
Eng. Coke, Sir Edward, a learned judge . . ,
Fr. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman . •
Amer. Coiburn, Warren, mathematician, arithmetician, &c. .
Amer. , Zerah, precocious arithmetician . ,
Amer. Colden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &c.
jiTcer. , Cadwallader D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &c.
>i^if
BOEN.
ISOO
1810
1770
1760
17C7
1810
&c. 1809
1798
1627
1675
1761
1827
1720
1810
1789
1777
17'.5
1798
f. 260
1780
1814
f. 559
Coleridge, ffartley, author and poet
1656
1785
1769
1736
1739
1725
1787
1795
1762
1804
1360
1775
1770
1759
i;36
1549
1619
1793
1804
1688
1769
1797
BIOGEAPHIOAL IXDEX.
23
lTIOH.
Ig.
ag.
3g.
Ig-
Ig-
Ig.
Ig-
tu»2r.
ig
mer.
mer.
a].
ot.
ot.
ex.
mer.
mer.
Jan.
mer.
liu.
:ig.
.Am,
iig-
^g«
:ig-
Qg.
Qg-
ig-
mer.
mer.
ng.
eg.
mer.
mer.
mer.
Qg.
KAME AND PROFESSION. BORN.
Coleridge, Henry Nelson, litterateur . , (alit.) 1800
, Sarah, daughter of iSamuel T., author • . 1803
, Samuel T., poet and metaphysician , • 177"
Coligni, Gaspard de, admiral • . • • 1-lV
CoUingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral • • • 1743
Collins, William, a popular poet . • • • 1720
Coleman, Benjamin, a learned divine, (in Boston) . . 1673
, George, dramatic writer . • • • 1733
, George, (the younger;, dramatist • • 1762
Colomhat, de I'lsiere, medical writer . , • (aht.) 1800
Colton, Calvin, clergyman and political writer • , 1789
, 0. C, author of 'Lacon' . . • • 1773
, George H., author of 'Tecumseh,' ie. , , 1818
-, Walter, Hev. author of voyages and travels . • 1797
Columbus, Christopher, the disco%erer of America , 1441
Combe, Andrew, medical and physiological writer • • 1797
, George, phrenologist and philosopher • , 1778
Comines, Philip de, statesman and historian . • , 1445
Comonfort, Yguacio, President of Mexico , , 1812
Comstock, John L., author of popular school-books . • 1789
Compte, Auguste, metaphysician, founder of " Positiveism " 1798
Conant, Thomas J., D. D., biblical scholar and critic . , 1802
Concha, Jose de la, captain-general of Cuba . , 1800
Conde, Louis II. of Bourbon .... 1621
Condillac, Stephen Bonnet de, metaphysical writer , 1715
Condorcet, M. J. A. N., Marquis of, metaphysician . , 1743
Cone, Spencer Houghton, baptist clergyman , , 1785
Confucius, a celebrated philosopher . . b. c. 550
Congreve, Sir William, inventor of the * Congreve rocket ' , 1772
Conon, an Athenian general .... s.
Conrad, Robert T., judge, politician and poet • . , 181«
Considerant, Victor, socialist philosopher . , 180r
Constable, Archibald, publisher of Scott's poems, miscellany, &c. 1776
Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician . . 1767
Constantine, (the Great), the first Christian emperor . 274
, VII., (Porphyrogenitus) emperor and author , 905
, XII. (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403
Conway, Thomas, maj. gen. in Revolution a * cabaler,' &c. . (abt.
Conybeare, William D., clergyman and geologist . 1787
, William G.(son of the above), author of ' Life of St. Paul'
Cook, Eliza, poetess ..... 1818
, James, a celebrated circumnavigator , . 1728
Cooke, George F., an eminent actor . • , 1756
— ■■ , George Musgrove, ' History of Party' , . 1814
, John Esten, novelist and poet . , , 1830
, Philip P., poet ..... 1816
, T. P., actor ...,,. 1786
Cooper, Bramsley, surgeon and author . . 1792
, James Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian , 1789
, Peter, merchant and philanthropist founder of Institi.'-.? ] 791
, Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer . . 1725
Sir Astley Paxton, physician and medice ' »Tityr . 1768
lilED.
1843
1852
1834
1573
1810
1756
1747
1784
1833
1857
:;.832
1847
1851
1506
1847
1858
•:358
1857
1686
1780
■^94
1855
1828
5.390
1856
1827
a830
337
959
1453
1778
1857
1857
1776
1812
186?'
1830
1864
1853
1851
1783
1841
24r
THE world's PEOGEESSv
NATION. KAMK AND PROFESSION. BOBN.
Eug. Cooper, Tlir>mas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.) . 1759
Eng. , Tliomas A., actor . . - . . . 1776
Irish. Coote, Sir Eyre, commander in India . . • 1726
Pruss. Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, the reviver of the
Pythagorean system of the universe . . , 1473
Copley, John Singleton, Lord Lyndhurst (born in Boston, U. S.) 1772
Corday d'Armans, M. Charlotte de, guillotined in Revolution . 1768
Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century before Christ
Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior .
Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vicompte de, political writer
Cornaro, Louis, a noble author of a book on temperance
Cornbury, Ed. Hyde, lord, governor of New York
Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer .
, Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist
CorneUi, Mark Vincent, a Yenetian geographer and historian
Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military com. in Amer. and India
Cortez, Pernando, the brutal conqueror of Mexico
Corwin, Thomas, statesman, sec. of treasury, gov. of Ohio
Cosmo I. de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany . .
" IL " « «. . ,
" IIL " « «* . .
Costa, Paolo, litterateur . . • • •
Costello, Dudley, author and journalist • ,
, Louisa Stuart, author of memoirs . .
Dutch. Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing
Ger. Cotta, Baron P., publisher and statesman ,
Cottenham, C. J. Pepys, lord chancellor , ,
Cottin, Sophie, Madame, a novelist . . •
Cottle, Amos, versifier .....
, Jos., publisher ' Recollections oi Coleridge * *
Co;;ton, Charles, humorist and poet . . ,
, John (of Boston), a learned divine . ,
, Sir Stapleton, Viscount Combermere, general <
Coulomb. Charles Augustine de, philosopher . •
Eng.
Fr.
Ger.
Eom.
Fr.
Ital.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Span.
Amer.
Ital.
Ital.
Ital.
ItaL
Eng.
Irish.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr. Eng. Courayer, P. Francis le, Roman Catholic theologian
Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist . , ,
Pr, , Paul Louis, political writer
Fr. Court de (Jebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author .
Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian ....
JT. , Victor, statesman and metaphysician . ,
Eng. Coverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans. Bible •
Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet ....
Sng, Cowper, William, lord chancellor , •
Eng. , William, poet ....
Amer. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, episcopal bishop and poet .
Amer. , Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman .
Amer. Coxe, Tench, writer on political economy .
ling. , William, traveller and historian • «
Amer. Cozzens, Fred S., author of essays and poema •
Eng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms ,
Eng. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet • . •
Ger. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneouB ■writer • •
178S
1467
1606
1625
1738
1485
1794
1519
1590
1642
1771
1803
1815
1370
1764
1781
1773
1770
1630
1585
1773
1736
1681
1772
1774
1725
1627
1792
1485
1618
1664
1731
1818
1793
1756
1747
1818
1778
1754
1728
BIOGEAPHICAX INDEX,
25
KATIOV,
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Rom.
Amer,
Ft
Ger.
Fr.
Eng.
Irish.
Irish,
Eng:
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Scot
Eng.
Amer.
Scot.
Eng.
Eng.
Scot.
Scot.
Scot.
Irish.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Rom.
Amer.
Amer.
E. Am.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Pers.
Pers.
Pol.
HAMB AND PEOFESSIOH,
Cramer, J. Baptist, musical composer • • •
■, Francis, " " • • •
Cranch, "Wm. jurist, judge U. S. District Court D. 0. •
Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer • •
Crashaw, Richard, poet and divine • • •
Crassus, Marcus Lucinius, (the rich) military commander
Crawford, "William H., statesman and jurist . •
Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet • •
Creuzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiquary • ' •
Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian • •
Croesus, King of Lydia, famed for riches . • •
Croft, Wm., musical doctor and composer • •
Croker, John "Wilson, statesman and author , •
, Thos. Crofton, author of ' Fairy Legends,' &o.
Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . . •
Cromwell, Oliver, military commander and statesman ,
■ , Thomas, earl of Essex, successor to Wolsey •
Crowe, Catherine, author of *Nightside of Nature' •
Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature • •
— — , Robert, humorous artist . •
Cruden, Alexander, author of a 'Concordance to theBiblo*
Cudworth, Ralph, philosopher • • •
Cuflfee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain • • •
Cullen, William, an eminent physician • •
Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer . •
, William Augustus, duke of, military commander
Cumming, John, popular preacher and theological author .
, Rouallyn W. G., sportsman, traveller, and author
Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. , •
Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orato:
Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court U,
. ^ Geo. Ticknor, political writer and jurist •
, Geo. Wm,, essayist, traveller, and critio
Curtius, Rufus Quintus, historian. • ,
Gushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist •
Cushman, Charlotte S., actress . • •
, Robert, one of the founders of Plymouth
Custis, Geo. W. Parke, adopted son of Washington •
Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists
— — , Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist ,
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the chxtrch
Cyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. writer .
• , of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author .
, St., the apostle of the Sclavi . • ,
Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empire ,
, the Younger, (son of Darius Nothus) king of Persia •
Czartoryski, Adam, prince, head of the Polish nation •
BORN.
1771
1772
1779
1489
B. C.
1772
1674
1771
1693
B. O.
1657
1780
1798
1780
1599
1490
DIED,
185S
1843
1855
1556
1650
53
1834
1762
1858
1765
6th Cent.
1727
1857
1854
1860
1658
1540
1780
1794 1856
1701 1770
1617 1688
1759 1818
1712 1730
1732 1811
1721 1765
1810
1820
1768 1842
1750 18"" T
1809
1812
1824
1800
1816
1580
1781
1769
1773
876
315
B. 0.
Z.. C.
1615
1857
1832
1838
258
444
380
822
559
400
1770
Fr. Dacier, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar .
Ft. DagueiTe, Louis J. M., inventor of daguerreotyping
Amer. Dahlgren, John A., naval officer and author ,
1651
1789
1720
1851
2Q
THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS.
NATIOK. NAME AND PEOFESSIOH.
-Amer. Dahlglen, CoL TJlric, milit. officer • • •
Swe. Dahlman, Fred C, historian • • •
Amer. Dale, Richard, commodore in Bevol. war • •
8we. Dalin, Claus von, the father of Swedish poetry •
Amer. Dallas, Conunodore A. J., naval commander • •
Amer. ■, G-eo., M., vice-pres. U. S. and diplomatist •
Amer. , John Alexander, secretary treasury U. S. .
Eng. Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician . •
Ger. Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer •
Eng. Dampier, William, an eminent navigator , ,
Amer. Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, &c. • .
Amer. , Sichard H., poet and essayist
Amer, , Richard H. Ji-., advocate and traveller .
Amer. , Samuel L., agricultural chemist , ,
Venet. Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice , , •
Amer. Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author . ,
Eng. Daniell, John F., chemist . , . .
Eng. , W., R. A,, author of pictorial works on India
Ger. Dannecker, sculptor (' Ariadne,' «&c.)
ItaL Dante Alighieri, the sublimest of the Italian poets
Fr. Danton, Geo. Jacques, leading revolutionist . ,
Ital. Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at IT. T.)
Eng. D'Arblay, Madame, (Fanny Burney) novelist . ,
Eng. Darling, G-race, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked
Amer. Darlington, Wm., botanist and politician . ,
Eng. Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural philos. and geologist
Aust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander
Fr. Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and litterateur
Eng. Davenant, Sir Wm., dramatist
Amer. Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius
Amer. Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet
Amer. Davies, Charles, mathematician . . ,
, Samuel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer
Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian
Amer. Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and writer on spiritualism
Amer. , Charles H., mathematician and naval officer
Amer. , Jefferson, general and U. S. senator from Mississippi
Eng. ', John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis Straits
Amer. , Matthew L., biographer of Burr, <fec.
Fr. Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte's generals ,
Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist . .
Amer. Day, Stephen, the first printer in New England •
Amer. Dayton, Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman , ,
Amer. Deane, Silas, minister of the IT. S. to France
Amer Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American wars
Ame:, De Bow, J. D. B., journalist and statistician
Er. Debruce, "William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer
Swiss. Decandolle, A. P., botanist
Amer. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the TJ. S. navy
Eng. Decker, Thomas, drnmntic poet . . .
Eng. Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer . .
Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer • •
ORN.
DIED.
1842
1864
1785
1756
182-
1708
1753
1791
1844
1792
1759
1817
1760
1844
1699
1773
1652
17U
1813
1787
1815
1795
1110
1205
1752
1835
1790
1845
1 QQi?
1758
xooi
1841
1265
1321
1759
1794
1749
1838
1752
1840
1815
1842
1782
1705
1766
1761
1840
1605
1688
1808
1840
1823
3838
1798
1724
1761
1576
1631
1826
1807
1808
1605
1766
1850
1770
1823
1778
1829
1611
166S
1807
1758
1789
1751
1829
1820
1731
1782
1778
1841
1779
1820
1638
1527
1618
1661
173J
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
21
WATIOK. HAMB AND PBOFESSION.
G. Am. DeKalb, JoTin, baron, maj.-gen. in Am. revol, army •
Ei\g. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., geologist . ,
Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer , .,
Delancey, William H., Epis. Bishop "West Ne-w York
Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist . • •
Delille, James, a celebrated poet . . •
Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer ,
Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English Constitution
Deluc, Jean Andr6, natural philosopher
Dembinski, Henry K., general in Hungarian revolt
Demetrius Phalereus, Athenian orator and statesman
, Poliorcetes, one of the successors of Alex, the Great
Fr.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Tr.
Swiss.
Swisz.
Pol.
Gr.
Maced,
Gr.
Eng.
Gr.
Eng.
Ital.
Eng.
Democritus, a celebrated philosopher
De Morgan, Augustus, mathematician . «
Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators . .
Denham, Lieut.-Col. Dixon, an enterprising traveller
Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian . .
Denman, Thomas, lord chief justice of England •
Amer. Dennie, author and editor of ' Portfolio,' &c. •
Amer, Dennis, John, critic, embalmed in ' Dunciad ' •
Er. D'Eon, Chevalier, equerry to Louis XV. . ,
Eng. DeQmncy, Thomas, essayist and critic
Eng. Derby, Edw, G. S. Stanley, fourteenth earl of, statesmar.
Kusa Derzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman
Fr. Desaix, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander .
Fr. Descartes, Rene, an eminent philosopher . •
Fr. Desmoulins, Camille, revolutionist and author •
Afric. Dessalines, John James, Emperor of Hayti •
Span. De Sotoj Fernando, discoverer of the Mississippi ,
Fr. Destouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer .
Dutch. DeurLoff, William, founder of a sect, and an author
Dan. Am. De Vere, MaximiUan Scheie, philologist and essayist
Eng.
Fr.
Amer.
Ger.
Amer.
Devereux, Robert, third Earl of Essex, parliamentary genera'
De Viguy, Alfred, count, poet and novehst
Dewees, W. P., medical writer
De Wette, William M. L., theologian and biblical critic
Dewey, Orville, Unitarian divine and essayist
Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman
Port. Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope
, del Castillo, Bernal, adventurer and chronicler
Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer .
, Thomas (son of Charles), dramatist and song write
, Thomas Frognall, bibliographer ,
Dick, Thomas, author of Christian Philosopher'
Dickens, Charles, novelist . . ,
Dickinson, Daniel S., statesman
, John, author of ' Fanner's Letters ' ,
Span.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Scot.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Egypt.
Diderot, Denis, first editor of 'Encyclopedic M6thodique'
Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder
, Firmin, publisher and member of Deputies
. , Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller
Didymns, who wrote from 3,000 to 6,000 works .
BOBN.
DIED,
•
n32
1780
•
1796
1855
1749
1822
1797
186-
•
1794
1843
1738
1813
1688
1768
ation
1740
1806
1727
1817
,
1791
1864
B.
c. 345 B.
C. 28'?
rreat
B.
0.283
. B
c. 460
1806
.B
. c. 381 3
C. 322
1786
1828
173.
1813
l.T(d
1854
?.7i8
1812
1757
1783
1728
1810
1786
1859
1799
1743
1816
1768
1800
1596
1650
1762
1794
1760
18G6
1500
1542
1680
1754
1650
1820
1717
jra. B
1592
1646
1799
1863
1768
1841
IIHO
1849
1794
1625
1672
1500
, •:abt)1560
174S
1814
ir
1771
1841
1770
1847
1772
18112
1859
isoo
1865
1732
1808
1713
1784
1730
1804
•
1764
179-j
l^Stf
t
i. 3, Si)
28 THE "WOELD'S peogeess.
NATXOir. KAME AND PBOFESSION.
Prues. Diebitsch-Zabalkansky, count, military commander •
Get. Diffenbach, John Fred., surgeon and surgical author •
Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander
Eng. Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of ' Athenaeum' •
Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist . . •
Maced. Dinocrates, an architect; built Alexandria, &c. . .
Rom. Diocletian, Valerius, emperor . . •
Gr. Dio-Chryeostom, a rhetorician nnd philosopher , •
Swiss. Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible •
Gr. Diodorus Siculus, a historian . . • •
Gr. Diogenes, the cynic, philosopher. . • •
Gr. , Laertius, biographer • • •
Gr. Dion-Cassius, author of ' Roman History ' , . •
Gr DionyeiuB, a geographer . . .
Gr. , of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Cb«rch .
Gr. r, the Ai-eopagite, learned Athenian Christian
Gr. — , the elder, tyrant of Syracuse . .
Gr. , of Hallcarnassus, critic and historian •
Gr. , the younger, tyrant of Syracuse ■ •
Eng. Disraeli, Isaac, ' Curiosities of Literature' • •
Amer. Dix, Dcr-thea L., philanthropist, founder of asyluma «
Amer. , John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, &c.
Eng. Dixon, "WJlliam Hepworth, author and critic . ,
Amer. Doane, Greo. W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &o.
Eng. Dobell, Sydaey, poet .....
Eng. Dodd, Dr. V'illiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery)
Eng. Doddridge, 'fhllip, a gifted and pious divine and writer
Eng. Dodsley, Hubert, publisher and author . ,
Ger. Doebereimer, Ic W., chemist . . ,
Span. Dominic De Sruzman, founder of preaching friars ,
Rom. Domitian, emperor . . . •
Scot. Don, David, ootanist . . , ,
Ital. DonatsUo (i:cneto di Betlodi Bardi) sculptor ,
Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer • •
Eng- Donne, John, poet and theologian . •
Eng. Donovan, Edward, writer on natural history . •
Ital. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa)
Amer. Dorr, Thomas "W., politician, elected (?) governor of Rhode Island
Er. En. D'Orsay, Couiit Alfred, author, artist, and ' beau' •
Hind. Dost-Moh£ mmed, emir of Caboo . .
Eng. Douce, Francis, antiquarian and author . • •
Scot. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator . •
j^mer. . Frederick, abolitionist, politician and editor .
Scot. . Sir Howard, general, military and naval author
Amer. , Stephen Arnold, United States senator from Illinois
Amer. Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentric preacher . . •
Amer. Dowiies, John, commodore in the United States navy .
Amer. Downing, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening
and horticulture .....
Amer. Dowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library
Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator . . . - , f. 623
Eng. Drake, Dr. Nathan, physician and essayist • , 1T66 183J
BORW.
mmx
1785
1831
•
n&z
1847
•
1775
1825
1810
1864
,
1802
f. B. C. 350
,
246 .
313
f.B
;. c. 30
.
1576
1649
f.B
1. c. 10
B,
, 0. 413
B. 0. 323
*
155
•
f.l40
265
. A. ». 1st <
cent.
B.
0. 430
B. 0. 367
,
«
52
B.
0.367
B. 0. 343
•
1767
1848
•
1821
•
1799
1824
1859
7)
1729
1777
1702
1756
1703
1780
1764
1170
1221
52
96
1800
1840
1383
1466
1797
1848
1573
1631
1798
1837
1468
1560
nd
1805
1854
1798
1852
.
1785
1863
1762
1834
•
1474
1817
1521
•
1776
1861
1813
1861
,
1777
1834
1786
1855
ng
1815
1852
1773
1856
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX,
20
KATION.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
E. Am.
Eng.
Dutch.
Eng.
Fr.
Er.
Scot.
Eng.
Scot,
Rom.
Eng.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Swiss.
Fr.
Scot.
Scot.
Scot.
Scot.
Scot.
Scot.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Scot.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Amer.
6er.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Drake, Joseph Rodman, poet
, Samuel Gr., historian of the Indians, Boston, &c
, Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator ,
Draper, John "VY., chemist and physiologist . ,
Drayton, Michael, poet, ' Poly-olbion '
Drebhel, Cornelius van, inventor of the thermometer .
Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author
Drouyn de I'Huys, Edward, statesman . ,
Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer
Drummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights
-, Sir William, scholar, author and diplomatist
-, William, poet
Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany
Dryden, John, an eminent poet .
Duane, William, politician and author of ' Aurora '
Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist
Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian .
Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author .
Duchesne, Andrew, a historian . . ,
Duclos, Charles Fineau, an historian
Duganne, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician
Dugdale, Sir William, antiquarian author . ,
Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . .
Duhalde, Jean B., geographer
Dumas, Alexandre, novelist, traveller, «fcc
, Alexandre, (the younger), novelist and dramatist
, J. B., chemist ....
Dumont d'Urville, J. S. C, circumnavigator ,
Dumont, John, traveller and political writer • .
, P. S. L., writer on legislation . .
Domouriez, Charles Francis Duperier, military com.mander
Dunbar, George, professor at Edinburgh, 'Greek Lexicon'
, William, poet ....
Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral . ,
. , William, logician and translator • ,
Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman
Dundonald, Earl of, (' Lord Cochrane ') admiral ,
Dunglisson, Robley, M. D., medical author . .
Dunlap, William, painter and historian . ,
Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer . •
Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian .
Dunstan, Saint, ahhot of Glastonbury and pohtician ,
Dupin, A. M. J. J., juj-ist and statesman . ,
, Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . ,
•, Louis Elie, an ecclesiastical historian
Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c., (at Philadelphia)
Dupont, Samuel Francis, admiral . , ,
Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist , , ,
Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral . «
Durand, Asher Brown, painter and engraver . ,
Durbin, John P., methodist divine and author .
Durer, Albert, painter and engraver . ,
BORN.
.^TE-J.
1795
1820
1798
1545
159a
1811
1563
1681
. 1572
3684
1765
1831
1805
1773
iS5C
1797
1840
1760
1835
1585
1649
B. c. 38
S
1631
1700
1760
1835
1610
1688
15th cent.
1803
1584
1640
1704
1722
1823
1605
1686
1314
1380
1674
1743
1803
1824
1800
1790
1842
1726
1759
1829
1T3G
1823
1774
1851
1465
1535
1731
1804
1714
1760
1741
1811
1775
1860
. 1798
1766
1839
. 1731
1783
1274
1308
925
988
1783
1865
1784
1637
1719
1760
1844
1803
1865
, 1778
1835
1610
1688
1796
1800
147.1.
:i28
so
THE WORLD'S PEOGKESS.
KATION.
Ainer.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Anier.
Aaier.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Scot.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Ger.
Amer.
Ger.
Irish.
Ex\g.
Amer.
Ei-g.
Amer.
Amer.
Ger.
Elem.
Ger.
Ger.
Eng.
Scot.
Eng.
Amer,
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Dcrfee, Job, priest and author . • •
Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author . . ,
Durham, J. G., Lamhton, earl of, governor-general of Canada
Duroc, Michael, Duke of Friali, military commander
Dwight, Dr. Timothj^, an eminent divine and writer
, Theo., author and journalist
, Tlieo., (son of the above), ethnologist and historian
Duyckinck, Evert Aug. , author and critic
, Geo. Long, author and critic •
Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . - ,
Dyer, John, poet, 'TheEleece* . . •
D> mond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist
Easfburn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass. •
Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critlo •
Eaton, Amos, botanist ....
, Wm., military officer and consul in Africa •
Eckenian, John Peter, litteniteur
Eckford, .'lenry, eminent shipbuilder . . ,
Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian.
Edgeworth, Maria, novelist ....
Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior
, I'-ola B., theologian and miscellaneous author .
Edwards, 3'yan, an historian
, 'Tohn. "W., jurist and writer on spiritualism ,
, Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician
■ , Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist
" , W. ]T., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica
Eginhard, s.n histori:m, biographer of Charlemagne
Egmont, ".amoral, count, patriot and martyr •
Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist . . • .
Eichbom, F C, theologian and jurist , .,
Eldon, L^r J, lord chancellor of England
Elgin, T., JBruce, earl of, diplomatist — remover of ' Elgin' marbles
Elizabeth, queen ......
Eliot, Samael, author of ' History of Liberty'
Ellenboro'zgh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice .
— , Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of I.dia
E?lery, Wm., signer of Declaration of Independence
Ellesoere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author
Ellet, Eliza F., biographer and critic
Elliot, John, 'the apostle to the Indians' . •
Elliotson, John, physician and physiologist . • (abt.)
Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter
. Charles Wyllys, author of ' History of New England
■ , Ebenezer, poet ' Corn Law Rhymes' .
, J. D., commodore in American navy •
, Stephen, naturalist . . ,
Ellis, Geo. E., Unitarian clergj'man and author ,
~ — ; Sir Henry auLiquary and author * .
BOEK,
1790
1628
1792
1772
1752
1765
1816
1823
1797
1700
1796
1801
1793
1776
1764
1792
1775
1674
1767
1330
1802
1743
1799
1703
1777
771
1552
1795
1781
1750
1771
1533
1821
1750
1790
1727
1800
1604
1795
1812
1817
1781
1785
1771
1815
1777
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
NATICJr. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN.
Eng. Ellis, "Wm. Eev., missionary and author , • (aM.) 1.795
Eng. Elliston, Robert "W., actor . . . . iT-i
Amer. Ellsworth, Elmer E., military officer in Union army . . 1837
Amer. , Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the TJ. S. 174!;-
Eng, Elmes, James, architect and author . . , , 1782
Scot. Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India . , 1778
Fr. Elssler, Fanny, danseuse ..... ISll
Dutch. Elzevir, Louis M. G-. B., and A., printers 16th and 17th centuries
Amer. Embury, Emma E,, poet . . . , ^ 1806
Amer. Emerson, Geo. B., educator and author , • , 1797
Amer. , Ralph "Waldo, poet and essayist • • • 1803
Eng. 'William, a distinguished mathematician , , , 1701
Irish. Emmet, Robert, 'United Irishman' (executed) . . 1780
Irish. , Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator • 1764
Amer. Emmons, Eben, geologist and author . .179?
Amer. ■ — , Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and author . • 174f
Gr. Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher . • •
Encke, John Francis, astronomer . . • 1791
Amer. Endicott, John, governor of Massachusetts • • . 1589
Ger. Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist • • 1804
Eng. Enfield, "William, miscellaneous writer . • ■ 1741
Fr. Enghien, Louis H. de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) . 1772
Fr. Eondu Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and .ciaier . 1728
Gr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Thehan general . .
Gr. Epicte-'us, a stoic philosopher . . . . f. 40
Gr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of phi.o>:: pi ..te . B.C. 342
Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and -I'th:.- . . 1467
Ger. E'-astus, Thomas, founder of 'Erastiani=m' theo.o^ . 1524
Gr. Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philosopher B. c. 27G :
Span. Ercilia, Don Alonzo, a poet . . , , 1525
Span. Ericcira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian • , 1614
S. Am. Ericsson, John, inventor and engineer in America . , 1808
Eng. Erigenus, John, a learned writer of the ninth century • ,
Pmss. Erman, A. G., ' Travels in Siberia,' &c. . . , 1806
Ger. Emesti, John Augustus, an eminent critic • • . 1707
Scot. Erekine, Ebenezer, theologian .... 1680
Scot. • , Ralph, divine, * Gospel Sonnets' . . . 1685
Scot. , Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator . 1750
Assj-r. Esarhaddon, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin ct A.-.-yria . B.C.
Span. Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist . 1.589
Span. Espartero, J. B., Duke of "Vittoria, statesman and soldier , 1792
Amer. Espy, James P., meteorologist and author . • , 1785
Fr. Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . • , , 1772
Ger. Ess, L. Van, theological writer . . , , 1770
Eng. Essex, Robert Devereux, eavl of, a warrior . • • 1567
Ft. Estaing, Charles H., count d', naval commander • , 1729
Aust. Estevhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman . , ,
Eng. Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and dramatist • 1636
Afric. Euclid, an eminent geometrician . , f. B. C. 300
Fr. Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service 166S
Bpan. Eugpnie, Marie de Gusman, Empress of France , , 1826
Swiss. Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician • , 1707
31
Dli-D.
1831
1861
180J
1853
1853
1782
1803
1827
1863
1840
1865
1665
1849
1797
1804
1810
B. c. 363
B. c. 371
15.36
1583
B. c. 196
1595
1699
1781
1756
1752
1823
7th cent.
1860
1840
184?
1601
1794
1694
1736
vm
i
82
THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS.
ilATlOK. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Gr. Euripides, a celebrated tragic poet . . . b
Gr. Eufectius, bishop of Caesarea, a learned father of the church, and
ecclesiastical historian . • •
Rom. Eutropias, an historian . . • •
Rom. Eutyches, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect •
Amer. EvanE, Oliver, inventor and engineer . . .
Amer. Evarts, Jeremiah, (see Amer. B. C. for Missions) .
'. tg. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer ...
I^mer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist
Amer. , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author •
f-/er. Ewftld, (3-eo, H. A von, orientalist and theologian .
-V-n.Am. Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics •
Amer. Ewing, Th'js., statesman and jurist , .
Eng. Exmouth, ". i,dw. PeUew, viscount, admiral • ,
Eng. Faber, G-eortxe Stanley, theological writer , •
Eng. , Frederick Wm., Roman Catholic priest and theological
author . . . . •
Rom. Fabius, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior , ,
Gl-er. Fabriciua John Albert, a critic and bibliographer •
Ital. , John Christian, a celebrated entomologist
Ital. Fabronj, Angelo, a learned biographer . ,
Eng. Fabyan, Robeit, chror^iler . . •
Ital. Facoiolato, or FaccioUti, Jac, philologist •
jPruss. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Paniel, an experimental philosopher
Eng. Fairfax, Edwfcd, poet, translator of Tasso
Eng. , Thon.as, lord, a general in the civil war ,
JSng. Falconer, "William, a poet • . , • •
Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) .
Eng. Falkland, Luciuf Oary, viscount, poliiician and author
Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Jttionard, poet and diplomatist
Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist ....
Port. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet .
Eng. Farmer, Hugh, the: logian ....
Amer. Famham, Mrs. Eli/.a "W., traveller and philanthropist
Irish. Farquhar, George, i dramatist
Amer. Farrar, John, matbe _atician and author , ,
>'r. Faucher, Leon, political economist , . ,
Fr. Fauriel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres author
€fer. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing , ,
'St. Favre, J. C. Jules, lawyer and politician , ,
Eiig. Fawkes, Francis, a poet and translator • ,
Amer. Fay, Theo. S., author and diplomatist , ,
Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer ,
Eng. Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East
Amer. Felton, Cornelius C, scholar and critic, president of Harvard
College .....
Fr, F6n41on, Francis de Salignac de la Motto de, an able writer and
one of the most virtuous of men . . ,
e <fro. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist ,
BOBN. DIED,
C. 480 B. 0. 408
340
f. 360
1755 1819
1781 1831
1620 1651
1790 1847
1794 1865
1803
1792
1789
1757 1833
1773
1815
1742
1732
1450
1684
1611
1730
1610
1608
1790
1688
1714
1815
1678
1779
1803
1772
1809
1632
1807
1632
1799
1807
1651
1743
1854
0. 204
1736
1807
1803
1515
1760
1736
1683
1671
1355
1643
1666
1867
1647
1787
1864
1707
1853
1854
1844
1862
1715
179fl
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
3a
KATION, NAME AND PEOPESSION.
Scot. Ferguson, Adam, an historian and moral philosoplier .
Scot. , James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, &c.
Scot. Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art
Span. Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian . ,
Scot. Ferrier, Mary, novelist . . . ,
Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal, archbishop of Li'ons
Amer. Fessenden, Thos. G-reen, author and journalist
Amer. , Wm. Pitt, U. S. senator from Maine, ex sec. treas,
Ger. Feuerbach, Ludwig, philosopher and author
Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist ,
Span. Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer
Ger. Fichte, John G., philosopher . . ,
Ital. Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . *
Amer. Field, Cyrus "W., promoter of Atlantic telegi-aph ,
Amer. Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate
Amer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author
Eng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors .
Eng. , Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist
Ital. Fiasco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria «
Amer. Fillmore, Millard, 13th president U. S. .
Amer. Finney, Charges G., preacher and theological writer •
Pers. Firdusi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses
Amer, Fisk, "Wilbur, president Wesleyan University, ' Travels,' &c,
Amer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation .
Bom. Flaminius, Titus Quintus, general and consul .
Rom. , Caius, general, consul, and censor of tribune
Eng. Flamsteed, John, first astronomer royal
Eng. Flatman, Thomas, poet . . • . ,
Fng. Flavel, John, an eminent non-conformist divine •
Fr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate . ,
Ger. Fleischer, H. L., orientalist . , . •
Scot. Fleming, John, naturalist
Scot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author ,
Eng. , Giles, poet ....
Ens. , John, a dramatist . • . .
Eng. , Phineas, poet ....
Fr. Floury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman
Fr. , Claude, a divine and historian . .
Amer. Flint, Bev. Timothy, novelist and historian . ,
Fr. Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer
Ger. Flugel, G. L., philologist and historian . ,
Q-er. , John G., lexicographer
Ger. Follen, 0. T. C, theologian and philologist (in TJ. S.) .
Fr. Fonblanque, J. S. M., jurisprudence
Fr. Foutenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer
Amer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author , .
jjng, . J Samuel, a comic writer and actor , ,
Eng. Forbes, Edward, naturalist and author . •
■£-ag. , John, M. D., medical writer . , ,
Amer. Force, Peter, journalist and historian • •
Itah Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer , ,
Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic author . ,
3
BOSN.
DTEO.
1724
i816
1710
1.76
1808
1652
1735
1782
1854
1763
1839
1771
1837
1806
1804
1775
1833
1701
1764
1762
1814
1433
1499
1819
1805
1822
1787
1855
1707 ■
1754
1547
1800
1792
940
1020
1792
1839
1743
■"798
. c. 230 B.
c. 17
s.
0. .17
1646
719
1633
1688
1627
16a
1632
1710
1801
1785
1857
1658
1716
1580
1627
1576
1G25
1584
1650
1653
1743
1640
1722
1780
1840
1755
1794
1802
1788
1855
1796
1846
1787
1865
1657
1757
1806
1863
1721
1771
1815
1864
1787
1790
1688
1586
1646
34
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
r;!TrOH-. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOKN
Eng. Ford, Richard, author of works on Spain • • • 1796
Itai Foresti, E. Felice, patriot aud litterateur . . • 1793
Avue-r. Forrest, Edwin, actor . . • , • 1806
En^. Fc'rster, John, journalist and author • • • 1812
Grer. , John R., traveller and naturalist . • . 1T29
Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist aud statesman . , , 1780
Eng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archasolog-ist (Ency. Antiq.) . • 1770
Ttal. Foscari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venice . . . 1372
Ttal. Foscolo, NicolUgo, poet and musical author . . , 1777
Eng. Foster, John, essayist ..... 1770
Fr. Foucb6, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist . 1733
8-er. Fouque, Fried H. L. de la Motte, author of ' Undine,' &c. 1777
Fr. Fourier, Charles, founder of the ' social ' system . • 1772
Fr. , Franc s M. C, writer on social science . • 1772
Amer. Fowler, Orson S., phrenologist . . . • 1809
Eng. Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators 1748
Eng. , G-eorge, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers . 1624
Eng. , John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' . 1517
Eng. , Sir Charles, engineer, builder of Crystal Palace . • 1810
Ital. Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit . • 1769
Francia, Jos6 Gr. R., dictator of Paraguay • . 1757
Ame"!. Francis, John W., physician and author • • • 1789
Ital. , Saint, founder of ' Franciscans * , • 1182
Savcy. , de Sales, saint and bishop . . • • 1567
Irish. , Sir Philip, political wi-iter . . , 1743
Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman . ]706
Eq£. , Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer . . 1786
Scot. Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, Jacobite leader, beheaded . . 1667
truss. Frederick II., the Great, King, an able general and author . 1712
Amer. Freeman, James, D.D., first Unitarian minister in U. 8. • 1759
Amer. Frelinghuysen, Theo., statesman ...» 1787
Amer. Fremont, John Charles, explorer and statesman . . 1813
Amer. Freneau, Philip, poet and journalist . • • 1752
Eng. Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . • . 1769
Ger. Freytag, G. W. F., ' Arabic Dictionary,' &c. . . 1778
Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator • • •
Fer. Froebel, Julius, traveller and author . • • 1806
Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet . • , 1333
Amer. Frothingham, Kichard, Jr., historian and journalist • 1812
Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist .... 1780
Amer. — , "Wm. Henry, composer and journalist . . , 1815
Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister . , , 1754
Amer. , Richard, D. D., Baptist preacher and author . • 1808
Amer. , Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d'Ossoli, Utterateur , 1810
Eng. , Thomas, a divine and historian ... 1608
Eng. Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, novelist ... 1812
Fr. Furetiere, Anthony, a philosopher .... 1620
Amer. Furness, William Henry, D. D., Unitarian preacher and author 1802
Ger. Furst, Julius, orientalist and philologist • . . 1805
Bwias. Fuseli, Henry, painter and writer on art . • , 1741
1821
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
35
RATION.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Rom.
Gr.
En. Am
Ital.
Ger.
Amer.
S. Am.
Amer.
Russ.
Riiss.
Scot.
Ital
Port.
Jew.
Ger.
Span.
Span.
Eng.
Ital.
Pr.
Eng.
Amer
Eng.
Eng.
E-ng.
Fr.
Araer.
Fr.
Eng.
Fr.
Span.
Amer.
Eng.
Ger.
rlom.
Fr.
NAME AND PEOFESSION.
Gadsden, Christopher, revolutionary statesman , •
, James, statesman and negotiator . •
Gage, Thomas, last ro3al governor of Massachusetts • •
Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author . . •
Gail, J. B., philologist .....
Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian
Gaines, Major-General E. P., military commander • •
GaiuB, or Caius, jurist and legal writer . • •
Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician . • •
.Gales, Joseph, founder of ' National Intelligencer ' ,
Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer
Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the
science of phrenology ....
Gallagher, William D., journalist and poet
Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnol.
Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for
deaf and dumb .....
Gallitzin, the name of several distinguished princes . .
, Demetrius Aug., a noble missionary priest ,
Gait, John, novelist .,...,
Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher, die
coverer of galvanic electricity ....
Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope
Gamaliel, a Pharisee, doctor of the law
Gans, Edward, jurist . • . • ,
Garcia, Manuel, musical composer ....
Garcias-Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry ,
Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the conquerors of Peru
Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate . ,
Garibaldi, Giusepjie, patriotic general and leader , .
Garnier, Count Germain, jurist . . • .
Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist , .
Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist politician . .
Garth, Sir Samuel, physician and poet
Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Princo
of Wales, for a misdemeanor ....
Gaskell, E[ii?abeth C, novelist . . . . ,
Gassendi, E'eter, a celebrated philosopner . . .
Gaston de ]<'oix, duke of Nemours, general,
Gates, Horatio, a distinguished oflicer in the Revolution
" Gavarni,'* real name Sulpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist .
Gay, John, a popular poet .....
Gay-Lussac, N. F. chemist ....
Gayangos, Pascal de, Oriental scholar and historian
Gayarre, •."Aiarles A., historian ....
Gell, Sir VT^niiam, scholar and antiquary (Pompeii and Rome)
Gellert, Ohi-isiian Furchtegoit, a poet and miscellaneous writer
Gellius, A.nliiis. grammarian ....
Genest, c: (^enet, Edward C.,dJ.plomax.i£t . ,
BORN.
DIED
1724
i8oe
1788
1S38
1787
1870
1740
1755
1829
r-n
180G
177"
1849
1st cent.
131
1786
1564
1642
1758
182S
1808
17G1
1849
1787
1851
16th to 17th cent.
1770
1840
1779
ism
1737
.'79S
e
152^
88
1798
•84-»
1779
1837.
1503
153'-
155'!
1483
1555
1806
1754
1821
1716
1779
1805
1718
1350
1413
1820
1865
1592
1655
1489
1512
1728
1806
ISOl
1588
173^
1778
185Q
1809
1805
1777
1836
1715
1769
i..Di
2d cent.
1705
1834
30
THE world's PKOG;BE!l'.D.
KA1IOK.
Bar.
Fr.
Eng.
IT.
Fi-.
Fr.
KOBl.
Amer.
Fr.
Amer.
Ger.
Ger.
Swiss.
Ger.
ItaL
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng.
Scot.
Eng.
Amer.
Scot.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Ital.
Ital.
KAHE AND PBOFBSSION.
Genghio-Khaii> a celebrated conqueror
Genlie, Stephania Felicite, Countess de, miscellaneous writer
Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th. century
Geoffroy-Saint Uilaire Etienne, zoologist . , ,
Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. . ,
Gerard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of France ,
Gsrmanicus, Tiberius Drusus Cajsar, military commander
Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. S.
Gerson, John Chailier de, an ecclesiastic and author
Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller
Gervinus, George Gottfried, historian and politician
Cleseuius, Fred, Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critic
Gessner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist ...
, John Matthias, a philologist . ,
Giannone, Peter, an historian . - . . ,
Gibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author
Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England's histor:
Gibbs, Josiah W., philologist ....
Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both officers in the Revo
lution .....
, Thomas Milner, statesman • •
Giddings, Joshua Reed, statesman .. .
Giflbrd, William, a critic and poet . ,
, John, an historical and political writer
Gieseler, John K. L., church historian . .
Gilbert, James W., writer on banking
, Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Amer.
Gilfillan, George, clergyman and author
Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar and author
Gillespie, Wm. M., professor and author ou engineering
Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c.
Gilman, John T., noted governor of New Hampshire ,
, Samuel, Unitarian clergyman and author .
Gilpin, Bernard, ' apostle of che North '
, Wm., writer on the picturesque
Gilray, James, engraver and caricaturist
Gioberti, Vincenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman
Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences
Sw. Am. Girard, Charles, naturalist
Fr.Am. , Stephen, merchant, banker, millionaire
Fr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist
Eng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author
Eng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author
Eng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author
Welsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain
Eng. Gliddon, Geo. Robins, Egyptologist and author
Ger. Gluck, Christop W. von, musical composer
Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist
JFr. Godfrey, of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the
• Crusades ....
Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, fee.
Sng. Godolphin, Sidney, earl of, statesman
BOBX.
1164
1746
1772
1770
1773
1814
1363
1816
1805
1786
1516
1691
1676
1809
1737
1790
1807
1795
1757
1758
1792
1794
1813
1697
1816
174T
1759
1791
15 7
1724
1757
1801
17o7
1822
1750
1802
1809
1636
1796
1349
1809
1714
174S
1794
1640
BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX.
37
VATIOK. KAME AND PKOFESSIOK.
Span. Qodoy, Manuel de, statesman, ' prince of the peace* •
Atner, Godwin, Parke, journalist and historian . •
Eng. , 'Williain, novelist and metaphysician • •
Ger. Goethe, John Wolfgang, poet and novelist , •
Ital. Goldoni, Charles, the Italian Moliere . . .
Irish. Goldsmith, Oliver, celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer
Dutch. Golius, James, orientalist and lexicographer • .
Span. Gonsalvo, of Cordova, a celebrated warrior . .
Eng. Good, John Mason, physician and author . • •
Amer. Goodrich, Chauncey A., scholar and divine . ,
Amer. , Frank B., (son of Samuel G.,) author
Amer. , Samuel Griswold, ' Peter Parley,' voluminous author
Amer. Goodyear, Charles, inventor and India-rubber patentee
Scot. Gordon, ' lord George,' political agitator
Eng. , Wm., author of History of the United States ,
Eng. Gore, Catharine G., novelist
Eng. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, ' lord proprietor of Maine' .
Hung. Gorgey, Arthur, general in the Revolution, (supposed traitor)
Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist ....
Rusa* Gortchakoff, Michael, prince, general in Crimea, dso. •
Russ. ■ , Alexander, prince, diplomatist • •
Amer. Gorton, Samuel, enthusiast and author • •
En.Am. Gough, John B., lecturer on temperance . . .
Irish. , Hugh, viscount, general in India. &c. . •
Amer. Gould, Augustus A., naturalist and physician • •
Amer. , Hannah F., poet . . , • <
Eng. , John, naturalist and author . . •
Fr. Gourgaud, Gaspard, haron, one of Napoleon's generals
Eng. Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets . ,
Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat
Rom. , Caius Sempronius ....
Ger. Graefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer .
Scot, Grahame, John, viscount of Dundee, lord Grahame of Claver-
house, general .....
Scot. , James, a poet .....
Scot. ■, James, author of ' History of the United States '
Fr. Grammont, Count Philibert, licentious author of ' Memoirs'
Fr. Grandville, J. S. G., caricaturist and artist . .
Fr. Granier, Adolphe, journalist and historian , .
Scot. Grant, Anne, (of Laggan,) novelist, essayist, &c. •
Scot. , James, journalist and author . , ,
Scot. , James, novelist ....
Span. Granvelle, Ant. Pierre, cardinal de, statesman , ,
Eng. Granville, G. G. Leweson Gower, 2d earl of, statesman «
Eng. , John Carteret, earl, statesman . ,
Ital. Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law . ,
Irish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman ,
, Thomas Colley, novelist . . ,
Dutch. Gravesande, "Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher
Amer. Gray, Asa, botanist, prof, in Harvard, author of* Flora,' &o.
Amer. , Henry Peters, painter. ...
Eng. — — , John Edward, naturalist ....
BOElf.
IDIBD,
1767
1851
1816
1755
1838
. 1749
1831
1707
1793
1731
1774
1596
1667
1443
1515
1764
1827
1790
1860
1826
1793
1860
1800
1860
1750
1793
1730
1807
. 1799
1647
. 1818
f. B. C.
5th cent
. 1792
1861
1800
1600
1677
1817
1779
1805
:abt.) 1800
1865
1804
. 1783
1852
1402
B. c. 133
B. C. 121
. 1632
1703
. 164-3
1689
1765
1811
1770
1842
1621
1707
. 1803
1847
1805
. 1755
1838
1806
1822
1517
15S6
1816
1690
1793
f. 12th cent.
1750
1821
1796
1864
1688
• 1713
1810
1819
abt.) 1800
3S
THE world's progress.
KAITON.
ling.
Amer.
Amer.
Er,
Ital.
Scot.
Ii'ish.
Soot.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Amer.
Irisli.
Am.er.
Ger.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Dutch.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Ger.
Dutch.
Fr.
Amer
Ger.
Ital.
Ger.
Ital,
Ital.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
NAME AND PKOFESSION.
Gray, Thomas, poet .....
Graydon, Alex., author of Revolutionary Memoirs * •
Greeley, Horace, journalist and politician . •
Gregory I., the Great, pope, author
, VII., the Great, pope Hildebrand, celebratfcvx despot
, David, philosopher and mathematician
, George, D. D., miscellaneous writer . .
, James, philosopher and mathematician , .
, Naziauzen, St. Christian, writer . .
■ — of Nyssa, St. Christian, writer . . ,
, Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer
of Tours, historian ....
Green, Ashbel D. D., clergyman and author . .
, Horace, physician, auihor of medical works •
Greene, Chas. G., journalist and politician , ,
, Geo. Washington, scholar and critic , .
■ , Matthew, poet ....
, Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution
, Nathaniel, author and journalist ,
— — -, Robt., dramatist ....
Greenhow, Robert, historical writer . , .
Greenleaf, Simon, jurist and author . . •
Greenough, Horatio, sculptor and author , .
Greville, Sir Fulke, (Lord Brooke), statesman and author
Grey, Earl, statesman, whig premier for "William IV.
, Lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition
Griesbaoh, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist
Griffin, Edward D., D. D., theologian ,
, Gerald, novelist ....
Grimke, Thomas S., jurist . . » .
Grimm, J. M. C, miscellaneous writer . .
Griscom, John, educator, philanthropist . . .
Griswold, Alex, V., bishop Prot. Epis. Church, New England
, Rufus Wilmot, author aud critic . ,
Gronovius, James, an erudite critic . . ,
Grose, Francis, antiquary and author . . .
Gross, Samuel D., physician, surgeon, and author
Gi'ote, George, author of History of Greece ,
Grotefend, G. F., philologist
Grotius or DeGroot, Hugh, an eminent scholar
Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France
Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. . ,
Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist , , ,
Guarini, John Baptist, a poet ....
Guericke, Otto, exrerimental philos., inventor of the air-pump
Guerrazi, Francesco D., author and politician
Guiccardiui, Francis, an historian
Guillotiu, Joseph T.. benevolent physician, inventor of the guillotine 1738
^uise, Charles of, cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman 1525
, Francis of Lorraine, duke of, celebrated warrior . 1519
--- , Henry of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior . 1550
Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician • 1787
BORN.
1716
1752
1811
644
1661
1754
1648
328
331
1774
544
17G2
1802
1804
1811
1696
1741
1797
1560
1800
1783
1805
1554
1764
1537
1745
1770
1803
1786
1785
1774
176G
1815
1645
1731
.1805
1794
1775
1.^83
1776
(Tenn.)1777
1616
1537
1602
1805
1482
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
3S
KATION. NAME AND TROFESSION.
Nor. Gdiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior
Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician, inventor of the Guuter scale
Gvu-aey, Joseph John, philanthropist . (Soc
Eng.
Eng.
Pol.
Eng.
Swe.
Swe.
Swe.
Svve
Amer.
Scot.
Ger.
Pruss.
Fr.
Eng.
Gurowsky, Adam de, count, publicist and author .
Gurwood, John, Col., editor of Wellington's Despatches
Gustavus 1., (Gustavus Vasa) king of Sweden . ,
II., Adolphiis, king of Sweden ; able warrior
• III., king of Sweden . . , .
IV., Adolphus, king of Sweden . •
Guthrie, James, secretary of the treasury to Pierce
, William, author of a history of England, Scotlau 1,
&c
Guttenberg, John, one of the inventors of printing
Gutzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China
Guyon, Jeanne M. B., de la Motte, mystical teacher and writer
, Richard D., general in the service of Hungary, &c.
Sw.Am.Guyot, Ai-nold H., writer on physical geography
Eng. Gwynn, Eleanor, (' Nell Gwynn') mistress of Charles II.
Hg. AtLGyulai, Francis, count, commander of Austrian army in Italy
Eng. Habington, Wm., puet ....
Amer. Hackett, Horatio B., biblical critic • . •
Amer. ■ , James H., actor . . , •
Pers. Haiiz, Mohammed, the Anacreon of Persia » •
Ger. Hagenbach, Karl L., ecclesiastical historian • ,
Ger. Hahn, August, theological wi-iter . . • .
Ger. , Simon Frederick, an historian . . •
Ger. Hahneman, founder of 'Homeopathy ' in medicine .
Ger. Hahn-Hahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist
Eng. Hakluyt, Richard, author of voyages, &c., of the English .
Scot. Haldane, Robert, philanthropist and theologian
Scot. Haldeman, S. S., naturalist and philologist . .
Amer. Hale, Benj., D.D., educator and author
Amer. , David, journalist, founder of N. T. Journal of Commerce
Amer. , Nathan, revolutionary patriot, executed as a spy .
Amer. , Nathan, journalist, Boston Daily Advertiser
Amer. , Snrah J., poet and prose writer
Eng. , Sir Matthew, eminent and incorruptible judge
Fr. Halevy, J. F. C, musical composer . . .
Eng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer •
Eng. Haliburton, Thos. C, humorous writer, ' Sam Siick' ,
Eng. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c.
Amer. , Gordon, first American missionary in Bombay
Amer. , James, jurist and author . . ,
Amer. , James, geologist and palaeontologist . • .
Fng. ' , Joseph, bishop of Norwich, theological author •
Eng. , Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator . •
Eng. Hal lam, Henry, historian , . . ,
Amer. Halleck, Fitz Greene, poet . . ,
Swiss. Haller, Albert von, miscellaneous writer
Eng. Hallej^ Edmund, an eminent astronomer and mathematician
Eng. Haliiwell, James Orchard, archasologist and author .
Scot. Halyburton, Thomas, theological writer . • ,
Garth. Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general . ,
BOBN.
DIED.
1015
1081
e 1581
1619
nds) 1788
1S47
1805
1868
. 1791
1845
1496
1560
1594
1633
1746
1792
1778
1837
1793
;. 1708
1770
1400
1468
1803
1851
1648
1717
1813
1856
1807
1650
1687
1798
1866
. 1605
1645
1808
. 1800
1389
. 1801
1807
1857
. 1692
1729
1755
1843
]805
1553
1616
1764
1842
1812
. 1797
26 1791
1849
1758
1776
1784
1863
1795
1609
1676
1793
18C2
1766
1844
1803
1865
1788
1S14
1784
1826
1793
1811
1574
1658
1764
1831
. 1777
1859
1795
1708
1777
1656
1741
1820
1674
1712
. B.
0.229
40
THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS,
NATION,
Amer.
Irish.
Amer.
Scot.
Scot.
Irish.
Scot.
£ng.
Ger.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Ger.
Garth.
Carth.
Nor.
Amer.
Ger.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Hamilton, Alexander, statesman, first secretary of treasury, U. S.
, Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer
, James, statesman, U. S. senator from South Carolina
, Sir "Wm., diplomatist and antiquary
, Sir Wm., metaphysician ....
, Sir Wra. Eowan, mathematician and philosopher
, Thos., Capt., novelist, ' Men and Manners in America'
'■ , William Richard, archaeologist . . ,
Eng.
Sar.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer
Amer.
Eng.
Ger.
Ger.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Fr.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Amer.
En. A.
Hammer, Baron von, historian and orientalist . ,
Hammond, James, poet .....
, James H., U. S. senator from South Carolina
Hampden, John, a celebrated patriotic statesman
Hampton, Wade, general in revolution
Hancock, John, a distinguished patriot, president of Congress
Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers
Hannibal, or Annibal, general against Rome • ,
Hanno, navigator . . . , ,
, the Great, general and statesman . , ,
Hanstein, G., mathematician and astronomer • ,
Harbaugh, Henry, author of religious works . ,
Hardenbergh, Karl A. von, statesman « ,
Harding, Chester, portrait painter . ,
, James D., artist and author on art ,
Hardinge, Henry, viscount, general and governor-general of India
Hardwicke, Charles, theological writer . . ,
Hare, Julius Charles, archdeacon, theological writer ,
, Robert, chemist and physicist . ,
Harlan, Richard, M. D., naturalist . . ,
Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, celebrated statesman
Haroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning
Harper, James, John, J. Wesley, and Fletcher, publishers, born
Harrington, James, political writer
Harriott, Thos., mathematician and voyager to Virginia ,
Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &c.
, John, theological writer ....
— , Thaddeus Wm., naturalist
Harrison, Gen. Wm. H., military commander and president U.
Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College
Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood
Hase, Henry, classical antiquary
, Karl Aug., theological author
Hassenclever, John Peter, painter (Dusseldorf school) .
Haslam, John, writer on insanity .
Hastings, marquis of, military commander . ,
, Warren, governor-general of British India
Hauser, Casper, a mysterious " wild boy " . ,
Haussez, Baron, minister of Charles X., traveller .
Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor . •
Hauy. Rene Just, mineralogist . • ,
Havelock, Henry, general in India • •
Haven, Alice B., author of juvenile books • •
Haviland, John, architect . • «
BOBN.
1757
1758
1786
1730
1788
1805
1789
1777
1774
1710
1807
1594
1755
1737
1684
C. 247
B. c.
1784
1817
1750
1792
1798
1785
1821
1795
1781
1796
1661
1795,
1611
1560
1670
1804
1795
1773
1569
1789
1800
1810
1764
1754
1733
1778
1742
1795
1828
1792
DIED,
1804
1818
1857
1803
1856
1842
1859
1856
1742
1643
1835
1793
1758
B. c. 183
5th cent.
B. c. 202
1822
1866
1863
1856
1859
1855
1858
1843
1724
808
'7, 1801 ,'4
1677
1621
1719
1856
1856
1841
1688
1658
1842
1853
1844
1825
1818
1833
1591
1822
1857
1866
1852
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
4\
KATIOH. KAME AND PROFESSION.
Anier. Hawes, Joel, Congregational clergyman and author , •
Eng. Hawke.j Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral •
Eng. Hawksworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer . . •
Eng. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator, originator of the slave trade
Eng. , Sir John, author of ' History of Music,' &c. . •
Amer. Hawks, Francis Lister, Episcopal divine and historian •
Amer. Hawthorne, JS'athaniel, novelist . . • ,
Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer • •
Eng. Haydon, Benj. A., historical painter , • , ' ,
Amer. Hayes, Isaac, Arctic navigator and author ,
Eug. Hayley, "William, a poet and miscellaneous writer
Amer, Hayne, Robert T., governor of South Carolina and senator U. S.
Amer. Haynes, Lemuel, colored preacher and patriot ,
Eng. Haywood, Abraham, translator of 'Eaust' . •
Eng. Hazlitt, "William, essayist and critic . , • ,
Eng. Head, Sir Francis B., author of Travels, «fec. . ,
Eng. , Sir George, author of ' Home,' &c. . , ,
Amer. Headley, Joel T., author of biographies and histories
Amer. Heath, "Wm., major-general in the revolution, author of Memoirs
Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine and poet . . ,
Eng. , Richard, bibliomaniac and book collector . •
Ger. Hecker, Fred. K. F., politician ....
Amer. , Isaac F., Roman Catholic clergyman and author .
Eng. Heckwelder, John, Moravian missionary and author ,
Ger. Hederick, Benjamin, a lexicographer ...
Anaer. Hedge, Fred. H., clergyman and author , , ,
Ger. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist , ,
Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian . • . .
Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician • • . .
Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and litterateur ...
Ger. Heineccius, Jno. G.. juridical author , .
Rom. Helena, St., wife of Constantius Chlorus, emperor . ,
Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa) the first romance writer . fl.
Fr. Heloise, abbess of the Paraclete, famed for intrigue with Abelard
Eng. Helps, Arthur, essayist and dramatist , , .
Fr. Helvetius, Claude A., philosopher ...
Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist , , ,
Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess ....
Eng. Henfey, Arthur, botanist . • . . .
Ger. Hengstenberg, E. "W., metaphysician, antiquary and theologian
Eng. Henley, John, clergyman and author, * orator Henley'
Flem. Hennepin, Louis, missionary and explorer of N. A. ,
Eng! Henningsen, Chas, Fred., author and soldier , ,
Fr. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch ...
Amer. , Caleb S., clergyman and author . . ,
Amer. , Joseph, physicist, director of Smithsonian Institute
Amer. , Matthew, author of ' Comment, on the Bible' . ,
Port. , the Navigator, prince, 3d son of John I. . ,
Scot. , Robert, an historian «...
Amer. , Patrick, an orator and patriot . , ,
Amer. Hentz, Caroline Lee, novelist . , , ,
Bom. Heraclius (bom in Cappadocia), emperor of the East ,
BOfiN.
DIETX
1789
1861
1713
1781
1715
1773
1520
1595
1719
1789
1798
1866
1804
1862
1732
1809
1786
1846
1T45
1820
1791
1835
1758
1834
1800
1778
1830
1793
1782
1855
1814
1737
1814
1783
1826
1773
1833
1811
1819
1743
1823
1675
1748
1805
1730
1799
1760
1842
1770
1831
1799
1856
1681
1741
247
327
. 4th cent.
1101
1164
1817
1715
1771
1581
1617
1794
1835
1800
1802
1692
1756
1640
1699
1815
1553
1610
1804
1797
1662
1714
1394
1463
1718
1790
1736
1799
185fl
576
641
42
THE WOKLD^fc, PEOGEESS.
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Crr. Heraclitus, a philosopher . . , , f. b,
Eng. Herbert, Edward, Lord of Cherburj', diplomatist and philosopher
Eng. Herbert, George, ckrgy man and poet . . .
Eng.Am. , Henry Wm. novelist and miscellaneous author
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
GtT.
Scot.
Ger.
Ger.
Gr.
Amer.
Gr.
Gr.
Fr.
Span.
Mex.
Eng.
Eng.
£ng.
Jew.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Rus3.
Gr.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng.
, Sidney, statesman ....
, Wm., (3rd Earl of Pembroke) poet .
, Wm., dean of Manchester, poet and philosopher •
Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer
Heriot, George, goldsmith, founder of school . •
Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, ' History of Philosophy' &c.
, J. G. J., philologist ....
Hermogenes, a rhetorician ....
Herndon, Wm. L., naval commander and explorer
Herud, Agrippa I, King of Judea, (grandson of Herod the Great)
, the Great, King of the Jews . . , i
Herodian, an historian ....
Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works ar
extant ......
Herold, L. G. F., musical composer • • .
Herrera, Anthony, an historian . • .
, Jose J. de, president of Mexico • • •
Herrick, Robert, poet • . . •
Herschel, Caroline L., astronomer . . ,
, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers
Herschell, Dr. Solomon, chief rabbi of the Jews in England
, Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher
Hervey, James, a pious and amiable divine and writer .
— '■ , Thomas K. , poet and prose writer . •
Herzen, Alexander, publicist, editor and author . .
Hesiod, a poet, contemporary of Homer . ,
Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . ,
Heywood, Thomas, humorist and dramatist , ,
Hickes, George, a theologian and philologist .
Amer. Hickok, Laurens P., metaphysical author . ,
Amer. Hicks, Elias, preacher of the Society of Friends
Amer. Hildreth, Eichard, author of History of the United States
Fr. Hilaire, Geoff. St., naturalist . ,
Eng. Hill, Rowland, author of cheap postage in England .
Eng. Hill, Rowland, Rev., eccentric clergyman .
Eng. , Rowland, viscount, general in Spain and at Waterloo
Eng. , Sir John, a botanist and multifarious writer .
Amer. Hillard, George S., author and journalist . ,
Jew. Hiilel, the elder, compiler of the Talmud , ,
Amer. Hillhouse, James A., poet . , , .
Eng. Hind, John Russell, astronomer .
Eng. Hinton, John Howard, author of History of United States
Gr. Hipparchus, astronomer ....
Gr Hippocrates, the father of medicine . . .
Hippolytus, Saint, ecclesiastical writer . .
Jlkvaer, Hitchcock, Edward, D. D., theologian and geologist ,
, Roswell D., theologian, orator, and patriot
Kng. Hoadley, William, a celebrated prelate and author
, c. 504
1581
1593
1807
1810
1580
1778
1744
1563
1804
1772
f. 180
1813
B. c. 7 A. :
. c. 71
f. 230
, c. 484
1793
1659
1591
1750
1738
1760
1713
1799
1812
. 0 907
1729
1650
1642
1798
1748
1807
1772
1795
1744
1772
1716
1808
. c. 112
1789
1823
1800
B. c.
J. C. 460
A. D.
1793
1676
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
43
iTIOH
mer.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Hobart, John Henry, bishop of New York • •
Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator. ,
Hobhouse, John Cam., Lord Bronghton, author and statesman
Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander . , .
Hodge, Charles. Rev., theological writer . •
Hoe, Richard M., an inventor of printing presses • •
Hofer, Andrew, a Ty roll an patriot . . •
Hofland, Barbara, novelist • • • •
Hoflman, David, lawyer and author . • ,
Hoffman, Charles Fenuo, poet and novelist , ,
Hogg, James, ' the Ettrick Shepherd,' poet
Hohenlohe, prince of, prelate, and alleged miracle -svurker .
Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian
Holbrook, John E., naturalist ....
Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer
Hole, Matthew, writer on the Liturgy
Holingshed, chronicler ....
Holland, JosiahG-., journalist, poet and essayist
, Lord, statesman and litterateur . ,
, Philemon, a translator , . , ,
Hollis, Thomas, benefactor of Harvard College ,
, Thomas, philanthropist (life, 2 vols., 4to) • ,
Holman, James, a blind traveller and author . ,
Holmes, Abiel, D. D., * Annals of America'
, Oliver Wendell, physician, poet and essayist ,
Holt, Sir John, lord chief justice . . ,
Holyoke, Edward Aug., physician and naturalist .
Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, ' Criticism' , ,
, John, a divine, dramatist and historian ,
Homer, the greatest of poets, supposed to have flourished
Hone, Wm., author of ' Every Day Book,' and political works
Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval oflS.cer
, T^iomas, poet and humorist ...
Hoogvliei, Arnold, a poet . • • ,
Hook, Robert, a mathematician , , ,
, Theo. E., novelist and humorist . , ,
Hookc, Nathaniel, author of a Roman history ,
Hooker, Joseph D., physician and botanist . ,
, Richard, an eminent divine . , • ,
, Sir W. J., botanist . . . •
Hoole, John, a poet and translator , , ,
Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs . ,
Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, "Auastasius" ,
Hopital, Michel de 1', chancellor of France
Hopkins, Ezck., first commodore U. S. Navy
, John H., protestant episcopal bishop of Vt. and author
, Mark, clergyman and author
, Samuel, an eminent divine and author
, Stephen, signer of the Declaration of Independence
Hopkinson, Francis, signer of the Dec. of Independence and author 1737
, Joseph, jurist and statesman
Horace, Quintus Flaccus, eminent poet
BORN.
DIED.
1778
1830
1588
1797
1786
1768
1797
1797
1812
• 1765
1810
1770
18-14
. 1784
1854
1803
. 1772
1835
1793
1819
1685
1754
1795
1744
1809
1640
1730
1582
1819
1773
1840
1551
1636
1659
1731
1720
1774
1787
1857
1763
1837
1809
1642
1709
1728
1829
lf)96
1782
1724
1808
B. c. 907
1779
1842
1724
1856
1798
1845
1687
1763
. 1635
1702
1788
1841
1690
1763
1816
1553
1600
1785
1863
1717
1803
1495
1555
1770
1831
1505
1573
. 1718
1803
r 1792
1802
1721
1803
1707
1785
thor 1737
.791
1770
1842
B.C.65 B.
0. 3
44
THE WOELD'S PROGRESS.
NATION.
FJern.
Eug.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Kom.
NAME AND PEOFESSION.
Horn, Philip de Mont, count of, soldier and statesman
Home, George, a learned prelate, bishop of Norwich
, Richard H., poet and essayist
— — , Thomas Hartwell, biblical critic and historian
Horner, Francis, statesman and essayist
, Leonard, geological writer
Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician •
Hortensius, Quintus, orator . . .
Amer. Hosack, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer •
Heb. Hosea, prophet , , , , ,
Fr. Houdin, Robert, conjurer . • • ,
Fr. Houdon, Jean Antoine, sculptor . . ,
Fr. Houssaye, Ars^ue, miscellaneous writer • •
Amer. House, Samuel G., physician and philanthropist
Amer. Houston, Sam., general, governor, and ex-governor of Texas
Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist
Amer. — , John Eager, i evolutionary soldier and statesman
Amer. Howe, Elias, jr., inventor of sewing machines .
Eng. , Geo. Aug., general in colonial war . •
Eng. , Richard, lord, earl, admiral , , ,
Eng. , Sir Wm., commander-in-chief in America ,
Eng. Howell, James, author of 'Letters' . . ,
Eng. Howitt, Mary (wife of "Wm.), novelist and poet •
, 'William, traveller, essayist, «fcc. , .
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Howley, William, archbishop of Canterbury ,
Hoj'le, Edmund, writer on games . • •
Swiss. Huber, Francis, naturalist . . ,
Fr. Hue, Evariste R., Catholic missionary and author .
Eng. Hudson, Henry, discoverer of Hudson river ,
Fr. Hue t, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author ,
Ger. Hufeland, Chris. W., medical author . ,
Fr. Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian line of French kings
Irish-Am. Hughes, John, Catholic Archbishop N. Y.
Fr.
Amer.
Amer.
Ger.
Pruss.
Scot.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Hung.
Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman
Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer
, Wm., general in War of 1812 .
Humboldt, Karl "Wilhelm, baron, statesman and author
, F. H. A., baron, traveller, geographer, and nat. phil
Hume, David, an historian and philosopher
, Jos., statesman and reformer . ,
Humphrey, Heman, theologian and author •
Humphreys, David, poet and diplomatist . •
Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior ,
Amer. Hunt, Freeman, author and journalist , ,
Eng. , James Henry Leigh, poet and essayist .
Eng. — — , Leigh, poet and essayist . , ,
Amer. -, Thomas S., chemist and geologist •
Scot. Hunter, John, surgeon and medical author
Amer. , Robert M. T., IT. S. senator from Virginia
Eng. Huntington, Selina, countess of, patron of Methodists
Eng. , "Wm., Antinomian preacher , ,
Amer. ■ > , Jeded. V., poet and novelist , ,
); &c.
BORN.
DIED.
1522
1568
1730
1792
1803
1780
1862
1778
1817
1785
1864
1736
1806
C. 114 B.
c. 50
1769
1835
8th cent
. B. 0.
1805
1741
1828
1815
1801
1793
1862
1726
1790
1752
1827
1819
1724
1758
1725
1799
1814
1596
1666
1804
1795
1765
1848
1672
1769
1750
1831
1813
1860
1611
1630
1721
1762
1836
946
996
1798
1864
1802
1775
1845
1753
1825
1767
1835
1769
1859
1711
1776
1777
1855
1779
1859
1753
1818
1400
1456
1804
1S58
1784
1859
1785
1859
1826
1728
1792
1809
1707
1791
1744
1S13
1816
BIOGEAPHICAL rN-DBX.
45
ITATIOK.
Amer,
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Irish.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Ger.
Eug.
Scot.
Dutch.
Fr.
Ind.
Gr.
JfcW.
NASIE AKD PEOFESSIOH.
Huntington, Fred. D., clergyman and author •
Hurd, Kichard, bishop of Worcester, &c. ,
Huskisson, Rohon William, able statesman •
Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer
Hatcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer •
Hutchinson, Anne, founder of N. E. Antinomians
• -, John, Colonel (Life by hie widow)
-, Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass. and historian
Hutten, Ulrich von, scholar and reformer
Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician
, James, a geologist and philosopher
Huygens, Christian, a scientitij author " .
Hyde de Neuville, F. G., baron de, politician
Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior ,
Hypatia, Neo, Platonic philosopher •
Hyrcanus L and IL, high priests •
BOUX.
DIED.
• 1819
172C
180S
1769
1830
1376
1416
1694
1747
1643
161T
1664
n 1711
1780
1488
1523
1737
1823
1726
1797
1629
1705
1776
1857
1717
1782
370
416
1st and 2d cent.
lamblichns, Neo, Platonic philosopher , ♦
Turk. Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt , •
Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet . • . •
Span. Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits ,
, Saint, primitive father of the church •
, St., patriarch of Constantinople . •
Eng. Inchbald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist , •
Port, Inez de Castro, queen of Portugal . ,
Amer. Ingersoll, Charles J., statesman and historian ,
Amer. , Joseph R., statesman and lawyer •
Scot. Inglis, Henry D., traveller and author • •
Eng. Ingram, Rev. Dr. James, Saxon scholar , •
Amer. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter •
Amer. , Johli, journalist and litterateur • •
Innocent, the name of thirteen popes . • •
Irenseus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author •
Eng. Ireland, Samuel ' Picturesque Tour ' . • .
Eng. , "W. H., author of the ' Shakespeare Forgeries'
Gr. Irene, a Byzantine empress ....
Eng. Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of liis gene:
Amer. Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels .
Amer. , Peter, author (brother of "Washington) ,
Scot. , Rev. Edward, theological writer . •
Amer. , Theodore, author of ' Conquest of Florida*
Amer. , "Washington, historian and essayist . .
Amer. , William, one of the authors of Salma,gundi .
Span. Isabella, the Catholic, queen of Spain, patron of Columbus
Span. II., queen of Spain • • •
Gr. Isaeus, an orator . • . • •
Heb. Isaiah, the greatest of the Hebrew prophets •
Fr. Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist » •
Gr. Isocrates, an orator > • • •
Span. Iturbide, emperor of Meadoo . « •
f. B.
als
A. D.
4th cent.
I7e9
1848
0. 550
1491
1556
107
779
877
1756
1821
1355
1782
1862
17S6
1795
1835
1774
1850
1801
1846
1850
402
to 1687
2d cent.
. 1750
1800
1777
1835
752
803
1610
1651
1810
1771
1838
1792
1834
1809
, 1783
1859
1766
1821
. 1451
1504
1830
B. C. 418
B. c. (aht) 800
, 1792
1861
a. 0.486
. 1784
182*
46
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
JfATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOEN.
Amer. Ivos, Levi S., ex-protest:iat episcopal bishop of North Carolina 1797
Amer. Izard, Ralph statesman (of South Carolina) • • • 1742
1804
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Heb.
Ger.
Ger,
Er.
Fr.
Er.
Dutch.
Ger.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Scot.
Pera.
Scot.
Er.,
Dutch.
Ital.
Amer.
Amer.
Fr.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Ger.
Irish.
Amer.
Scot.
Eng.
Hind.
Aust.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Scot.
Heb.
Jackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist,
, James, eminent physician
, Gen. Andrew, military commander, president U. S,
, Patrick T., eminent merchant
, Thomas Jonathan (' Stonewall'), rebel general
, William (' of Exeter ') musical composer .
Jacob, the Patriarch
Jacob:, Fred, H., philosopher, novelist, &o. .
Jacobs, Fred., classical philoloi^ist .
Jacotot, Jean J., educational writer . .
Jacquard, Jos. M., inventor of the Jacquard loom
Jacqufinont, Victor, traveller and naturalist .
Jacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist .
Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar •
James, G. P. R., novelist and historan •
, Henry, philosophical writer
, John Angell, congregational clergyman and author
, St., the Elder, apostle . .
. , St., the Less, '* . •
Jameson, Anne, essayist and writer on art
, Robert, naturalist and author .
Jami, or Djami, poet
Jamleson, John, D. D., miscellaneous author
Janin, Jules, litterateur . , .
Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect •
Januarius, patron saint of Naples . ,
Jarves, James J., traveller and author
Jarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theologist
Jasmin, Jaques, barber-poet
Jasper, "William, heroic soldier of the Revolution
, John, a distinguished patriot and statesman
Jay, William, judge, anti-slavery philanthropist
, Wiliam, D.D., religious -writer . .
Jeanne d'Arc, ' Maid of Orleans,' heroine
Jean, Paul, see Ricbter, novelist and metaphysician
Jebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer
Jefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d pros, of the U. S
Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic
Jeffreys, George, infamous judge
Jejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant and philanthrope
Jellachich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia
Jenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier , ,
Jenkyns, William, n on -conformist (' on Jude ')
Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine innoculation
Jenyns, Soame, poet and miscellanodus wiiter .
Jerdan, "William, journalist ....
Jeremiah, prophet • . • •
fl.B.
1805
1777
1767
1780
1826
1730
0. 1836
1743
1764
1770
1752
1801
1727
1753
ISOl
' 1811
1785
1797
1774
1414
1759
1804
1585
272
1818
1786
1798
1750
1745
1779
1769
1412
1763
1736
1743
1773
1648
1783
1801
1770
1612
1749
1704
1782
0.678
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
4-^
WATIOH.
&er.
Eng.
Eng,
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Ital.
Heb.
HoL
Fr.
Heb.
Eiig.
Ger.
PoL
Eng.
Eng.
En.g.
Amer.
Amer.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Jerome, St., one of the fathers of the church .
, of Prague, reformer, comj)anLoii of Huss
Jerrold, Douglas, essayist . . .
Jervis, sir Joliu, earl St. Vincent, admiral ,
Jewell John, learned prelate and author •
Jewsbur}-, Maria J., essayist . •
Joan of Arc, ' the greatest of heroines* .
Joanna, queen of Naples . •
Joel, the prophet ...»
Johannes Secundus (Johannes Everard), poet
Johannot, Tony, artist and designer . ,
John, the Evangelist . . .
, of G-aunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster
, king of Saxony and author
, III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and general
, Edward, historian of N. England
Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liljerty
, Samuel, ' the Colossus of English literature' •
, Alex. B., philologist and miscellaneous writer
, Andrew, president TJ. S. • • •
Amer. , Reverdy, jurist and statesman
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
-, Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president U. S,
-, Samuel, first president Columbia College and author
-, Walter R.. physicist ....
Tr. Amer. Johnson, Sir "William, geaeral and governor in North America
Amer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . ,
Scot. , Alex. K., geographer . •
Scot. , George, "writer and naturalist . .
Scot. , James F. W., chronicler and agricultural author
Fr. Joinville, Jean, sire de, chronicler ,
Fr. , Franfois, prince de, third son of Louis Philippe
Fr.Am. Jolliet, Louis, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi
Ital. Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer
Swiss. Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer .
Heb. Jonah, the prophet '. . - .
Amer. Jones, Anson, last president of the republic of Texas
Eng, , Inigo, an eminent architect . ,
Amer. , Jacob, commodore in the U. S. navy
Scot. , John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States
Eng. , Owen, architect and decorator
Eng. , Thomas Rymer, writer on anatomy and physiology
Eng. , Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer
Eng. , Rev. Wiliiam, ' of Nayland,' Hutchinsoniau divine
Eng. , William, divine and author . ,
Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist .
Icel. Jonsson, Finnur, Icelandic historian . ,
Irish. Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. .
Dan. Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author ,
Eng. Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author ,
Fr. Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico)
Jew. Josephus, celebrated historian and warrior . ,
Heb. Joshua, succesBor of Moses as leader of the Israelites
BOBN.
DIED.
420
1416
. 1782
1857
1774
1823
. 1522
1571
1833
. 1410
1431
B. 0. 800
1511
1538
1803
1852
100
1340
1399
1801
• 1629
1696
1600
1672
1649
1703
1709
1784
. 1786
1808
1796
S. 1780
1850
1696
1772
1794
1852
ca 1715
1744
1803
1862
1804
1798
1855
1796
1855
1224
1319
1818
1730
1714
1744
1775
f. B
C.862
1798
1858
1572
1652
1770
1850
1736
1792
1809
1810
1746
1794
1726
1800
1726
1800
1574
1637
1704
1789
1762
1814
1779
1830
1698
1770
1761
1814
37
95
B. 0. 1504
48
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
WATIO»,
Heb.
Heb.
Fr.
Tr.
Ger.
Mex.
Jew.
Heb.
Amer.
Amer.
Amcr.
Amer.
Amer.
Dan.
Rom.
Fr.
Swiss.
Hind.
Ger.
Ger.
Dutch.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Gr.
Rom.
Gr.
Gr.
Rom.
NAME AND FKOFESSION.
Josiah, 17th king of Judah . , .
Jotham, king of Judali ...»
Jouflroy, Theo. S., mctapliysician and statesman
Joiirdan J. B., marshal of France , •
Jovianus, Flavius C, emperor . ,
Juau, or John, of Austria, don, waiTior , ,
Juarez, Benito, statesman and president .
Juba, king of Numidia . . , ,
■ , king of Mauritania and historian • ,
Judah, Hakkadosch, famous rabbi and Talmudist •
Judas Maccabeus, patriot . . ,
Judd, Syl vest ei-, author of ' Margaret' . ,
Judson, Adoniram, missionary in India •
, Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above .
, Emily Chubbuck, third wife of above, and author
C Fanny Forester ') . . ,
, Saiah Boardman, second wife of above .
Juel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral
Jugurtha, Numidian king
Julian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author,
tate' .....
Julien, A. J., orientalist . , ,
Jullien, Louis G., musical composer, &o. •
Jung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepaul • •
Junge, Joachim, philosopher . .
Jung-Stilling, John H., mystic author . •
Junius, Adrian, voluminous writer
Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer
, Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &o.
Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist
Justin Flavius, A. J. ♦ the Elder,' Byzantine emperor
, Latin historian . . ^ .
, Martyr, one of the fathers of the church
Justinian, Flavius A. J., ' the Byzantine ' emperor
Juvenal, Decius Junius, the most vehement of satirists
ApoS'
BOBN.
DIED.
B. c. 641
B. c. 609
B. C. 783
B. 0. 742
1796
1842
1762
1833
364
1546
1578
, 1807
B. c. 46
B. 0. 18
129
194
B. c. 160
1813
1853
. 1788
1850
1789
1826
. 1817
1854
1803
1845
1629
1697
B. 0. 104
331
363
1799
1812
1860
1816
. 1587
1657
1740
1817
1512
1575
1771
1813
1784
1839
1748
1836
450
527
B. C. 200
91
165
482
565
128
Ger.
Ger.
Fr.
Bwe.
Bcot,
Amer.
Ger.
Ruas.
Fr.
Kaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian . .
Kaestner, Abraham Gothelf, mathematician and astronomer .
Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause
Kalm, Peter, traveller and botanist ....
Kamehameha (or Famehameha) L first king of the Sandwich
Islands . . . . •
— — — , II. king, introduced Christianity .
, III. introduced Constitution . ,
, IV. (Alex. Liholiho)
Kames, Henry Home, lord, judge and author •
Kane, Elisha Kent, arctic explorer and author •
Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician . . ,
Karasmin, Nicholas M. historiographer of the empire
£arr, J. B. Alphonse, miscellaneous author .
(abt)
1651 1716
1719 1799
1717 1780
1715 1779
1800
1824
1817 ' 1854
1834
1596 1827
1820 1857
1724 1804
1766 1828
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX,
49
HATIOK, NAME AND PROFESSION.
Eng. Kater, Henry, mathematician , • • •
Irish. Kavanagh, Julia, novelist • • • •
Eng. Kean, Cliarlos Jolin, actor • • • ,.
Eng. . , Edmund, tragedian . . • •
Eng. , Ellen Tree, wife of C. J. Kean, actress • •
Amer. Kearny, Philip, Union general in war against rel»ellion
Eng. Keats, John, a poet . , • • •
Eng. Keble, John, divine and poet . . • •
Irish. Keightley, Thos., miscellaneous author • • •
Keith, Geo. K. Elphinston, admiral , , •
Scot. , Jan-es, an ofl^cer in the Russian and Prussian service
, Thos., mathematician, (' Use of Glohes ') •
Fr. Kellerman, Frank C, duke of Valmy, general , •
Fr. , Franc Etienne, son of above, general •
Irish. Kelly, Michael, composer and singer • • •
Eng. Kemble, Charles, actor . . . •
Eng. , Frances Anne, actress and author • •
Eng. , John M., scholar and historian . •
Eng, , John Philip, celebrated tragedian • .
Ger. Kemfelen, Wolfgang, baron, author of the automaton chess-player
Eng, Keinpis, Thomas a, supposed author of the 'Imitation of Christ'
Eng. Ken, Thos., bishop of Bath and Wells, theological writer
Amer. Kendall, Amos, statesman and author . •
Amer. , George "W., journalist and author • •
Amer, Kendrick Asahel C, Greek scholar and author •
Scot. Kennedy, Grace, writer, (Father Clement) . •
Amer. Kennedy, John Pendleton, statesman and novelist •
Eng. Kennet, White, learned prelate and author . •
Eng. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and Biblical critio •
Ir.-Am.Kenrick, Francis P., Catholic prelate and author ,
Kent, Edward, Aug., duke of, father of Queen Victoria
Amer. , James, jurist, chancellor of New York • •
Amer. , William, judge, esteemed jurist . •
Eng. Kenyon, Lloyd, lord, jurist . • • •
Eng. , John, poet . . ■ • .
Ger. Kepler, John, eminent astronomer • • •
Eng. Keppel, Aug., viscount, admiral . • •
Scot. KeiT, Robert, miscellaneous writer . • «
Amer. Key, Francis S., author of 'Star Spangled Banner*
Eng. Kidd, "Wm., noted pirate, executed . . »
Eng. Killigrew, Henry, dramatist . . .
Scot. Kilmarnock, Wm. 4th, earl, Jacobite, beheaded .
Amer. Kimball, Richard B., author , , ,
Amer. King, John A., ex-governor of New York • «
Amer. , Rufus, statesman and diplomatist . ,
Amer. — — , Thomas Starr, author ....
Amer. , William R., diplomatist, senator, and vice-president
Eng. Kinglake, Alex. Wrn., M. F., author of 'Eothen'
Irish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican antiquities
Eng. Kingsley, Charles, clergyman, novelist and poet ,
Amer. Kip, Wm. Ingraham, Prot. Epis. bishop and author
Amer. Ktrkland, Caroline M., author of travels and essays .
BORN.
DIED.
1777
1835
1824
i«n
. 1787
1833
1805
1815
1S62
1796
1820
• 1790
1800
1746
1820
. 1696
1758
, 1759
1824
1735
1820
, 1770
1835
1762
1825
. 1775
1854
1811
1807
1857
1757
1823
rev 1754
1806
St' 1380
1471
1637
1711
1789
1810
1809
• 1782
1825
1795
1660
1728
1718
1783
. 1797
1863
1767
1820
• 1763
1847
1861
• 1732
1802
1783
18.56
. 1571
1630
1726
1786
1814
1779
1843
1701
1612
1G90
1702
1746
1818
1789
1837
1755
1827
1824
1864
1786
I860
18u2
8 1795
1837
1819
1811
18GI
50
THE WOELD'S PEOGBESS,
KATIOX. NAME AND PBOFESSION.
Eng. Kitchine.'Winiam, -writer on Cookery • • •
Eng. Kitto, John, biblical Bcholar and author « •
Hung. Klapka, George, patriot, soldier and author • «
Pruss. Klaproth, Henry J., philologist aid ethnologist •
Er. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer . • •
Ger. Klopstock, the 'Milton of Germany' • •
Ger. Knapp, Geo., Christ, theologian . • •
Amer. , Samuel L., miscellaneous writer • •
Eng. Knight, Charles, publisher, editor, and author , •
Eng. , Richard Payne, miscellaneous writer , •
Irish. Kuowles, Jas. Sheridan, dramatic author and actor .
Eng. Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, divine and miscellaneous author
Amer , Henry, military officer and statesman , •
Ger. Knyphausen, baron, general in British service •
Ger. Koch, Christopher William, historian . • •
Fr. Kocic, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist
Ger. Kohl, Johann George, traveller and author . ,
Dan. Koppen, Adolph Louis, historical writer and lecturer
Ger. Korner, or Koerner, Charles T., poet
Pol. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, warrior and patriot, served in the Ameri
can army during the Revolution . . .
Hung. Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), late governor of Hungary .
Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick Fer. von, historian, &c. .
Hung. Kraitsir, Charles, philologist , , ,
Pol. Krasinski, Valerian, count, author . , ,
Ger. Krummacher, Fred. Adolph., poet and theologian •
Ger. ■ , Fred. William, religious writer . .
Russ. Krusenstern, Adam Jean, navigator . , .
Ger, Kugler, Franz Theodore, writer on art, &o. • •
Ger. Kuhnoel, Christ. F., critic . . , •
Ger. Kunth, Charles S., botanist . . • •
RusB. Kutusofl, Michael L. G., field-marshal . ,
Fr. Labat, Jean B., missionary and historian ,
Ital. Lablache, Luigi, renowned vocalist . , •
Eng. Labouchere, Henry, Baron Taunton, statesman .
Fr. Laborde, A L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. . ,
Fr. Labruydre, see Bruyire ....
Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. Delaville, count de, naturalist ,
Fr. Lacordaire, Jean B. H., Catholic theologian and author
Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and litterateur
Fr. Lacroix, Sylvestre P., mathematician
Lactantiua, a father of the Church styled the Christian Cicero
Rom. Laelius, Caius, publicist, tribune, prsetor and consul
Fr. Laennel, an eminent physician ....
Fr. Lafarge, Marie C, notorious as a poisoner
Fi'. La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c., military commander and
man ......
Yt. ^ , George W., statesman .
Fr. Lafitte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman ,
Fr. 1 Jean, corsair, privateer, or pirate .
BOEN.
VIS»
1827
• 1804
1864
1820
, 1784
1835
1754
1800
1724
1803
1753
1825
. 1784
1838
1791
. 1750
1824
1784
1862
1752
1821
1750
1806
1730
1789
1737
181?
. 1794
1808
1804
. 1791
1813
1746
1817
1802
1761
1819
1804
1860
1780
1855
1768
1845
. 1770
1846
1808
1858
1768
1841
1788
1745
1813
1663
1738
1794
1858
1798
1774
1842
1756
1825
. 1802
1766
1817
1765
1833
325
B. C. 186 B.
c. 115
1782
1826
. 1816
1852
1757
1834
1768 1844
1780 P 182i
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
51
NAME AND PBOFESSION.
La Fontaine, Aug. J. H., author of 20O volumes miscellaneous
Lafontaine, Jean de, an inimitable fabulist • «
Lagrange, Joseph Louis, able mathematician . ,
La Gueronniere, Louis E. A., viscount de, publicist •
Laharpe, John Francis de, dramatist, critic, &o. ,
Laing, Malcolm, historian . . , »
Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer . •
Lamar, Mirabeau B., second president of the republic of Texas
Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist
Lamarque, Maxim., general of the revolution of 1789
Lamartine, Alphonse de, poet, historian, traveller, and states-
man .....
Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist . . .
, Lady Caroline, novelist . . ,
Lamballe, Marie, princess of, victim of the revolution
Lambert, A. B., botanist ....
, Daniel, noted for corpulencj', 789 pounds ,
Lammenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer
Lamoriciere, Christ. L. J. de, general
Lamotte Fouqu6, Fred., baron de, novelist * Undine*
Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of education .
Lander, Fred. "W., military officer (k. at Ball's Bluff) •
-, Richard and John, travellers in Africa
Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts •
, (Maclean), Letitia E., poet and novelist ,
Landor, "Walter Savage, poet and essayist . ,
Landseer, John, engraver and author . , ,
Lane, Edw. "Wm., orientalist, author of ' Modern Egyptians,' &c.
, James, general, U. S. senator for Oregon .
Lange, commentator on scripture . , «
Langdon, gov. New Hampshire, U. S. senator •
Langfranc, learned archbishop of Canterbury . .
Langhorne, John, miscellaneous author
Langton, Stephen, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury
Laines, Jean, duke of Montebello, marshal of France
Lanedowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, president of Council
, William Petty, marquis of, premier
Lanzi, Luigi, writer on art
La Perouse, Jean F., count, navigator
Laplace, Peter Simon, marquis of, eminent astronomer and geo
metrician ....
Lappenberg, Johann M., historian
Lardner, Dionysius, writer on physical science
. , Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine ,
Larrey, Dominique J., baron, surgeon and author
La Salle, Robt. C, eieur de, navigator and author .
Las Casas, Barth de, missionary and liistorian .
, biographer of Napoleon, &c.
Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian
Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer
Latham, John, ornithologist .
— , Eobert G., philologist and ethnologist ,
BOBK.
1756
1621
1736
1816
1739
1762
1732
1798
1732
1770
1802
1776
1785
1748
1761
1770
1782
1806
1777
1771
1822
1802
1775
1769
1801
1739
1605
1736
1769
1780
1737
1732
1741
1749
1794
1793
1684
1760
1635
1474
1762
1800
1470
1740
1812
DIED.
1831
169S
1813
1793
1818
1807
1859
1807
1832
1834
1828
1792
1842
1809
1854
1866
1843
1839
1862
1834
1826
1839
1864
1852
1867
1819
1689
17-
1228
1809
1863
1805
1810
1789
1827
1859
17G8
1842
16S7
1566
1843
1565
1857
52
THE WORLD'S PEOGUESS.
NATIOir,
Eng.
Scot.
Amer.
Amer.
Ft.
Fr.
Fr.
Scot.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer,
Eng.
Amer.
Fr.
Swiss.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Fr.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer.
Fr.
Am.er.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng
Scotch.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Irish.
Pol.
Ft.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
NAME AND PKOFESSION. BOKK.
Laud, "William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition . 1573
Lauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History • 1784
Laurens, John, lieutenant colonel in Revolutionary war • 1756
■ , Henry, patriot and statesman . « • 1724
Lavalette, M. C, count de, militaiy commander . • 1769
La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV • 1644
Lavater, John Caspai-, celebrated physiognomist • • 1741
Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist » , 1743
Law, John, financier of the 'Mississippi Bubble* • • 1671
, "Wm., religious and mystical author .
Lawrence, Abbott, merchant and diplomatist . , , 1792
, Amos, merchant and philanthropist • • 1786
-, James, captain in U. S. Navy ... 1781
Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh . 1817
Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher . . . t 1792
Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist . , 1777
Lear, Tobias, secretary to "Washington, diplomatist . • 1760
Lebrun, Pontius D, E., poet . . , , 1729
Leclcrc, John, eminent critic . • • • • 1657
Le Conte, John, naturalist .... 1784
, John L, M. D., naturalist, (son of preceding) , 1825
, John, M- D., natui-alist, (Georgia) , . 1818
Ledru-Rollin, Alex A., jurist and politician .
Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman
Lee, Arthur, M.D., statesman . ,
, Charles, officer in the Revolution , •
, Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . • . (abt
, Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence .
, Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist .
, Henry, general in Revolutionary "War ,
, Robert E., conomander in chief of rebel armies
, Richard Henry, pres. of Congress . •
, Samuel, D. D., oriental scholar . ,
, Sophia, Miss, novelist . . •
Leech, John, humorous artist in Punch, &c. . . .
Lefebvre, Franjois Joseph, duke of Dantzick, marshal of France
Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman and liileratmr .
Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician
Leggett, "William, political and miscellaneous writer
Leibnitz, Godfrey "William, able and learned philosopher
Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth
Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . ,
Leighton, Robert, able prelate
Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer .
Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist ,
, John, eminent divine and author ,
, Thomas, eminent divine and author .
Lelewel, Joachim, historian
Lemaitre, Fred., actor . . ,
Lemon, Mark, humorist, editor of ' Punch '
Lempriere, John, biographer and lexicographer
L'Enclos, Ninon de, noted courtezan
1751
1740
1730 (7)
,) 1890
1734
1750
1756
1808
1732
1783
1750
1817
1755
1797
1753
1802
1646
1532
1752
1613
1824
1691
1772
1786
1798
1809
1824
1615
NATION
Dutch.
Dutch.
Eng.
Fr.
ItaL
Ger.
Gr.
Ger.
Ger.
Ger.
Ger.
Rom.
Ger.
Russ.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Scot.
Scot.
Fr.
Ger.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Irish.
Amer.
Fr.
Amer.
Scot.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Scot.
Fr.
Ger.
Amei
Ger.
Euse.
Eng.
Dutch
Ital.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Lennep. David J. van, jurist and poet , ,
, Jan van, poet and novelist . ,
Lennox, Charlotte, authoress, (born in N. T.) . ,
Lenormand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer
Leo, the name of twelve popes and six Byzantine emperors
Leo X, pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts
Leo, Henry, historian ....
Leonidas I., king of Sparta, the hero of Thermopylce , f.
Leopold I, king of the Belgians ,
I, emperor of Germany . , , ,
VI, " " . .
II, "'*....
Lepid us, noted Roman family . . , ]
Lepsius, Karl Rich., traveller and Egyptologist ,
Lermontoti, Michael, poet . . . .
Leroux, Pierre, philosopher and socialist .
Leroy de St. Arnaud, J. A., marshal of France, general in chief
Lesage, Alain Rene, novelist and dramatist, ' Gil Bias '
Leslie, Charles Robt., artist and author . . ,
, John, bishop, theological writer . ,
, John, mathematician and natural philosopher ,
Lesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist . . ,
Lessing, Gotthold E., critic and author ...
Lester, Charles E., miscellaneous author , ,
L'Estrange, Sir Roger, political writer ...
Leuret, Francis, anatomist ....
Le Vaillant, Franc, traveller and ornithologist ,
Lever Chas. Jas., novtlist . . , ,
Leverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and author , .
Leverrier, Urbain J. J., astronomer , . . '
Le Vert, Octavia W., authoress ....
Levizac, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher
Lewes, George Henry, miscellaneous autiior
Lewis, Francis, signer of the Declaration of Independence
, Major-Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c.
, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer. Monk Lewis
, Meriwether, soldier, explorer, and author .
, Samuel, educationist , . ,
, Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman ,
, Taylor, classical scholar and author . ,
Ley den, John, author • • . , ,
L'Hopital, Michel de, chancellor of France
Lichtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher
Lieber, Francis, publicist, political philosopher (born in Berlin)
Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist
Li even, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist . ,
Lightfoot, John, learned divine and author . ,
Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer and author ,
Liguori, Alfons M. de, saint and theological writer ,
Lilly, George, dramatist .....
, John, the Euphuist dramatic writer , ,
■ , William, astrologer • • . .
6?
BORN.
DIKD,
1774
1802
1710
1804
1772
lb43
s. 1475
1521
1799
B. c. 491
1790
186-
1640
1705
. 1747
It 92
1797
B. c. 200
86
1811
1811
1841
f798
ISOl
1854
1668
1717
1794
1859
1570
1071
1766
1832
. 1805
1729
1781
1815
1616
1704
1797
18ol
1753
1824
1806
1803
1836
1811
1820
1813
1817
. 1713
1803
1754
1832
1773
1818
1774
. 1799
1854
1806
. 1802
1775
1811
. 1504
1573
1742
1790
1800
1803
1784
1857
1735
1814
1735
1814
1696
1787
1693
1789
.• 1553
1600
1602
1681
54
THE WOELD'S PEOGIJESS.
HATION. NAME AND PKOFESSION. BORM.
Dutch. Limborcb, Philip, tlieologian and author . , • 1633
Amer. Liucoln, Abraham, statesman, 16tli president of the U. S. . 1809
Amer. , Benjamin, major-general iu the Revolutionary War , 1733
Amer. , Levi, attorney -geuerai ot the U. 3. (from Mass.) • 1749
Amer. , Levi, governor oi Massauliusetts . , , 1782
Swe. Lind, (Goidschmidt) Jenny, vocalist . . , 1821
Eng. Lindley, John, botanist ..... 1799
Eng. Lindsay, Alexander W. Crawford, lord, author of Travels, &a 1812
Scot, , Sir David, poet .... (abt) 1490
Swe. Ling, Peter E., physiologist and poet , . , 1776
Eng. Li ngurd, John, author of ' History of England' , . 1771
Fr. Linguet Simon N. H., political writer and historian , , 1736
Swe. Linnasus, Charles von, the most celebrated of naturalists , 1707
Lipsius, Justus, critic . ... . • 1547
Eng. Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon 1801
Eng. Listen, John, comic actor . .... 1776
Hung. Liszt, Francis, performer on piano . . , 1811
Eng. Littleton, Sir Thomas, jurist . • . ,
Ger. Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy 1781
Amec Livermore, Abiel A., clergyman, journalist and author . 1811
Eng. Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkiuson, earl of, premier • 1770
Amer. Livingston, Erockholst, soldier and jurist . ., , 1757
Amer. , Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman . 1764
Amer. , Philip, signer of the Declaration of Independence • 1716
Amer. , Robert R., statesman and jurist . . 1747
Amer. , William, governor of New Jersey and poet • 1723
Scot. Livingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa • 1815
Rom. Livius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated liistorian . , . B. c. 59
Span. Llorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &c. , • 1756
Eng. Lloyd, Henry, soldier and author . ' . , . 1729
Fr. Lobau, count, marshal of France . . . 1770
Eng. Locke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician . . 1632
Scot. Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist, editor of Quarterly' . 1794
Eng. Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, ' Portraits' . . 1756
Ind. Logan, English name of a famous Indian chief
Amer. , James, colonial statesman and author . . . 1674
Amer. , John A, major-general in Sherman's campaign, M. C.
Eng. Lofft, Capel, author ...... 1751
Irish, Lola-Montez. Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer . 1824
LoUard, "Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne . •
Russ. Lomonozoff, Michael V., poet and historian . . 1711
Irish. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman . • 1769
Amer. Long, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author . 1784
Amer. Longfellow, Henry W., poet and noveUst . , . 1807
Or. Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, critic and philosopher « f. B. c. 250
Eng. Longman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house . . 1699
Amer.. Longstreet, Aug. B., jurist and author . . . 1790
Amer. , James, rebel general . . • .
Fr. Longueville, Anne G., duchess, politician . . • 1619
Amer. Longworth, Nicholas, extensive wine manufacturer . • 1782
Amer. LoDmis, Elias, physicist, astronomer . . , 1811
Span. Lope de Vega, Carpio Felix, poet and dramatist . . 1662
BIOGRAPHICAL IKDEX.
55
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOEN. DIED.
Fr. LoiTaine, Charles de, cardinal and politician • • 1524 1574
Amer. Lossing, Benson J., historian and artist . • . 1813
Scot. Loudon, J. C, voluminous -writer on horticulture, agriculture,
and architecture ..... 1783 1813
Enj?. , Mrs. Jane "W., horticultural writer . , . 1800 1858
Frenc^.TiOUIS, the name of eighteen kings of France . •
Louis I., the Dehonnaire ..... 778 840
« IX., Saint ..... 1215 1270
« XL, ethofhouseofValois .... 1423 1483
" XIL, 8th " « . . . . 1462 1515
»« XIIL, 2d Bourbon . , . . . 1601 1643
« XIV., 3d » . , . . . 1638 1715
« XV., 4th « ..... 1710 1774
« XVL , , . . . • 1754 1793
" XVIL ...... 1785 1795
" XVIIL ...... 1755 1824
Fr, Louis, baron, eminent surgeon .... . 1S37
Ep. Philippe, king of the French , , . 1773 1850
Fr. Napoleon. See Bonaparte.
Scot. Lovat, Simon Fraser, lord, executed for treason . . 1667 1747
Amer. Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist ... 1811 1864
Amer. , Itev. E. P., abolitionist journalist , • 1802 1837
Irish. Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer . . , 1797
Irish. Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon . ^ 1769 1844
Ame-r. Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author . • * 1782 1861
Amer. , James Russell, poet and critic ... 1819
Amer. , John, lawyer and philanthropist , • . 1769 1840
Amer. , John, jr., founder of Lowell Institute . , 1799 1836
Amer. , Mar}-, Mrs. Putnam, of Boston, learned writer . . 1810
Amer. Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union . 1722 1800
Amer. , "William J , statesman .... 1782 1861
Eng. , William Thomas, 'Biblio- Manual' . , . 1843
Eng. Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author . • 1710 178T
Span Loyola. Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesuits . . 1491 1556
Eng. Lucan, G-. C. Bingham, earl of, general in Crimea . . 1800
Bom. ^-, Marcus Annasus, Latin poet . ... 37
Gr. Lucian, celebrated writer .... 120 210
Rom. Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist . , . B. c. 148 b. o. 191
Ger. Lucke, Gott C. F,, theologian .... 1792 1855
Rom. Lucretius, Gains Titus, eminent poet . . B. c. 95
Rom. Lucullus, wealthy warrior . . , , B. c. 115 b. c. 49
Eng. Ludlow, Edmund, republican judge of Charles L • . 1620 1693
Span. Lully, Raimond, ' the enlightened doctor' , 1235 1315
Amer. Lundy, Benjamin, abolitionist .... 1789 1839
Amer. Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist . ,
Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Prptestant reformation , 1484 1546
Irish. Luttrell, Henry, poet ..... 1851
Fr. Luxemburg, duke of, military officer . • • . 1628 ' 1695
Gr. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator . a , B. O. 898
Eng. Lydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) • • . 1375 1461
Scot. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller . . 1797
Amor. Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of Independence • 1749 1778
56
THE WOELD'S PKOGRESS.
NATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Amer. Lynch, "William P., captain U. S. navy, author of • Dead Sea,
Eng. Lyndhurst, lord, statesman and jurist (born in Boston)
Amer. Lyon, Mary, teacher and philanthropist
Amer. , Matthew, politician .
Amer. , Nathaniel, Union general, fell at "Wilson's Creek
Gr. ■ Lysander, famous Spartan general . •
Gr. L\ sias, oi'ator . . . • •
Gr. Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals • •
Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, poet and historian •
BOBN.
DIES.
I,' &c.
1805
,
1772
,
1797
1849
,
1746
1822
,
1819
1861
,
B.
0.395
B.
C. 459
B.
c. 360
B.
0.281
•
1709
1763
M.
Fr. Mabillon, Jean, ecclesiastical author . . • •
Scot. Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . .
Irish. Macartney, Geo., earl of, diplomatist ....
Eng. Macaulay, T., Babington, essayist, I'istorian, critic and statesman
Eng. Macaulay, Zachary, anti-slavery t-tatesman ,
Eng. Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer • .
Scot. Macbeth, chieftain of the 11th century . • •
Irish. MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator . , .
Irish. MacClure, Sir R. J., discoverer of JCTurthTwest passage •
Amer. Macconnell, John L., novelist ....
Amer. Maccorst, David J,, political writer , . •
Scot. Maccosh, James, clergyman and author . ...
Scot. Macculloch, J. E,., political economist and statistician .
Amer. McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies . ,
Amer. McCook, father and three sons froru Ohio, generals in Union Army
Eng. McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. ...
Scot. Macdiarmid, John, author . . • • •
Scot. Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine . • •
Fr. Macdonald, S. T. A., marshal of France . . .
Amer. Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U. S. Navy, victor on Lake
Champlain .....
Amer. McDowell, Irwin, commander Union Army . . ,
Amer. Macduffie, Geo., U. S. senator from South Carolina . .
Scot. Macgillivray. "Wm., naturalist ....
Scot. Macgregor, John, statistical and political author . •
Ital. Machiavel. ]N"icholas, celebrat-ed writer on politics , •
Scot. Mackay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer . .
Amer. Mackean, Thos., jurist, statesman, signer of Dec. of Ind.
Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels .
Scot. Mackenzie, Henry, the Addison of the North .
Irish. Mackenzie, Robt. S., journalist, &c. ...
Amer. Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist . . , (abt.)
Scot. Mackintosh, Sir James, celebrated literary character . .
Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist . . ,
Scot. Macknight, James, divine and author ....
Aust. Mack von Liebenich, Karl, baron, general , .
Amer. MacLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist ...
Scot. Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician ....
Amer. Maclean, John, statesman, judge of U. S. Supreme Court
Eng. MacLean, L. E. L., (Miss Landon), poet and novelist •
1632
1707
1756
1836
1737
1806
1800
1859
1768
1838
1733
1791
1819
1807
1826
1797
1855
1810
1789
1864
1826
1773
1835
1779
1808
1720
1790
1765
1840
1783
1825
1818
1788
1851
1796
1852
1797
1857
1469
1527
1812
1734
1817
1803
1849
1745
1831
1S09
ISIO
1766
. 1832
1690
1796
1721
1800
1752
1828
1786
1857
1698
174f
1785
1804
183S
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
57
HATION. NAME AND PEOFESSION.
Irish. Ma^ase, Daniel, historical painter . . • ,
Amer. Macleod, Alex., clergyman and author . • ,
Amer. Macleod, Xavier Donald, miscellaneous writer . , ,
Scot. Maclure, William, geologist, «fec . . , ,
Fr. MacMnhon, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, marshal ,
Scot. MacNab, Sir Allan, Canadian Statesman .
Irish. MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died at N. T.)
Amer. Macomb, Major-General Aiex., military commander
Amer. Macon, Nathaniel, member of Congress for N. Carolina 37 years
Scot. Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer .
Amer. Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion . ,
Eng. Macready, "Wm. Chas., tragedian ....
Scot. Macrie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and author, biographer of Knox 1772
Eng. Madden, Sir Fred., antiquarian author
Ger. Maddlcr, Johann Henry, astronomer . . , ,
Amer. Madison, James, 4th president of United States . •
"Welsh. Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America . .
Span. Madoz, Pascuale, statesman, and author .
Rom. Maecenas, Caius C, minister of Augustus and patron of literature
Ital. Miift'ei, Franc S., marquis, author of 21 vols. . ,
Amer. Matfitt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher . •
Irish. Magee,Wm., arcnbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) , ,
Fort. Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator , ,
Fr. Magendie, Francis, physiologist ....
Irish. Maginn, "William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic
Fr. Magn an, Bernard Pierre, marshal of France
Amer. Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author
Sar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which bears his
name ......
Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish Sultan, conqueror of Constantinople
Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, historian ....
Jew. Maimonides, Moses, celebrated rabbi ...
Fr. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubigne, queen
Ital. Maio, Angelo. discoverer and editor of Latin classics ,
Ital. Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author . • •
Eng. Maittnire, Michael, bibliographer, «&c. . . •
Heb. Malachi, the prophet .....
Swiss. Mai an, Caesar H. A., theologian and author
Amer. Malcom, Howard, clergyman and author . . .
Scot. Malcolm, Sir John, ' History of Persia and India' .
Fr. Malebranche, Nicholas, metaphysician , . .
Fr. Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) .
ItaL Malibran, M. F., Madame, vocalist ....
Fr. Malherbe, Franc de, poet ....
Scot. Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer ....
Swiss. Mallet, Paul Henri, historian ....
Eng. Malmesbury,. Jas. Harris, earl of, diplomatist . •
Eng. , Jas. H. H., (son of above), statesman . •
Eng. J William of, historian ....
Eng. Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . • •
ItaL Malphighi, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist • •
Eng. Mallby, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist • .
B9RN.
DIED.
1811
1774
183JI
1S21
1763
1840
1807
3 798
1763
1841
1782
1841
1757
1837
1738
1793
18-23
1864
1793
:: 1772
1835
1801
1794
1751
1836
12th cent.
1806
B.C. 9
1675
1755
1794
1S50
1765
1831
1521
1783
1855
1793
1842
1791
1864
1810
569
632
1430
1480
1610
1686
1131
1204
1635
1719
1753
1821
1668
1747
B. c.
5th cent.
1787
1SC4
1799
1769
1833
1638
1715
1721
1794
1808
1836
1555
1628
1702
- 1765
1730
1807
1746
1820
1807
1143
1741
1812
1628
1694
1770
1859
58
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATIOK.
Ger.
Ger.
Eng.
Ital.
Eng.
Pers.
Ital.
Ital.
Amer.
Eng.
Erg.
Ger.
Amer.
Scot.
Eng.
Ital.
Ital.
Ital.
Ital.
Fr.
Rom.
Ital.
Amer.
Pers.
Ft.
Fr.
Ger.
Dan.
Fr.
Aust.
Span.
ItaL
Span.
Ger.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ital.
Amer.
Rom.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
KAME AND PROFESSION.
Malte Brun, Conrad, poet and geographer •
, M., geographer . . ,
Malthus, T. R., political economist . •
Mamiani, Tercnze, count, statesman and author ,
Mandeville, Sir John, traveller and author
Manes, or Munichseus, founder of the Manichaean Beet
Manfred, prince of Tarentuin, king of Two Sicilies
Manin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . ,
Mann, Horace, statesman and educationist .
Manning, Henry E., clergyman and author
Mansel, Henry L., metaphysician and theologian ,
Mansfeld, Ernest of, warrior .
Mansfield, Jos. K., Union general . . ,
, "Wm. Murray, Earl of, jurist and statesman
Mantell, G. A., geologist
Manutius Aldus, celebrated printer and author
, the Younger, printer and author ,
Paulns, (son of Manutius), printer
• l-jTS
• 1766
1799
1300
239
(abt.) 1231
1804
1793
1812
1815
1585
1803
1705
1790
1447
1547
1512
1784
1754
B. c. 237
1256
1786
1492
1 'J9
Manzoni, author of T. Promessi Sposi . ,
Marat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist •
Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, general • ,
Marco Polo, Venetian traveller , •
Marcy, "Wm, Learned, statesman . • •
Mardonius, Persian general in Greece •
Margaret of Angouleme, queen of Navarre .
Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England
Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480
Margaret, queen of Denmart, &c., ' Semiramis of the North ' . 1353
Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1552
Maria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 1787
Maria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (horn at Naples) . 1806
Maria de Medici, queen of Henry IV, pf France . . 1574
Mariana, John, celebrated historian . . ^ • 1537
Maria Theresa, empress of Germany . . , 1717
Marie- Amelie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) • , 1782
Marie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louie XVI) . . 1755
Mariette, Aug. E., Egyptologist and explorer . , , 1821
Mario, Giuseppe, marquis of Candia, vocalist . . 1810
Marion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution
Marius, Caius, famous general and demagogue . , b. c. 153
Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior . . 1650
Marmont, A. F. V., duke of Ragusa, marshal of France and
traveller ...... 1773
Marmontel, John Francis, celebrated writer . • , 1723
Marlowe, Christ, or Kit, dramatic poet . • • 1564
Mapes, James J., agriculturist ....
Marquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi • 1637
Marrast, Armand, journalist and politician . ■ • . 1800
Mars, Mademoiselle, actress . . • • 1778
Marsden, oriental traveller and historian . , , 1755
Marsh, Anne, novelist ..... (abt.) 1800
Marsh, Geo. Perkins, philologist and diplomatist . . 1801
DIED.
1828
183-
1372
21
1857
1859
1629
18G2
1793
185-
1517
1597
1574
1793
, c. 208
1323
1857
c. 479
1549
1481
1530
1412
1612
1847
1642
1624
1780
1793
1795
C. 86
1722
1852
1799
1593
1865
1675
1852
1847
163€
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
51^
ITIOH.
ng.
mer.
mer.
Qg.
tig.
om.
ng.
rus.
Jan.
er.
ng.
aL
ng.
ng.
"g.
iOt.
ng.
ng.
ng.
mer.
mer.
mer.
ng.
.mer.
mer.
mer.
.mer.
,ng.
id.
r.
Ing.
r.
cot.
;ng.
Lmer.
.mer.
rish.
Ing.
Ing.
Ing.
Lmer.
•r.
rish.
;i>g.
■r.
[ol.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Marsh, Herbert, "bishop of Peterboiough, theological writer
Marsh, James, metaphj-eician
Marshall, John, chief-justice of U. S,, biographer .
Marshman, Joshua, missionary in India, and author
Marston, John, poet and dramatist . , ,
Martial, Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist • .
Martin, Benj., optician and autbor • •
Martin, Bon Louis Henry, historian . , .
Martin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian •
Martineau, Harriet, miscellaneous authoress .
, James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author
Martos, Ivan P., sculptor . . .
Martinez de la Rosa, don Pranc, statesman and litterateur
Martius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller
Martyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia •
Martyr, Justin, Christian apologist • •
, Peter, reformer and theologian , •
Marvell, Andrew, autbor and statesman . ,
Mary I., first queen regnant of England . .
, II., queen regnant with Wm. of Orange .
Stuart, queen of Scots . . , ,
Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller , •
Maseres, Francis, 'baron,' mathematician . ,
Maskeleyne, Nevil, astronomer . . ,
Mason, George, statesman ...»
, Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman
, John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial forces .
y John, divine and author . . ,
, John M., eminent divine . . ,
, John, M., senator from Viiginia, rebel
, John Y., statesman and minister to France ,
—, Lowell, musical teacher and composer .
, William, divine and poet . . ,
Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags
Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals
Massey, Gerald, poet ....
Massillon, John Baptist, eloquent divine . .
Massinissa, king of Numidia . . , . (al
Masson, David, biographer and essayist . •
Maunder, Samuel 'Treasury of Knowledge' . ,
Mather, Cotton, divine and author . .
, Increase, clergyman and author . ,
Mathew, Theobald, ' Apostle of Temperance '
Mathias, Thomas, author of ' Pursuits of Literature' .
Matthew of Westminster, historian
Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist . ,
' Matthias ' (Robert Matthews), religious impostor •
Matter, Jacques, philosopher and historian . ,
Maturin, Charles Robert, divine, dramatist and poet
Mnundrell, Rev. Henry, traveller in the East . ,
Maupertuis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer.
Maurice, Count of Nassau, and Prince of Orange, stadtholder
BORN.
IM.HD.
1758
1839
1794
184T
1755
1835
1767
1837
(abt.) 1570
1634
40
100
1704
1782
, 1704
1782
1810
1764
1846
1800
1753
1835
. 1786
. 1781
1812
103?
1671
. 1500
1561
1621
1678
. 1515
1558
1662
1694
1542
1587
1792
1848
. 1731
1824
1732
1811
1726
1792
1768
1648
1600
1672
1706
1763
17T0
1829
1795
1859
1792
1725
1797
1661
1758
18ir
. 1828
1663
1742
)B. c. 240 B.
0. 148
1823
1790
1849
1663
1728
1639
1723
1790
1856
. 1750
1835
13th cent.
17T6
1835
(abf; 1790
183-
1791
1782
1825
1650?
1710
1698
1759
P . 1567
1625
60
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
VATIOV. KAME AND PROFESSION.
Eng. Maurice, Jno. Fred. D., clergyman and author ,
Eng. , Thos. Rev., history of Hindostan, &c. •
Mauricius, Flavius Tib., Byzantine emperor
Amer. Maury, Mattliew P., naval officer, astronomer, rebel, &o.
Fr. , John Sitt'rein, cardinal and statesman
Eng. Mavor, Rev. Wm., writer and compiler, voyages, &c. .
Ger. Mavrocordato, statesman . . ,
Eng. Mawe, Joseph, mineralogist and concholbgist . ,
Ger. Maximilian I., emperor of Germany . ,
Ger. , prince, emperor of Mexico , ,
Rom. Maximinus, Cains J. V., emperor of Rome ,
Eng. Maxwell, Wm. R., 'Life of Wt^Uington,' &c. .
Amer. Mayer, Brantz, lawyer and historical writer ,
Ger, Mayer, Johann T., astronomer
Eng, Mayhew, Henry, Edward, Thomas, and Horace, brothers,
morous and miscellaneous writers
Amer, • , Jonathan, clergyman and author , ,
Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, able statesman , ,
Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks . ,
Ital. Mazzini, Giu.~eppe, democratic politician (Genoa) .
Amer. Meade, Geo. G., commander army of Potomac
Amer. , Wm., episcopal bishop of Virginia and author
I.Amer.Meagher, Thos. F., gen. in Union armies, gov. Idaho
Eng. Medhurst, "Walter H., oriental scholar and missionary
Ital,
Ital.
ItaL
Ital.
Itah
Turk.
Ger.
Ger.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Scot.
Gr.
Ger.
Ger.
Port.
Span.
Ger.
Ger.
Russ.
Buss.
Ger.
Ger.
Medici, Hippolytus, cardinal .
, Cosmo de, the Great, first Gd Duke Tuscany
,' pater patriae,' Florence
, Lorenzo de, poet, gov of Florence, and patron of arts
, Pietro, successor of Cosmo, patron of arts
Mehemet-Ali, pasha of Egypt . , ,
Meiners, Christopher, historian . . ,
Melanchthon, Philip, celebrated reformer .
Melbourne, Wm. Lamb, Viscount de, statesman , ,
Mellen, Grenville, poet ....
Melmoth, "Wm.
■Letters,' translation of Cicero, &c.
Religious Life ' .
Melville, Andrew, religious reformer . , ,
, Herman, author of travels, romances ,
. , Sir Jas., soldier, statesman, and author ,
Menander, comic poet ....
Mendelssohn, Bartholdy Felix, musical composer
. , Moses, Jewish scholar and philosopher
Mendez-Pinto, Fernam, adventurer, unjustly famed for lying
Mendoza, Diego H. de, scholar, author, and statesman
Mengs, Anton Rafael, painter and writer on art
Meninski, Francis M., learned orientalist .
Mentchikoff, Alex., prince, statesman , ,
, Alex., S., admiral . ...
Menno-Simonis, reformer, founder of 'Mennonites'
Menzel, Wolfgang, critic and historian
Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, geographer
Amer. Mercer, Hugh, general in the Revolutionary war
(shot)
hu-
(abt)
BOKN.
1805
1755
539
1806
1746
1758
1790
1755
1459
1834
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
61
KAME AND PKOFESSIOyo
Meigs, Return J., revol. officer
Meriam, Eben, statistician and meteorologist
Merimee, Prosper, novelist . .
Merivale, Clinrles, historian • •
, John Hei-man, poet
Merle d'Aubigne, J. H., T>. D., historian
Merovaeus, founder Merovingian dynasty
Mery, Joseph, poet and novelist
Mesmer, Fred. A., founder of ' Mesmerism '
Metastasio, Peter B., celebrated poet
Metcalfe, Charles T., baron, gov. in India and Canada
Metellus, the name of several famous plebeians
Metternich, Prince, statesman, and diplomatist
Meursius, John, erudite critic . . ,
Meyerbeer, musical composer
Mcyrick, Sir Saml. R., antiquarian author
Mezerai, Francis de, historian
Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist .
Miaulis, naval commander . .
Micah, the Prophet . • ,
Micari, Guiseppe, historian . •
Michaelis, John David, learned orientalist and critic
Michaud, Joseph, historian
Michaux, Andre, botanist, (' Sylva Americana ')
Michel, Francisque, archaeologist
Michelet, Jules, historian
Michelet, Karl Ludwig, philosophical writer
Micliiewicz. Adam, poet . . . . •
Mlckle, William J. poet, translator of ' Lusiad,' &c. »
Middleton, Conyers, divine and elegant writer . ,
, Arthur, patriot and statesman . , ,
, Thomas, dramatist . , . ,
Mifdin, Thomas, general in Revolutionary war . ,
Mignet, P. A., historian .....
Miguel Don, rival of Don Carlos to the throne of Portugal
Milburn, "William Henry, 'blind preacher' and author
Mill, James, historian of British India and political economist
, John Stuart, political philosopher . ,
Millais, John Everett, ' pre-Raphaelite' painter
Miller, James, general at Chippewa, &c., (' I'll try, sir')
, Joseph, comic actor, putative parent of jests
, Hugh, geologist .....
, William, founder of the ' Millerites,' or Sfcond adventists
Milleroye, Charles Hubert, poet
Millin, Aubin Louis, naturalist, &c
Millman, Henry Hart, Rev., poet and historian
Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian
Mills, Charles, historian
Milne-Edward, Henri, naturalist
Milnes, Richard Monckton, poet and statesman
Milner, Joseph, author of ' Church History '
Milnor, James, D. D., episcopal clergyman
BORN.
1740
1794
1800
1779
1794
411
1798
1734
169S
1785
!. 250
1773
1579
1791
1783
1610
1774
1772
f. B
1717
1767
1746
1809
1798
1801
1798
1734
1683
1743
1744
1793
1802
1823
1775
1806
1829
1776
1684
1802
1781
1782
1759
1791
1726
1788
1800
1809
1744
1773
•niEP.
1823
1864
1841
457
1815
1782
1846
69
1859
16S9
1848
1682
1849
1885
C. 750
1839
1791
1802
1855
1788
1750
1787
1627
1800
1836
1851
1738
1856
1849
1816
1785
1826
M^1
1814
62
THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS,
KATlOy.
Gr.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer.
Rom.
Mex.
Span.
Fr.
Er.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eug.
Eng.
Ger.
Ger.
Turk.
Bar.
Ger.
Ger.
Scot
Fr.
Hoi.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Span.
Scot.
Eng.
Eng.
Swiss
Swiss.
Amer.
Ger.
Fr.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ger.
Fr.
It.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Miltiades, illustrious Atlieniau general ,
Milton, John, the Homer of Britain . ,
Mini6, Claude E., inventor of the Minie rifle-bullot
Minot, George R., historian . . . .
Minutius-Felix, Marcus, christian writer
Miramo.i, Miguel, military leader . . ,
Miranda, Francis, revolutionary general
1810
. 1758
Sd cent,
(abt.) 1830
1760
DIES.
0. 483
1674
1802
1867
1816
Mirabeau, H. G. Riquetti, count de, celebrated character in the
Revolution and author .....
Mirbel, Charles F. B. de, naturalist . . ,
Mitchel, Ormsby M., astronomer aud patriotic general .
Mitchell, Donald G., essayist ....
, Maria, astrouv mer . . . . «
, Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist
, Thomas, classical scliolar and critic . .
Mitford, Mary "Russell, novelist and essayist • ,
, Rev. John, editor of poets, . • • .
, WUliam, historian and pliilologist • ,
Mithridates, king of Pontus, warrior . • • •
Mitscherlich, E., chemist . . . • •
Mittermaier, KarlJ. A., jurist and statesman
Mohammed-Ali, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet)
Ben Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites
Mohler, Johann Adam R., catholic theologian , .
Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist ....
Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer , .
Molle, M. L., comte, statesman . . • .
Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and naturalist , •
Molesworth, Bir William, statesman a\,d author .
Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian
Moliere, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist
Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author
Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist . , •
Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman , ,
Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military officer ,
Moiiod, Adolphe, * reformed pastor ' and author . .
, Dr. Frederick, ' reformed pastor' at Paris . ,
Monroe, James, statesman, 5th president United States
Mouse, Gaspar, eminent geometrician ,
Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, chronicler ...
Montagu, Basil, lawyer and author . , .
, Elizabeth, author of ' dialogues,' «fec. ,
, Lady Mary Wortley, elegant writer . ,
Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, statesman and poet .
Montaigne, Michel de, eminent essayist
Montalembert, Charles F., count, statesman and author
Montcalm, Louis, marquis de, general in Canada .
Montebello, John Lannes, duke of, marshal . . •
Montecuculi, Raimond, warrior ....
Montespan, Franc, marquise de, mistress Louis XIV. •
Montesqieu, Charles baron de, able writer . ,
Montez, Lola, female adventurer . • •
1749
1776
1810
1822
1818
1763
1783
1786
1781
1734
0 128
1794
1787
1769
f. 1650
1796
1774
1798
1781
1822
1810
1754
1622
1585
1714
1608
1802
1794
1759
1746
1.390
1770
1720
1690
16G1
15-J3
1810
1712
1769
1609
1641
1689
1824
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
FATIOK.
d'ex.
dex.
rr.
ing.
kmer.
tal.
rr.
Scot.
^mer.
^.mer.
^mer.
^mer.
Icot.
icot.
tal.
23g.
Sng.
?/.
Lmer.
^mer.
Lmer.
5ng.
5ng.
^ng.
Sng.
fr.
k-iner.
Cng.
^mer.
Lmer.
^mer.
Lmer.
Sng.
Cng.
Liner.
Lmer.
^mer.
loot.
Lmer.
i.raer.
Lmer.
ieb.
}er.
?cot.
Lmer.
\.mer.
^.raer.
NAME AND PBOFESSION.
Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexican sovereigns ,
II, last Atzec emperor . . •
Montfaucon, Bern, de, arcli aeologist and author .
Moutgomery, James, poet . . . ,
, Richard, intrepid military ofB.cer
, Robert, poet ....
Montholon, comte, secretary and biographer of Napoleon
Montmorenci, Anne de, constable of France .
Monte, Vincent, poet ....
Montmorency, noble family of France . , •
Montpensir, Madame, author of Memoirs &c
Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader .
Moore, Geo. H., author ....
, Frank H , author . . • •
, Clement C, writer of verses, &c. . •
, Jacob B*ailey, journalist and author . ,
, John, miscellaneous author
, Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Corunna
Morata, Olympia, Prot. writer
More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . •
• , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher
Moreau, John Victor, celebrated genei'al . ,
Morfit, Campbell, chemist and authoa*
Morgan, Daniel, bri^. gen., iu revolutionary war .
, Jno. H'snry, rebel flUibuster general •
, Lady Charles, author of novels, travels &c. .
— , Sir Hem-y J., buccaneer
Morier, James, novelist, 'HajjiBaba' &c.
Moruington, G. Wellesley, earl of, musical composer
Morny, Chas. A. count of, minister of Napoleon III. ,
Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player
Morrell, Thos., lexicographer and classical writer .
Morris, Geo, P., poet and journalist
' , Gouverneur, distinguished statesman .
-, Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence
, Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financier
Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist
, Robert D. D., missionary and philologist
Morse, Jedediah, geographer and statistical writer
, Samuel F. B., artist and inventor of telegraph
, Sidney E., journalist and geogxapher
Mortier, marsbal of France, killed by Fieschi .
Morton, Jas. Douglas, earl of, regent
, John, signer of Declaration of Independence
, Samuel Geo., anatomist and ethnologist
•, Wm. T. G. dentist, discoverer of the use of ether (?)
Moses, lawgiver of the Jews
Mosheira, John Lawrence, ecclesiastical historian
Motherwell, William, poet
Motley, John Lothrop, historian
Molt, Lucretia, minister of ' Friends' and philanthropist
, Valentine, surgeon and author , .
BOEN.
PIED.
1471
1480
1520
, 1655
1741
1771
1854
1737
1775
1807
1855
1783
1853
1493
1567
1753
1828
10th to 19th century
1627
169.-?
1612
1651
1779
1863
1797
1853
1728
1802
1761
1809
1526
1555
. 1744
1833
1614
1687
1763
1813
1820
. 1736
1802
1780
1859
1637
1690
1780
1849
1720
1784
1811
1865
1837
1703
1784
1802
1864
1752
1816
1726
1798
icier 1703
1806
1782
1834
1782
1834
1761
1827
. 1791
1794
1768
1835
1530
1581
(Penn) 1724
1777
1799
1851
?) . 1819
. B. 0. 1571 B
C, 1451
1695
1755
1797
1835
1814
1793
1785
18«
64
THE WORLD'S PROGEESS.
KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Fr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant de la, founder of Detroit ,
Ger. Moschus, bucolic poet . . . , f. B,
Amer. Moullrie, Wm., general and stateeman , •
Mouradgea, D'Ohaeon, Armenian historian . •
Amer. Mowatt (Eitchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress • (e
Ger. Mozart, C. W. T., eminent composer
Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, &c,
Ger. Muller, C. O., historian, archaeologist classical scholar .
Swiss. Muller, John von, celebrated historian, ' Universal History ♦
Ger. , John, physiologist ....
Ger. Munchhausen, J. C. I"., proverbial for 'stories' •
Eng. Manden, Jos. S., comedian ....
Fr. Murat, Joachim, intrepid marshal and king of Naples ,
Ital. Muratori, Louis Anthony, historian . , ,
Irish. Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator
Scot. Murray, Ales., self-taught linguist . .
Scot. , Hugh, geographer (Eucycio)
Scot. , or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent ,
Eng. , John, the elder, eminent publisher
Amer. , Lindley, grammarian , •
Amer. , Wm., Vans, statesman . •
Gr. Musaeus, Athenian poet ...
Fr. Musset, Louis C. A. de, poet • •
BOBV.
DIED.
1660
1717
0. 160
. 1731
1805
1740
1807
bt) 1826
1756
1792
5. 1777
1842
1797
1840
1752
1809
1801
1858
1720
1797
1758
1832
1771
1815
. 1672
1750
1727
1805
. 1775
1813
1779
1846
1531
1570
1778
1843
. 1745
1826
1761
1803
0. .1243
1810
1857
N.
Assyr. Nabonassar, first king of the Chaldeans • •
Assyr. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon . . ,
Pers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Kahn, warrior and king .
Heb. Nahum, prophet . . . .
Irish. Napier, Chas- Jas., general in India, &c. . •
Scot. , John, baroii, inventor of logarithms •
Eng. , Sir Charles, admiral ....
Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte) . . .
Fr. , II., king of Rome, (see Bonaparte) . .
Fr. , III., (Louis Napoleon), emperor . ,
Eng. Nares, James, musical doctov, composer
Eng. , Rev. Edmund, ' Thinks I to myself
Pers. Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor
Span. Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valentia, statesman .
Eng. Nash, Richard, styled 'Beau Nash' . , .
Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general • .
Pers. Nassir Eddyn, celebrated astronomer . , .
Span. Navarrete, Martin F. de, ' Collect of Voyages'
Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of the ' History of the Puritans,' &o
Amer. , John, novelist . . . ,
Amer. , Joseph C, litterateur ....
Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian .
Gr. Neat chus, admiral and voyager ...
Chald. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon . . •
Fr. Necker, James, eminent linancier and statesman «
Swiss. ———, Madame J. C, wife of James, essayist •
fl. B. o. 747
fl. B. c. 626
1688
f. B. c.
1782
1550
1786
1769
1811
1808
1715
1762
1795
1674
1567
1201
17fi5
1678
1794
1807
1789
B. c.
1732
1739
1747
7tli cent.
18.53
1617
1860
1821
1832
1783
1841
567
1761
1625
1274
1844
1743
1848
1850
4th cent.
B. C. 462
1804
1794
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
65
{TATIOK
Eng.
Swiss.
Heb.
Eug.
Bom.
Rom.
Rom.
Russ.
Gr.
Ger.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Gr,
Russ.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Ger.
Eng.
Ger.
Ger.
Pol.
Eng.
Amer.
Swe.
Amer.
Ger.
Fr.
NAME AND PEOFESSION.
Feele, Henry, poet and miscellaneous writer . .
NefF, Felix, apostle of the Alps . . • • .
Nehemiah, governor of Judea . . • . :
Nelt?on, Horatio, viscount, celebrated admiral ,
Nepos, Cornelius, historian . . • •
Nero, infamous ernperor • . • .
Nerva, emperor .....
Nesselvode, Charles R., count, statesman and diplomatist .
Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, founder of Nestorians
Neukomm, Sigism. chevalier, composer
Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &a
Newton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer
, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers ,
, Thomas, learned prelate, (on Prophecies) .
Ney, Michael, marshal, ' the bravest of the brave * ,
Nicephorus, Greg., Byzantine historian . .
Nicholas I., emperor, (1825-55) . .
Nichols, John Bowycr, printer and archaeologist .
Nicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic
, William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry
Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer
Nicolai, Chris. Fred., bookseller and author . .
Nicolas, Sir Harris, antiquary . • ,
Niebhur, B. G., statesman and historian , .
, Carsten, celebrated traveller . .
Niemcewiez, Julius U., military commander and author
Nightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist . ,
Niles, Hezekiah, journalist 'Register' • .
Nilston, Sven, zoologist .....
Noah, Mordecai M., journalist, politician and author .
Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneoxis writer
Nodier, Charles, novelist ....
Ger. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author
Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman
North, Francis, 1st lord Gtulford, 'lord keeper'
, Frederick, lord, prime minister of George III. .
Northcote, James, artist and biographer . , «
Norton, Andrews theological. Unitarian author •
, Hon. Mrs., poetess ...»
E;)g.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Ger.
Eng.
Amer.
Irish.
Bom.
Span.
Eng.
Fr.
Nott, Abner Kingman, remarkable Baptist preacher .
, Eliphalet, D. D., president of Union College and author
, John, poet and translator
Novalis, or Fred, von Hardenberg, author • .
Novell o, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) .
Noyes, "Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot . . ,
Nugent, lord, author of ' Life of Hampden,' &c.
Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome . . f.
Nunez, AlvaC. de Vaca, explorer . . •
Oates, Titus, infemous pretender of the ' Popish plot'
Oberlin, John Fred., philanthropist
5
BORN.
DIED,
1798
1828
1798
1829
B. c. 444
1758
180a
B. C. 3C
37
68
32
98
1780
1862
439
1778
1857
c 1782
1725
1807
. 1642
1727
1704
1782
. 1769
1815
14th cent.
1796
1855
1807
1863
y 1753
1815
178-3
1842
, 173a
181 1
1799
1848
1776
1830
1733
1815
1756
1841
. 1777
1839
1787
1851
1770
1826
. 1783
1844
. 1797
1863
1637
1685
. 1732
1792
1746
1837
1790
1835
1834
1859
1773
1866
1751
1826
1772
1801
1781
1861
1805
1864
1850
B. 0. 714
1564
. 1619
1701
1740
183C
66
THE WORLD'S PSOGRESS,
NATIOX. NAME AND PROFESSIOH.
Irish. O'Brien, Fitz-James, poet . . • •
Itish. , \Vm. Smith, political agitator • •
Irish. O'Connell, Daniel, political agitator . , •
Irish. O'Connor, Fergus, chartist orator . , •
Eng. Ockley, Simon, orientalist . . • j
Arab, Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia • •
Fr. Odilon-Barrot, C. H., statesman . . .
Bar. Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy
Dan. Oersted, Hans Ch., discoverer of electro-magnetism .
Eng. Oglethorpe, J. E., founder of Georgia • •
Irish. O'Keefe, John, dramatist . • .
Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist . • • •
Ger. Olbers, H. "W. M., astronomer ...
Eng. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cubham . , .
Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methodist theologian and author
Span. Olivan, don Aless., publicist ....
Amer. Olmsted, Deuison, professoi-, astronomer, &c. ,
Ger. Olshausen, Hermann, protestant theologian , ,
Arab. Omar I., caliph, captor of Jerusalem . ,
Irish. O'Meara, Barry, surgeon to Napolton and author •
Eng. Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons
Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education .
Gr. Oppian, poet .....
Dutch. Orange, "William I., of Nassau, prince of, founder of Dutch republic 1533
Dutch. -, William XL, prince of, stadtholder .
Dutch. , William IIL, prince of, stadtholder, and king of England
Span. Orflla, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist . •
Origen, one of the fathers of the church . •
Fr. Orleans, L. J. P., duke of ' Egalite,' guillotined , .
Fr. , Per. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe •
Euss. Orlo IT, Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II, . ,
Eng. Orme, Robert, historian of India . . , •
Eng, Ormond, James Butler, duke of, statesman , .
Gr. Oi'pheus, poet, sometimes styled the 'father of poetry' •
Irish. Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy
Irish. , Roger Boyle, 1st earl of, statesman and author •
Eng. Orton, Job, dissenting divine and author . ,
Amer. Osgood. Prances, poetess . . , ,
Amer. , Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divine and author
Port. Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer
Scot. Ossiaii, Gaelic bard, supposed to have lived in the 3d century
Egypt. Osymandlas, king of Egypt ....
Amer. Otis, James, patriot and statesman . . .
Amer. , Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist . • •
Ger. Otho I., king of Greece (born in Bavaria) . •
Eng. Ottley, "Wm. Your g, writer on art . •
Eng. Otway, celebrated dramatist, ' Venice Preserved*
Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France . . •
Eng, Ouseley, Sir Gore, diplomatist • •
Ger. Overbeck, Fred., founder of modem religious Bchool of art
Eng. Overbury, Sir Thos., (poisoned in the Tower) , .
BoQk Ovidi Publius N iso, poet ....
BORN.
DIEO.
•
1868
1806
186-
1775
1841
1195
1855
1678
1720
267
. 1791
493
. 1777
1851
1698
1785
1748
1833
. 1778
1851
1S40
1360
1417
1797
1851
1791
1859
, 1796
1839
681
644
1778
183G
1691
1768
, 1771
1853
f. 150
public 1533
1584
1626
1650
land 1650
1702
1787
185
253
1747
1793
1810
1842
1734
1783
1728
1801
1610
1683
1676
1731
1621
1679
1717
1783
1812
1850
1812
1502
1580
(abt.) 1500
1725
1772
1767
1848
. 1815
1867
1771
1836
1651
1685
1767
1847
1769
1844
1780
. 1681
1613
■.0. 43
IT
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
67
ETATIOir.
Span.
A.mer.
Eng.
Eng.
Welsh.
Amer.
Eng.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Oviedo, J. Q-., bishop of, author of ' Voyages in the West Indies
Owen, David Dale, geologist . . • .
, John, Independent theologian . •
, Kichard, surgeon and naturalist . • •
■ , Robert, political theorist . , .
, Robert Dale, statesman and author • •
Oxford, Horace "Walpole, earl of, author •
Paine, Elijah, jurist . , • • •
, Elijah (son of above), jurist . . .
, John Howard, dramatist, 'Home, Sweet Home'
, Robert Treat, lawyer and patriot .
, Robert Treat, son, poet,
, Thomas, political and deistical writer . .
Paixh:>n, general, inventor of guns bearing his name .
Paez, militai-y commander and president Venezuela .
Paganini, ISTicolo, famous Violinist . ,
Paley, William, eminent divine and author •
Palgrave, Sir Francis, antiquarian author • ,
Palir-set de Montenoy, Charles, satirist • . •
Palissy, Bernard, 'the Potter' . . •
Palladio. Andrew, architect ....
Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist . ,
Palmerston, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman , •
Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer . . .
Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general • .
Papiueau, L. J , politician and patriot • •
Papiuian, ^milius, civil lawyer . , • •
Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., alchemist . .
Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist ....
Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe
, Matthew, historian . . ' . ,
Parlj, Mungo, celebrated traveller
Parker. Theodoie, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar .
Parkes, Samuel, chemist and author .
Parma, Alexender Faniese, duke of, regent of the I^'etherlands
Parnell, Thoe., poet and divine . ,
Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist , •
, Thomas, lived 152 years . ,
Parry, Capt. Edward, Arctic navigator . • •
Parsons, Theophilus, jurist . . , ,
. — , Theophilus (son), jurist ....
Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essayist .
, Mrs. Sarah, ' Fanny Fern,' authoress . •
Pascal, Blaise, eminent geometrician and writer .
Paskewitsch, Ivan F., prince of "Warsaw, general , ,
Pasley, Gen. Sir Chas. "W., engineer . . ,
Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France . .
Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Greek lex.)
Paterculus, Caius Velleius, historiaa . , (abt.) 9. 0.
ORK.
DIED.
1540
1807
1860
1616
1683
1771
1860
1717
179T
1796
1853
1791
1851
1731
1814
1773
1811
1736
1809
1782
1854
1787
1784
1835
]745
1805
1788
1861
1730
1815
1510
1590
1518
1580
1741
1811
1784
18a5
1729
1812
1726
1806
1789
145
212
1493
1541
1812
1S62
1838
1259
1771
1804
1810
1860
1759
1829
1546
1592
1679
1717
1746
1825
1483
1635
1790
1855
1750
1813
1811
1623
1662
1782
18^.6
1781
1861
1767
1862
1786
isaa
210
I
68
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS.
NATION. NAME AND PBOFESSION.
Eng. Patmore, Coventry, poet • • • •
Irish. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland .
Eng. , Simon, bishop of CMcliester, Bible commentary
Paul, Father, (see Sarpi) . . ,
Heb. , St., Apostle to the Gentiles . , ,
Fr. , St. Viucent de, Catholic missionary . ,
Amer. Paulding, James Kirlie, novelist and essayist . .
Rom. Faulus-^milius, Lucius, fell at Cannae • •
Gr. Pausanias, spartan commander . ,
Gr. , topographical writer ...
Eng. Paxton, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect ,
Eng. Payne, Boger, noted book-hinder . . •
Amer. Paysou, Edward, D. D., congregational divine •
Amer. Peabody, Eliz P., educational writer . ,
Amer. , O. W. B., reviewer and biographer ,
Eng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician ,
Eng. Pearson, John, bishop of Chester, ' On the Creed '
Port. Pedro, Y., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria II.)
Port. , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal
Eng. Peel, Su- Kobert, 1st baronet, cotton manufacturer •
Eng. • , Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman . ,
Eng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) • , .
Brit. Pelagous, monk, founder of a sect • ,
Span. Pelayo, first king of Asturias . • •
Er. Pelissier, A, J. J., duke of Malakoff, marshal .
Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot . • ,
Gr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general , ,
Fr. Pelouze, Theodore Jules, chemist . • •
Eng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of , •
Eng. Penn, Granville, author ....
Eng. , "William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania
Eng. , William, founder and legislator of Pennsylvania
Eng. Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiquary .
Ital. Pepe, William Florestan, general , •
Amer. Pepperell, Sir William, general • • .
Ital. Pepolij Charles, litterateur . .
Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, author of ' Diary'
Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated
Amer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic
Eng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, ' Religious Ant, Poetry
Er. P6refixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian .
En". Pereirea, Jonathan, M. D., 'Materia Medica' «
Ital. Pergolese, John B., musical composer • •
Gr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman ,
Amer. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist
Eng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed)
Amer. , Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, &c.
Eng. , Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist
Fr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, circumnavigator •
Fr. Perrier, M. Casimir, statesman . »
Amer. Perry, Matthew G., commodore, {'Japan') ,
^rner. , Oliver Hazard, commodore U. S. navy
BORN.
DIED.
. 1823
372
493
• 1626
1707
1552
1623
65?
1576
1669
1779
1860
B.
C. 216
. B.
0. 470
f. (abt.) 120
1802
1865
1739
1797
1783
1827
1802
1799
1848
1858
1613
1686
. 1837
1&6-
1834
1750
1830
1850
. 1552
1598
354
757
. * 1794
1864
1789
1854
. B.
0. 364
1807
1621
1T61
1844
nia 1621
1670
1644
1718
1726
1798
1780
1855
- 1697
1759
1801
1632
1703
1762
1812
1795
1857
1728
1811
1605
1670
1804
1853
1710
1736
, B. c. 490 B. c. 429
. 1785
1864
d) 1599
1660
1766
1849
1704
1854
1741
1788
1777
1832
1795
1858
. 1T«6
181£
BIOaEAPHICAL INDEX.
69
JTATIOH KAME AND PKOFESSION.
Fr. Pereigny, Jean Qt. V., politician and diplomatist ,
Rom. Persius, Flaccus Aulus, satirist
G^er. Perthes, Christian Frederick, bookseller, (life by son)
Horn. Pertinax, emperor . . . . ,
Swiss. Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education
Russ. Peter I., the great, statesman and warrior
Fr. the Hermit, first mover of the crusades
Eng. Peters, Hugh, * fanatic ' . . . ,
Eng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, warrior .
Ger. Petermann, August H., geographer . . •
Amer. Petigrew, James Louis, of S. C, Union statesman •
Potion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti - .
Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets
Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. andh
Pfeiflfer, Ida, traveller and author . .
Phasdrus, fabulist . . . , •
Philidor, Andrew, writer on chesa , •
Philip II., king of Macedon, warrior . , •
St., of Neri, founder of the Oratory •
PhiUimore, John G., author on law , •
Phillips, Ambrose, poet and dramatist , •
, John, poet * Splendid Shilling ' . •
, Sir Richard, bookseller and compiler ,
Philo-Judasus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria ,
Philopoemen, celebrated general . . •
Phipps, Sir William, colonial governor MassachiisettB
Phocion, eminent Athenian general . .
Photius, learned patriarch of Constantinople *
Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . ...
Piazzi, Joseph, astronomer . . ,
Picard, Louis Benedict, dramatist and novelist •
Pichegru, Charles, eminent general . . ,
Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman ,
■ , John, philologist . . • •
Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer
Pictou, Sir Thomas, general . . ,
. Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th president U. S. •
Pilate, Pontius, Roman governor of Judea
Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, general and diplomatist
, "William, distinguished orator and diplomatist
Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets
Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric author
Pinzon, Vincent Tanez, navigator, dtjcovered Brazil
Piozzi, Hester L,, miscellaneous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson
Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit • ,
Pisistratu 8, tyrant of Athens . , ,
Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician ,
Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator . ,
, William, Ist earl of Chatham, statesman
, William, celebrated statesman, eon of Lord Chatham
Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages
Pius IX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) . •
BOBN.
DIED,
1808
34
61
1772
1843
126
193
1745
1827
1672
1725
1050?
1115
1599
1660
1658
1735
1789
1863
1770
1818
1304
1374
storian 1778
1854
1795
1858
. f. 30
1726
1795
B. C. 383 B.
C. 336
1515
1595
1809
1865
1749
1676
1708
1768
1840
f. A.
D. 40
. B. C. 253 B
C. 183
1651
1695
B. C, 400 B.
C. 318
815
891
1768
1837
1746
1826
1769
1824
1761
1804
1746
1829
1772
1846
1655
1724
• •
1815
1804
,
38?
1825
1765
1822
B. c. 522 B.
0. 442
1758
1826
f. 1500
n 1789
1821
1689
1773
B.
c. 527
1765
1847
1699
1748
1708
1778
1759
1806
B. 0. 650 B. 0 570
. 17M
70
THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS.
NATION. NAME AND PEOFESSION. BOEN.
Span. Pizarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . , , 1475
Eng. Platoclie, James E., dramatist and miscellaneous writer . 1796
Gr. Plato, illustrious philosopher, founder of the Academic sect b. o. 430
Eom. Plautus, comic poet . . . , b. o. 227
Eng. Playfair, John, eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 1749
Eng. , Lyon, chemist, (borD in Bengal) . . • . 1819
Rom. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natural history 23
Rom. , the younger, warrior and author . . ,61
Egypt. Plotinus, Platonic philosopher . . . • 203
Irish. Plunket, W. C, lord chancellor of Ireland • • . 1765
Gr. Plutarch, celebrated biographer . • • 50
Ind. Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, of Va. . • •
Eng. Pocock, D. E., learned critic and commentator • • 1604
Eng. ■■ -, D. R,, learned prelate and traveller . , , 1704
Amer. Poe, Edgar A., poet, critic and novelist . , • 1811
Ger. Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist . , 1796
Amer. Poinsett, Joel E., statesman, diplomatist, and author • 1778
Ft, Poisson, D. S,, mathematician .... 1781
Eng. Pole, Reginald, cardinal archbishop of Canterbury , 1500
Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. « , 1780
Fr. , Melchior de, cardinal and statesman , , 1611
Amer. Polk, Jas. Knox, president U. S. . . • • 1795
Amer. . Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel general , • 1806
Er>g. Pollok, Eobt., poet, « Course of Time ' . , . 1799
Ital. Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller , . 1250
Gr. Polybius, eminent historian . . . B. c. 205
Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr and author .
Port. Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesman .... 1699
Eng, Pomfret, John, poet ..... 1667
Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of . . . . 1772
Eom. Pompey, Cneus, statesman and warrior . ('The Great.') B.C. 106
Span. Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America . . . 1460
Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of France . 1763
Pol. , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland . , 1732
Ind. Pontiac, Indian chief .... - 1712
Eng. Poole, John, author of ' Paul Pry,' &c. . ,
Eng. , Matthew, able divine and author ... 1624
Eng. Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet .... 1688
Amer. , John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil. dist. 1823
Porphyry, Platonic philosopher .... 233
Eng. Person, Eichard, eminent hellenist and critic . • 1759
Ital. Porta, John Baptist, natural philosopher ... 1540
Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist .... 1781
Amer. , David, commodore, U. S, Navy • • .1780
Amer. , David D., rear-admiral .... 1776
Eng. , Jane, novelist, . . , , ,
Eng. , Sir Kobert Ker, author of ' Travels,' &c. . . 1780
Eng. Porteus, Beilhy, eminent prelate .... 1731
Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D. D., epis. hp. of Pennsylvania, and educa-
tional author ..... 1800
^mer. -' ' ■ Horatio, D. D., episo. bishop of New York . ,
3^;jig, .>-_ — , John, archbishop of Canterbury. ' Gr. Antiq.' , 1674
1541
15. c. 347
B. c. 184
1819
79
115
270
1854
120
1617
1691
1765
1856
1851
1S40
1558
1817
1741
1849
1864
1827
1323
B. 0. 123
169
1782
1703
1764
B. c. 48
1521
1813
1798
1769
1779
1744
1616
1832
1843
1850
1842
1863
1747
BIOGEAPHICAI. INDEX,
n
rATION.
Sng.
Sng.
xish.
iuss.
Sng.
^mer.
k.raer.
^mcr.
^mer.
Lmer.
2ng.
Sng.
Sng.
Jer.
Sng.
Lmer.
Sng.
CBg.
Cug.
Sng.
lorn.
tal.
It.
lorn.
Cng.
Cng.
loin.
i'r.
dig.
^r.
Cgypt.
}er.
}er.
Sng.
'ole.
tal.
lung.
2ng.
Sng.
!ng.
imer.
Cng.
Lmer.
Lmer.
dig.
Sng.
Sng.
Lmer.
Jr.
Jr.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Potter, Robert, divine, poet, and translator .
Pottenger, Sir Henry, diplomatist .
Power, Tyrone, comic actor . • •
Pozzo di Eorgo, diplomatist , ,
Praed, Winthrop Mackworth, poet . •
Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer
Preble, Edward, commodore in the XT. S. Navy
Prentiss, Sargent 8, lawyer and politician, famed for eloquence
Prescott, Wm. Hickling, historian
Preston, Wm. C, U. S. senator for South Carolina
Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty
, Sir Uvedale, writer on the Picturesque
Prideaux, Humphrey, learned divine. ,
Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy
Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer
Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N. England
Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller . ,
Prinsep, Chas. R., political economist •
Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman . , ,
Pritchard, J. C, ethnologist, ' Natural History of Man*
Probus, Marcus Aurelius, emperor
Procida, John of, patriot , . ,
Proclus, a Platonic philosopher • • «
Procopius, historian • « • •
, Anthemius, emperor « • •
Proctor, Miss Ade'aide A., poetess . .
, Bryan W. (' Barry Cornwall'), poet and critic
Propertius, Sextus Aurelius, poet
Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist .
Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary
Psalmanazar, Greorge, literary impostor
Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographer
Puckler-Muskaxi, H.L. H., prince of, author of Travels, &c
Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian
Pugin, Augs. "Welby, architectural writer . ,
Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the TJ. S. service ,
Pulci, Louis, poet . . . , ,
Pulszky, Franz, politician and author , .
Purcell, Henry, musical composer . • .
, Thos., musical composer .
Purchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage •
Pursh, Fred., botanist ....
Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., founder of ' Puseyites ' .
Putnam, Israel, distinguislied ofl&cer in the Revolution
, Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio
Puttenham, George, poet and critic, * Art of Eng. Poesie
Pye, Henry James, poet laureate ' .
Pym, John, republican politician . . ,
Pynchon, Wm., founder of Springfield, Mapa ,
Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect •
Pyrrhus, king of Epiruf? . . • •
Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher • ,
BOEN.
i>rED_
1721
1804
1787
1856
1795
1841
1768
1842
1802
1839
1759
1837
1761
1807
1810
1850
1796
1859
1794
18G0
1728
1791
1747
1829
1648
1724
1799
1851
1733
1804
1687
1758
1789
1834
1788
1864
1664
1721
1785
1848
232
282
1225
1303
410
487
410
487
472
1864
1787
C. 52 B
'0. 12
1809
1865
1609
1669
1679
1763
70
1785
1632
1794
1811
1852
1747
1779
1432
1487
1814
1658
1695
1682
1577
1628
1774
1820
1800
1718
1790
1738
1824
1600
1745
1813
1584
1643
1591?
lc62
c. 300
B.
0. 272
0. 686 B.
c. 497
n
THE WOELD'S PROGRESS,
NAT /OK. NAME AND PKOFESSIOU.
Eng. Quain, Jones, M. D., anatomist . .
Eng. Quaries, Francis, poet, author of 'Emblems* •
Fr. Quatremere, E. M., orientalist . •
Quekett, John, microscopist • • ■
Fr. Quesne, Abraham du, admiral , •
Quesnel, Peter, 'History of Jesuits' , •
Belg. Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician
Span. Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poet • •
Eng. Quin, James, actor ....
Fr. Quicault, Philip, lyrical dramatist
Amer. Quincy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author
Amer. -, Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier
Fr. Qui net, Edgar, liUeraieur
Span. Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian .
Rom. Qujntilian, Marcus Fabius, celebrated orator
Rom. Quintus-Curtius, historian . . . f. tin
Amer. Quitman, John A., general and gov. of Mississsipi
Fr. Rabelais, Francis, wit and satirist . • •
Fr. Racine, John, eminent dramatist • •
Fr Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress
Eng. Radcliffe, Anne, romance writer, ' Mysteries of Udolpho
Aust. Radetzky, Joseph, coimt, commander m Italy
Eng. Rafiles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector
Eng. , Sir Thos. Stamford, author of * History of Java,' &o
Amer. Rafinesque, S. C. J., botanist
Dan. Rafn, C C, historian and antiquary .
Eng. Raglan, J. H. Fitzroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea
Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist
Eng. Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ' Sunday schools ♦
Eng. Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir Walter, 'arnan illustrious in arms
literature' . . • • •
Hind. Rammohun, Roy, philanthropist • •
Scot. Ramsay, Allan, poet . • • •
^tner. ■, David, historian . . •
Span. Ramusio, John Bapt, ' Collect, of Voyages' ,
Amer. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman
Amer. , Peyton, first president of Congress •
G-er. Ranke, Leopold, historian . . .
Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller •
Heb. Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher
Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, author of ' History of England'
Rapp, Geo., founder of ' Sect of Harmonists .
Dan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer •
Fr. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman-
Pruss. Rauch, Fred. A., metaphysician , •
Ger. Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, historian • •
Amer. Rawle, "William, jurist . • • •
BOEN.
IIEB.
•
1865
• 1592
1644
• 1782
1857
• 1815
1861
1610
1688
1699
1774
• 1796
1580
1645
1G93
1766
1635
1668
1772
1864
1802
. 1803
1772
1857
42
122
espasian
Ist Cent.
1T99
1858
1483
1553
• 1589
1699
1820
1858
1764
1823
1766
1858
1788
1863
c. . . 1781
1826
1784
1842
. 1795
1788
1855
1784
1842
1785
1811
s and
1552
1618
1776
1833
1685
1758
1749
1812
1485
1557
1773
1833
1723
1775
. 1795
1790
. 1798
1661
1725
1770
1847
1784
1832
. 1794
1806
1841
. 1781
1759
183«
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.
73
KATIOV. HAME AND PKOPESSION.
Eng. Rawllnson, Sir Henry C, geographer and orientalist •
Eng. Bay, John, naturallBt and author , ,
Fr. Raynal, ■William Thomas Francis, historian and philosopher
Scot. Eeach, Angus B., journalist and author • •
Amer, Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral • • •
Eng. Reade, Charles, novelist . • • •
Fr. Recamier, Mme Jane F. A , , • •
Eng. "Redding, Cyrus, journalist and author • •
Amer. Redfield, William C, meteorologist . • •
Red Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief • •
Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist • •
, Isaac, critic and editor . • •
, Joseph, general in revolution • • •
, 'Wm.B., politician and author , .
Eees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopaedia &o. •
Reeve, Clara, novelist, ' Old English Baron' •
, John, comic actor . . • •
, Lovell A., conchologist and publisher «-
Eegnard, John Francis,' comic writer • •
Regnault, Henry Vict., chemist . • •
Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist • •
Reid, Capt. Mayne, novelist . , ,
, Col., Sir Wm., engineer and metereologist, * Use of Storms
— — , Samuel 0., naval commander . • •
, Thomas, celebrated metaphysician • •
Eeinhard, Francis V., (founder of Christ.) • «
R6musat, J. P. A, histoiian and linguist . «
Ren6, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily . • «
Kennel, Major J., geographer and traveller •
Rennie, John, eminent engineer and architect •
Reno, Jesse L., general in Union army . ,
Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener . «
Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey •
Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV.
Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer
Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg
Ricardoj David, writer on political economy and finance
— , Joseph Lewis, (on International law) •
Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian • . •
Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer , , •
Richard I, Cceur de Lion, king of England •
Ill, king, killed at Bosworth •
Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Diet.) .
, James, traveller in Africa , •
, Samuel,'emineut novelist , .
, Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer
Richelieu, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman
Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist &c. .
Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prot. martyr • •
Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . •
Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer •
Eistori, Adelaide, actress , . •
BOBN.
DIED.
1810
1628
1705
1713
1796
1821
1862
1777
1849
1785
1789
1857
1759?
1830
1808
1854
1742
1807
1748
1785
1743
1825
1723
1803
1799
1838
1814
1865
1647
1709
1810
1788
1818
1791
1858
1783
1861
1710
1796
1753
1812
1788
1832
1409
1480
1742
1830
1761
1821
1825
1862
1752
1818
1802
1858
1614
1679
1779
1859
1820
1863
1772
1823
1812
1862
1701)
1850
1157
1199
1450
1485
1775
1865
1851
1689
1761
1787
1865
1585
1642
1763
1825
1500
1555
1783
1825
1313
135i
1821
V4
THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS,
»AT«)N. KAMB AND PROFESSION.
Eng, Eitchie, Iieitcli, jonnialist and author , »
Amer. Ritchie, Thomas, journaliBt, ♦ Eicbmond Enquirer' •
Eng. Bitson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . •
Amer. Rittenhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer • •
Ger. Eitter, Aug. H., 'History of Philosophy' , •
Ger. , Charles, geographer . • • •
Bpan. Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet
Amer. Rives, M. C. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist . ,
Amer. Rives, John C, journalist, ' Washington Globe ' •
Amer. Riviugton, Jas., royalist printer of N. T. • .
Scot. Roberts, David, landscape painter and author .
Scot Robertson, William, celebrated historian . .
Pr. Robespierre, F. M. J. L., ' the terrorist' of the revolution
Amer. Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist
Scot. Rob Eoy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter • (abt)
Fr. Rochambeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal ,
Fr. Eochefoucauld-Liancourt, F. A. F., duke de la •
Fr . Eochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . .
Amer. Rodgers, John, commodore U. S. navy . ,
Eng. Rodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral •
Eng. Roebuck, John Arthur, statesman • • •
Eng. Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic . •
Amer. , Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow
Eiig. , Samuel, poet ....
Eng. Roget, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist .
Fr. Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author
Fr. , M. J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution .
Fr. Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian , ,
Eng. Romaine, "William, divine and author . • •
Eng. Romilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman .
Rom. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome , •
Ger, Rongc, Johannes, educational and religious reformer
Eng. Rooke, Sir George, admiral ....
Span. Rosa, don Francisco Martinez do la, statesman, poet, historian &c,
Span. Rosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres ,
Rom. Boscius Quintus, actor of proverbial talent
Eng. Roscoe, Henry, biographer . . . ,
Eng. , William, biographer and miscellaneous writer
Eng. Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet .
Ger. Rose, Gustavo, chemist ....
Eng. -, Hugh James, * Biograph. Diet.' ,
Eng. ,Wm. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . •
Ital. Rosellini, Hypolito, author of ' Monuments of Egypt,' &
Amer Eosecrans, W. S., gen. in Union army .
Ger. Rosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of pMl
osophy . . . , .
Ger. Bosenmuller, E. F. C, orientalist . • ,
Ital. Rosettl, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic . •
Eng. Ross, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator • •
Eng. • , Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer . ,
Eng. Rosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer • •
Ital, Rossini, Joachim, musical composer • •
BORW.
DTEBw
• 1800
1865
1778
1854
• 1752
1803
1731
1796
1791
1779
1859
1791
1796
1864
1724
1802
1796
1864
1721
1793
1759
1794
1794
1864
t)
1763
1725
1807
1747
1827
1773
1794
. 1771
1838
1717
1792
1802
1806
1763
1855
1779
1733
1793
1754
1793
1661
1741
. 1714
1795
1757
1818
B
0. 716
1813
1650
1708
EC. 1789
1793
B.
0. 61
. 1800
1836.
1751
1831
1G33
1684
1795
1795
1838
1775
1843
. 1800
1843
1819
1
I-
1805
. 1768
1835
1783
1854
1777
1856
1800
1862
• 1800
1792
BIOGSAPHIOAL INDEX. V5
•
1775
1840
1670
1741
•
1712
1778
1673
1718
An
1795
1789
1854
i)<i
1753
1814
,
1743
1792
1618
168?
rkfi
1807
1780
•
1607
1690
1803
1857
HATtOK. KAME AND PBOFESSION. BOBK.
Ger.Jw.Eothscliild, Meyer Anselm, founder of the great banMng-honse 1780 1821
— , Anselm at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 1836) and
Solomon, sous of Meyer Anselm Eothschild . •
Ger. Rotteck, Chas. W. E,. von, historian . . •
Fr. Rousseau, John Baptist, poet . , ,
Ft. , John James, eloquent and paradoxical writer
Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist ,
ItaL, Rubini, Jno. Baptist, tenor vocalist . • ,
Ger. Ruckert, Frederick, poet . , ,
Amer. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, ofloer (in foreign service) and
philosopher . . • •
Amer. Rumsey, James, inventor • • . .
Ger, Rupert, prince, warrior . • • .
Amer. Ruschenberger, W. S. W., author of voyages and scientific works 1807
Amer. Rash, Richard, diplomatist . . •
Eng. Biishworth John, 'Historical Collections' • •
Amer. Rusk, Thos, J., U. S. senator from Texas • a
Eng. Buskin, John, writer on art . . . . . 1819
Eng. Eussel, Lady Rachel (^ife of lord Wm.), author of ' Letters » 1636 1723
Eng. , Lord "WiUiam, one of the martyrs of liberty . . 1641 1683
Bcot. Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of ' Great Eastern * . 1808
Eng. , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author
Scot. , William, historian of modern Europe . •
Irish. • ^ "William H., Times correspondent and author •
Amer. Rutledge, Edward, statesman . • . • •
Amer. , John (brother of above), statesman . •
Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral . . • ,
Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquary, 'Federa' • •
Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist • ,
Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition •
Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible
Fr. , Sylvester, baron de, orientalist . . •
Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet . . . , ,
Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian • ,
Turk. Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt • ,
Fr. Saint- Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal . • .
Amer. St. Clair, Arthur, general in. Revolution , ,
Fr. St. Hilaire.. Auguste de, botanist . . , ,
Fr. ■ , Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist
Fr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of ' Paul and Virginia," &c.
ItaL St. Real, Caesar Vicharci abbi de, historian
Fr. St. Simon, Claudius, count de, philosopher ,
Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral , ,
Fr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales , , .
Eng. Bala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author
Bar. Saladin, sultan'of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior «
Eng. Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran .
Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, ear! of, statesman •
Bom. Sallust, Caius Crispus, historian • • •
1792
1746
1794
1821
1749
1800
1739
1800
1607
1679
1713
. 1790
1672
1724
1613
1684
1758
1838
1175
1296
1567
1587
1822
1863
1798
1S54
. 1735
1813
1799
1861
1772
1844
1736
1814
1639
16G3
1760
1823
. 1734
1823
1790
1827
1137
119&
1G80
1738
1550
1619
B. C. 86 B
0. 3fi
^6 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS.
KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION,
Ft, SaTmasius, Claudius, scholar and author •
"Fr, Salvaudy, U, A., comfce de, statesman , ,
Fr. Salver te, miscenaneous writer , ,
Heb. Samson, judge of Israel , , •
Heb. Samuel, last judge of Israel , •
PhcB. Sanconi.itho, philosopher and historian •
Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist
Amer. Sanderson, Jobc, litterateur . . •
Amer. Sauds, Roht. O., poet and litterateur
Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, na-val officer
Fr. Sanson, IJicholas, geographer and engineer
Mex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president
Gr. Sappho, poetess .....
Chald. Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh
ItaL Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian
Heb. Saul, 1st king of Israel ....
"Ft. Sauley, Louis F. J., count de, antiquarian •
Ft. Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral . , •
Fr. Saurin, divine and sermon-writer ...
Fr. Saussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . .
Fr. , N"ich. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, &o. ,
Eng. Savage, Richard, poet . . ' . •
Ft. Savary, Nicholas, 'Life of Mahomet,' « Letters on Egypt*
Ger. Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law
Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk, famed for zeal and eloquence
Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service 1696
Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior
Dan. Saxo-Grammaticus, historian . . -.
Fr. Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say
Fr. — , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy
Amer. , Thomas, naturalist ....
ItaL Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian
ItaL , Julius Caesar, learned critic .
Scandenberg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404
Ger. Scapula, John, lexicographer
Eng. Scarlett, James, 1st lord Abinger, jurist . . ,
Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . , .
Ger. Schadow, Julien Gottfried, sculptor . . •
Swe. Scheele, Charles Wm., eminent chemist • •
Ger. Schelling, Fred. Augs., novelist . , , ,
Ger. , Fred. W. J., philosopher . . ,
Amer. Schenck, Robert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . .
Pruss. Schill, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic of&cer
Ger. Schiller, John Frederic C, eminent histoi-ian and dramatist
Schimmelpennlnck, Mary A., ' Mem. Port Royal '
Ger. Schlegel, A. W. von, Clitic and essayist
Ger. , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian .
Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian
Ger. Scblosser, M. S. F., historian . . •
Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian ...
Amer. Schofield, major-general and governor Virginia • •
Ger. Bcholl, historian . . . , , . • 1766 1833
BOBir.
DIED.
1588
1653
1795
1856
1771
1839
B. c. 12th Cent.
B. c. nth Cent.
f. B.
1804
0. 760
1785
1844
1790
1832
1623
1672
1600
1667
1798
f.B.
C. 606
B. C
. 8761
rian
1522
1623
B.
1807
c. 1055
1757
1836
1677
1730
1740
1799
1767
1845
1697
1743
1750
1788
1779
1861
1452
1498
ervic
e 1696
1750
1600
1639
1134
1208
1794
1767
1832
1787
1824
1540
1609
1484
1558
varri
or 1404
1467
1540
1600
1769
1844
1610
1764
1660
1742
1786
1766
1839
1775
1854
1773
1809
1759
1805
1778
1856
1767
1845
1772
1829
1768
1834
1776
18Gr.
1T36
179a
BOEN.
DIED.
1619
1690
1804
1865
1793
1864
1770
1838
1615
1667
1661
1747
1780
1850
1747
1731
1804
1771
1820
1800
1852
1576
1649
B.
0. 128
)r) B.
c. 189
1291
1747
1821
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 11
MATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION,
Dutch, fechom'berg, Armand Frederick, warrior . •
Ger. Schomburgk, Sir Eolsert H., iiaturaliBt and traveller
Amer. Schoulcraft, Henry R., ti-avelier and historian of the Indians
Ger. Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist
Dutch. Schrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer ...
Ger. Schullembourg, John Matthias, warrior ■ .
Dutch. Schumacher, H. C, astronomer . . . •
Ger. Schutz, C. G., critic and litteraieur , . ,
Amer. Schuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution . •
Ger. Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general , .
Ger. , prince F., premier of Austria . .
Ger. Scioppius, Gaspar, philologist and grammarian •
Rom. Scipio, -^milianus Publius, able warrior, (minor) .
Rom. , Publius Cornelius, sumamed Africanus, able warrior, (major)
Scot. Scott, Michael, philosopher, supposed magician .
Eng. , Thomas, divine and bible commentator , .
Scot, , Sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular
writers of modern times , . , . 17T1 1832
Amer. , "Winfleld, lieutenant general commander-in-chief U. S. army 1786 1866
Fr. Scribe, Eugene, dramatist .... 1791 1861
Fr.- Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman , 1775 1851
Eng. Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate , , , 1693 1768
Dutch. Secundus, John, Latin poet .... 1511 1536
Amer. Sedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist 1790 1867
Amer. , John, (of Conn.) Union general . , 1815 ' 1864
Amer. , Theodore, statesman and political economist . 1780 1839
^ixier. , Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer . , , 1811 1859
Eng. Sedley, Sir Charles, poet .... 1639 1701
Fr. Segur, count Louis de, diplomatist and writer , , 1753 1830
Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian ... 1584 1654
Scot. Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer , , 1723
Scot. Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) ,
Chald. Semiramis, queen of Assyria , , , f. B. c. 1250
Rom. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, philosopher, statesman and moralist B. o. 2 65
Eng. Senior, Nassau W., political economist . , , 1790 1864
Ger. Sennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography . 1771 1834
Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian , , . 1490 1572
Amer. Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman . , , 1779 1852
Rom. Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander . . b. c. 73
Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin , 1509 1553
Egypt. Sesostris, king of Egypt , . . , f. b, c. 1500
Fr. Sevign6, Mary de, marchioness of, epistolary writer , 1627 1696
Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) . . . . 1747 1809
Amer. ■ , William H., statesman, U. S. senator from N. T., sec of state 1801
Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate .... 1640 1692
Eng. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman . 1621 1683
Eng. , Anthony A. Cooper, 3d earl, 'Characteristics' 1671 1713
Eng. Shakespeare, John, orientalist .... 1774 1858
Eng. , William, the greatest of dramatic poets • 1564 1616
Eng. Sharp, Granville, philanthropist .... 1734 1813
Scot. , James, archt. St. Andrews, assassinated , . 1618 1679
Bug. Shaw, George, naturalist . . , , , 1751 1818
78
THB world's PEOGKESS,
NATION. NAME AND PROFESSIOK.
Amer. Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay's rebellion , ,
Amer. Shedd, W, G., D. D., theologian, historian, and critio
Eng. Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . *
Eng. Shelley, Mary "W". widow of P, B., the poet, novelist •
Eng. , Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist , ,
Eng. Shenstone, William, poet ....
Amer. Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department
Eng. , Richard Brinsley, dramatist and orator .
Eng. ■ •, Thomas, actor, and author . , ,
Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, bishop of London . ,
Amer. Sherman, Roger, patriot and self-taught statesman . •
Amer. , John, U. S senator from Ohio * • •
Amer. , "William T., geneial . • •
Eng. Sherwood Mrs., novelist •.. . . , ,
Irish. Shiel, Kichard Lalor, statesman and dramatist • •
Eng. Shirley, James, dramatist . . • .
Eng. Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, able naval oflQ.cer • •
Amer. Shuhrick, John Templar, naval officer • •
Amer. , William B., rear admiral ...
Eng. Bhuckford, Rev. Samuel, ' Connect. Old and New Tesament'
Eng. Sibbee, Richard, theologian, 'Bruised Reed'
Eng. Sid dons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses ,
Eng. Sidmouth, viscount, (H. Addington) statesman ,
Eng. Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and author . ,
Eng. , Sir Philip, accomplished ofl&cer and author •
Ger. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, naturalist and botanist • ,
Amer. Sigel, Franz, general in Union army, war 1861-65 •
Amer. Sigourney, Lydia H., poet and essayist . , ,
Amer. Silliman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . .
Amer. , Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist ,
Eng, Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor •
— — — , Simon Stylites, Syrian Ascetic . .
Amer. Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet , .
Gr. Sim onides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet • •
Gr. • , of Eos, lyric poet . • • •
Scot. Simpson, Robert, mathematician . • •
Eng. , Thomas, " . • •
Eng. Sinclair, Catharine, authoress . . ,
Hind. Sing, M, rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere •
Swiss. Sismondi, J. C. L., historian
Eng. Skelton, John, poet laureate to Henry VIII , .
Ger. Sleidan John Pbilipson, historian . . ,
Eng. Sloane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist . . •
Scot. Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morals and political economy
Scot. , Alex, poet .....
Eng. , Charlotte, poet ....
j\mer. , General Samuel, military commander and statesman
Eng. , Horace, poet, 'Rejected Addresses,' &c. .
Eng. • , James, poet, « u , ,
Eng. , John, ' History Viginia' , ,
Eng. , John Pye, theological writer • • •
Amer, , Joseph, Mormon prophet • . •
BOUN.
DIED
1740
1823
1787
1863
. 1798
1851
1792
1822
1714
1763
. 1751
1816
1722
1788
1678
1761
1721
1793
. 1775
1852
1792
1851
1594
1666
1650
1705
1778
1815
1754
1577
1635
1755
1831
• 1757
1844
1620
1683
1554
1586
1796
1824
1791
186&
1779
1864
1759
1836
392?
461?
1806
B. 0, 660 ?
650?
1687
1768
1710
1761
. 1800
1864
1779
1839
. 1773
1842
1450?
1529
. 1506
1556
1660
1752
y 1723
1790
1830
1749
1S06
1752
1839
1779
1849
1775
1839
1579
1631
1774
1851
. 1806
1844
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
19
NATION,
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng,
Scot.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng,
Pol,
Ital.
Gr.
Gr.
Span,
Heb.
Gr.
Eng.
Eng,
Eng.
Ger,
Gr.
Ft.
Amer,
Ft.
Fr.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng,
Eng.
Fr.
Fr,
Gr.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng,
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer,
Eng.
Eng.
Span.
Dutch.
Ger.
Amer.
Ger.
Eng,
SAME AND PEOFESSrOir.
Smith, Rev. Sidney, essajist, critic and moralist •
, Sir James E., botanist and natnraliat . •
, Sir William Sidney, military commander •
■ , T. Southwortb, writer on sanitary reform •
, William, classical scholar and author
Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (U.
Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novelist and historian
Smyth, Wm., Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer
J Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer
Soane. Sir John, architect and virtuoso , .
Sobieski, John III., king of Poland, wariior ,
Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect •
Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosopkera
, ecclesiastical historian . . •
Soils, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . •
Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs •
Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athena . ,
Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer •
Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer , ,
, Wm., poet, * The Chase ' .
Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Rossi, vocalist .
Sophocles, eminent tragic poet ,
Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the g. College at Paris.
Soule, Pierre, U. S. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist
Souli^, Frederick, novelist and dramatist ,
Soulouque, Faustio, ex-emperor of Hayti
Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of France
and statesman ....
South, Robeit, ^ninent divine
Southard, Samuel L., see. navy, and senator TT. 8., N. Y.
Seuthcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) ,
South^rne, J., dramatic v/riter and poet . ,
Southey, Mrs. Robt, (Caroline Bowles), poet . ' ,
, Robert, poet, historian, biographer *
Souvestre, Emile, essayist
Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookeiy .
Sozomen, eccl'eslastical historian
Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer
Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile
Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary .
Spence, "Wm., entomologist .
Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York
— , earl of, statesman .
, John C, jurist and sec. navy ,
• , Wm. R., translator . ,
Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet . .
Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior
Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheist?) .
Spohr, Louis, musical composer
Spooiier, Shearjashub, (Diet of Painters) .
Sprengel, Kent, botanist
SpurgeoD, Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergyman
BORK.
1768
1759
1764
1790
1814
1721
.1764
1788
1753
1629
1539
DIED,
184*
1828
1840
1861
1835
1771
1849
1865
1837
1698
1594
B. c, 470 B. c. 400
5th cent., a. d.
1610 1686
B. 0. 975
f. B. c. 598
1650 1716
1790
1692 1743
1804 1854
B. C. 495 B. c. 404
1201 1274
1800
1789
1847
1769 1851
1638 1716
1787 1842
1750 1814
1662 1746
1787 1854
1775 1843
1806 1854
1800 1858
450
(abt.) 1794 1866
1827 1864
1561 1643
1783 1860
1765 1848
1758 1835
1788 1855
1770 1834
1553 1598
1571 1630
1633 1677
1783
1766
1834
1833
80
THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS.
JfATION,
Ger.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eug.
Er.
Er.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Rom,
Eng.
Irish.
Eng.
Eng.
Fr.
Amer,
Eng.
Eng.
Scot.
Ger.
Irish,
Eng.
Pruss.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Scot.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
EUSB.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Gr.
Eng,
Eng.
Ger.
Ger.
Eng.
Eug.
NAME AND PBOFESSION.
Spurzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at Boston)
Sprague, Charles, poet , . . . .
, Wm. B., D. D., Presbytei-ian clergyman and historian
Squier, E. Geo., traveller and antiquary
Stackhouse, Thomas, divine and author, ' Hist. Bible * .
Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, authoress •
, Madame, talented writer . . ■
Standish, Miles, military leader Pilgrims InN. E. . •
Stanfield, Clarkson, marine painter . , •
Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor , •
Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller
, Phil., Hon., enrl of, known as Lord Mahon, historian
Stanton, Edwin M., sect etary of war , *
Stark, John, distinguished officer in the Revolution ,
Statins, Publius Pepinus, poet . . .
Staunton, Sir Geo. L. ' Embassy to China' . . .
Steele, Sir Richard, essayist and dramatist . •
Steevens, Geo., ' Comment, on Shakespeare' • •
Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman and author
Stephens, Anthony, Chai-les, Robert and Henry, printers ,
, John L., traveller and author . ,
Scot.
Stephenson, George, engineer . , •
, Robert, ** ' . , .
Sterling, Wm., M. P., bibliographer and critic •
Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author
Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer . .
Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms . .
Steuben, Fred. W. A , baron, who generously aided the Americap
cause ......
Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor . .
Stevenson, Andrew, of "Va., minister to England .
Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chaplain in the H. S. Navy and author
— jDugald, eminent philosopher and writer ,
Stiles, Ezra, theologian and historian , , ,
Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of Worcester and author
Stone, Wm. L., historian of ' Six aSTatiuns,' ' Brandt,' and * Red
Jacket' . . . • •
Storch, Henry F., political economist . ,
Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence .
Stow, John, antiquary and historian . .
Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic . , ,
, Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist •
Stowell, lord, jurist . . • •
Strabo, eminent geographer . . .
Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman .
Stratford de Redcliffe, viscount, diplomatist
Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical * Life of Jesus'
, Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author
Strickland, Agnes, historian of Queens of England'
Strype, John, theologian, biographer and historian
Struve, Fred. Geo. Wm., astronomer , •
Stuart, Gilbert, historian . . .
BORN.
1776
1791
1795
1820
1680
1766
1693
1584?
1798
1753
1776
1805
1832
1753
1817
1750
1656
1867
lSi6
1839
1728 1822
61? 96?
1737 1801
1671 1729
1736 1800
1789 1859
16th cent.
1805 1^52
1788 • 1848
1803 1859
1806 1344
1806
1713 1768
1549
1749
1784
1798
1T53
1727
1633
1793
1766
1779
1525
1814
1746
19
1593
1788
1808
1786
1806
1643
1793
1742
1794
J 838
1857
1828
1795
1699
1844
1835
1845
1605
1833
1641
1737
1864
1789
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
81
KATION. KAME AND PEOFESSION.
Eng. Stuart, James, architect and author . ,
Amer. , James E. B., Confederate general ,
Amer. , Moses, theologian and philologist . .
Eng. St urge, Joseph, philanthropist . . ,
Ger. Sturm, Christopher C, theol. writer, ' Reilections,' &c.
Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. jN'etherlanda
Pr. Suchet, Louis Gahriel, celebrated marshal , ,
Eng. Suckling, Sir John, poet and dramatist , ,
Sue, Eugene, novelist . . • ,
Suetonius, Paulinus, warrior . .. . •
, Tranquillus Caius, historian • •
Pr.
Bom.
Rom.
Laru
Gr.
Suhm, Peter Fred., eminent historian • ,
Suidas, Greek lexicographer . • , :
Amer. Sullivan, Jas,, gov. Mass., political writer • •
Amer. , John, revolutionary general . ,^ ,
Amer. , "Wm. LL. D., political writer
Pr. Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman
Amer. , Thomas, portrait painter . . .
Amer. Summerfield, John, eloquent Methodist preacher
Amer. Samner, Charles, TJ. S. sen. from Mass., orator and philanthropist
Amer. Edwin Vose, Union general .
Eng. John Bird, archbishop of Canterbury and author
Amer. Sumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. 0. ,
Eng. Sunderland, Robt. Spencer, 2d earl, statesman •
SuiTey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet , . •
Surtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet . ,
Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, son of Geo. IIL . .
Sutton, Chas. Manners, arch, of Canterbury
Suvaroff, or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel
rior . . . , . ,
Swain, Charles, poet . . . • •
Dutch. Swammerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . ,
Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect , , ,
Irish. Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist . , •
Eng. Swinburne, Algernon, poet , . • •
Amer. Swinton, Wm., critic and historian, ' Army of Potomac'
Eng. Sydenham, C. W. Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of Canada, &c. .
Rom. SyUa, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and brutal usurper
Eng. Syms, Michael Col., 'Embassy to A va' , , •
Afric. Syphax, Numidian prince . « • •
Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, eminent historian
Eng
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Russ.
Eng.
BORN.
1713
1832 ?
1780
1740
1602
1772
1613
1S08
37
f. 100
1728
abt. 1000
1744
1740
1774
1560
1783
1798
1811
1796
1780
1734
1041
1515
1779
1773
1755
war-
1730
1803
1637
1689
1667
Rom.
Swe.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
'£ng.
Marcus Claudius, emperor
Taglioni, Marie, dansuese , . .
Talbot, Jno., 1st earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France .
, Silas, mil. and naval ofQ.cer in Revolution .
Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist
Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist
Tallis, Thos., musical composer . . ,
Amer. Tallmadge, Benj., Revol. ofiQ.cer .
Ft. Talma, Francis Joseph, one of the greatest of actors
6
1793
B. c. 137 B.
DIED.
1788
1864
1851
1S58
1786
1682
1826
1641
1857
180&
1795
1S39
1641
1825
1863
1862
1832
1702
1547
1834
1843
1828
1800
1681
1772
1745
1841
c. 78
1809
C. 201
135
276
1804
1373
1453
1750
1813
1795
1854
1754
1838
15i:9
1585
1754
1835
1763
1826
82
THE WOELD^S PEOGEESS.
NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION.
Tartar. Tamerlane, Timxir Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tai-tar prince
and conqueror . • , •
Amer. Taney, Roger B., chief- justice U. S. . •
Scot. TaDnaMll, Robt., poet . . • •
Span, Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer .
Eng. Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist oflS.cer in America ,
Ital. Tasso, Bernardo, poet, author of Amadis de G-aul
ItaU , Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets
Ger. Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Lcipsic
Grer. , Karl, eminent publisher at Leipslc
Amer, Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer .
Eng. , Isaac, essayist ....
Eng. , Jeremy, prelate and eloquent writer •
Eng. — , John, ' the Water Poet ' , . ,
Eng. , Sir Robert, scalptor and architect
Eng, , Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics .
Eng, , Tom, dramatist . ,
Eng. , Wm., miscellaneous writer. . . .
Amer, , Zachary, major-general U. S. Army, victor in MexicO;
pres. U. S. .
Tecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe)
Telford, Thomas, civil engineer . . •
Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty
Temple, Sir "William, statesman and writer
Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer .
, Rev. Wm., famous for 'France' , •
• — , Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman and writer
Tennyman, William T., ' Hist, of Philosophy' .
Tennyson, Alfted, poet laureate
Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice K, B
'i'erence, or Terrentius, comic writer ,
TertuUian, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the Fathers of
the Church .....
Terry, Alfred E., of Ct., Union general, victor at Fort Fisher
Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . ,
Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture .
Thalberg, Sigismund, pianist ....
Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of
Philosophy ....
Themistocles, eminent Athenian • • •
Thenard, chemist and statesman , •
Theocritus, pastoral poet . . • , , f. B.
Theobald, Lewis, comment, on Shakspeare •
Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian . ,
Theodosius, Flavins, Roman emperor and warrior
Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . .
Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer
Thesiger, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England .
Thespis, poet, said to he the inventor of tragedy
Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian . •
Thierry, Jas. Nich. Augustine, historian • ,
, Am^dee S. D., historian , •
Eng.
Swiss,
Eng.
Amer,
Amer,
Eng,
Ger,
Eng.
Eng.
Bom.
Amer.
Eng.
Ger,
Ger.
Ger.
Gr.
Fr.
Gr.
Eng.
Gr.
Rom.
Gr.
Span.
Eng.
Gr.
Fr.
Fr.
Ft.
1777
1864
1774
1810
1754
1833
1493
1569
1544
159£
1836
1^25
1787
1865
1613
1667
1580
1654
1714
1788
1758
1835
1817
1800
1849
1784
1850
1813
1757
1834
1354
1628
1698
1703
1764
1705
1777
1804
1761
1819
ISIO
1762
1832
0. 192
160
245
1811
1863
1752
1828
1812
C. 639 B.
0. 543
C. 535 B.
c. 470
0, 285
1744
383
457
346
395
0. 371
1515
1582
1794
c. 576
1795
1858
1797
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
83
KATION.
Fr.
Ger.
Ger.
Ger.
Amer.
Scot.
Amer.
Scot.
Scot.
Amer.
Dan.
Gr.
Gr.
Eng.
Eom.
Eom.
Eiig.
Amer.
Ger.
Kng.
Ger.
Gr.
Tart
Hind.
Swiss.
Rom.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Russ.
Eng.
Amer.
Irish.
Eug.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Span.
Irish.
Amer.
NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN.
Thiers, A dolphe, historian and statesman . , • 1798
Thiersch, F. W., Greek philologist, «&c. . , , 1784
Thirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. David's, historian , 1797
Tboluck, Fred. Aug., theologian .... 1799
Thompson, Benj. See Rumford . . , .
, Col. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author 1783
Thomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer , , 1778
, Chas., president of Congress , . , 1729
, Dr. Thomas, chemist • . . , 1773
, James, popular poet . , • 1700
Thoreau, Henry D., naturalist, geologist and essayist , . 1817
Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor . . , , 1771
Thrasybulus, Athenian general ....
Thucydides, historian . . . , . b. c. 469
Thurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor . . . 1732
Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, warrior and emperor , b. c. 84
TibuUus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet . , , f. b. c. 30
Tickell, Thomas, poet and essayist in Spectator . , 1686
Ticknor, George, historian of Spanish literature . . 1791
Tieciv, Ludwig, poet and essayist .... 1773
Tighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, 'Psyche' .... 1774
Tillotson. John, eminent prelate and archb. Canterbury . 1630
Tilly, John F, count de, military commander. . . 1559
Timoleon, of Coiinth, liberator of Syracuse • .
Timour Beg. See Tamerlane . . •
Tippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior , , 1739
Tissot, Simon A., medical writer • . . . 1728
Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavins, emperor, father of his people 40
1770
1805
1810
1818
1750
1774
1763
1736
1774
1744
1740
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
Bom,
Tobin, John, dramatist, ' Honey Moon ' ,
Tocqueville, Alexis de, publicist and statesman
Todd, Robt. B., ' Medical Cyclopaedia ' &c.
Todleben, Fr. Edw., gen. of engineers . ,
Tomline, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop ofWinchester ,
Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. U. S. , ,
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion
Tooke, John Home, politician and philologist . ,
, Thos., 'History of Prices' ...
, "Wm., miscellaneous writer , . ,
Toplady, Augustus M., eminent divine ...
Torquemada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general . ,
Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist , .
Torrey, John, botanist and chemist ,
Torricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, inv. of barometer .
Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome .
Totten, Joseph G., military engineer . . ,
Touro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist . ,
Toussaint I'Ouverture, negro, pres. of Hayti , ,
Townsend, Geo., prebendary, ' Comment, on Bible '
Tracy, A. L. C. Dectutt, comte de, writer on Education and Phi-
losophy ......
Traill, Thos. J., editor 'Encyclo. Britannlca' , ,
Trajan, Marcus U. C, able emperor and warrior • •
1783
1608
1788
1776
1745
1754
1781
52
1849
1824
1853
1748
1862
1844
B. c. 389
B C. 400
1806
37
1740
1853
1810
1694
1632
B. c. 337
1799
1797
81
1804
1859
1787
1825
1798
1812
1858
1820
1778
1498
1840
1647
352
1854
180J
1857
1836
1862
117
84
THE WOELD'S PKOGEESS.
ITATIUK,
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Eng.
Fr
Eng.
Dutch.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Tredgold, Thos., civil engineer and author
Trench, Kev. Rich, Ohenevix, poet, philologist and theologian
Trenck, Fred., baron de, celebrated for his adventures ,
Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah, misc. writer . ,
Tristan, I'Hermite, Francis, poet . , ,
Trollope, Mrs. Frances, novelist and traveller ,
Tromp, Martin H. van, celebrated admiral , ,
Trooet, Gerard, chemist and geologist
Trumbull. Col. John, statesman and hist, painter ,
, Benj., historian of Connecticut . ,
■ , Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut •
, John, poet, born in Ct.
Truio, Thos., baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-lord-chancellor ,
Truxton, Thos., naval commander . ,
Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical writer , ,
, Beverley, lawyer and novelist , ,
Amer. Tuckerman, Henry T., critic and essayist . ,
Amer. • , Jos., writer and philanthropist
Amer. Tudor, Wm., editor JM. Amer. Eev. and biographer ,
Eng. Tupper, Martin Farquhar, poet and essayist
Fr. Turenne, Viscount de, eminent warrior
Fr. Turgot, Anne Robt. Jas., statesman . .
Eng. Turner, Dawson, botanist and antiquary , ,
Eng. , Edward, 'Elements of Chemistry' ,
Amer. , Samuel H., Rev., theologian and critic
Eng. , Sharon, 'History of England' . ,
Amer. , Wm. W., printer and philologist . ,
Turretin, Benedict, theologian, (Prof, at Geneva) .
, Francis, (son) " " " ,
, John A. (sou) « '« »
Eng. Tusser, Thos., author of ' 500 points of Good Husbandry'
Amer. Twiggs, David E,, rebel general . . . . ,
Eng. Twining, Rev. Thos., translator of Aristotle , .
Amer. Tyler, John, ex-pres. U. S., and ]-ebel
Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer and first translator of the Bible
English .....
Amer» Tyng, Stephen H., D. D., epis. divine and author ,
Eng. Tyrrell, James, historian ....
Gr. Tyrtaeus, poet ....
Scot. Tytler, Alex. Eraser, historical and misc. writer
Scot. , Patrick Eraser, historian, ' Life Mary Queen of Scots
goot. — — » "Wm., historical and misc. writer • .
1788
1807
1726
1741
1601
1778
1597
1776
1756
1735
1740
1750
1782
1755
1705
1784
1778
1779
1810
1611
1727
1798
1791
1768
1810
1588
1623
1671
1500
1790
1734
1790
1500
1800
1642
C. 668
1747
1790
1711
G-er. Uhland, Ludwig, poet . . ,
Span. IJlloa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author •
Uncas, North American Indian chief (Mohegans)
Eng. Upcott, William, autograph collector and historian
Amer. Upshur, Abel P., of Va., judge and secretaiy of state
Scot. Uie, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author .
Irish. Usher, James, learned divine and historian
1787
1716
1680
1779
1778
1580
BIOGRAPHICAL INDiiiX.
83
BTATIOK. NAME AND FBOFESSION*
Fr. Vailliant, SebastiiL*, eminent botanist . , T
Dutch. Valcknenaer, Louis Gaspar, able philologist and oritio .
Fr. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses ,
Valentia, George A., viscount, ♦ Voyages and Travels '
Bom. Valerian, emperor . . . . •
Kom. Valerius Flaccus, poet . • • •
liom. Maximus, historian . • • •
Ital. Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist . •
Amer. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States •
Eng. Vancouver, George, navigator ...
Eng. Vandenhoff, John, actor , • • •
Amer. Vanderlyn, John, historical painter . • •
Dutch. Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India • •
Amer. Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general • .
Eiig. Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism • .
Amer. Van Ness, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist .
Amer. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, ' the Patroon ' • •
Rom. Varro, Marcus T., the most learned of the Romans
Itah Vasari. George, architect and biog,, ' Lives of the Painters '
Ger, Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist
Fr. Vattel, F. de, jurist, author of Law of Nations ,
Fr. Vaugban, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer
Eng. Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., * dissenting ' divine and historian
Span. Vega, Garcilasso de, poet ....
Span. , Lopez de, dramatic poet
Fr. Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon
Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior
Eng. Venn, Rev. Henry, 'Whole Duty of Man'
Ital. Verdi, Giuseppe, musical composer .
Eng. Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet ,
Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter .
Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral
Eng. , Robert, founder of Vernon Gallery
Fr. Veron, Louis D6sire, author and journalist
Amer. Verplanck, Gulian C, scholar and critic
Fr. Veriot, Ren6 Hubert, abbe de, historian .
Eng. Vertue, George, engraver and antiquary
Rom. Vespasian, Titus Flavins, warrior and emperor
Ital. Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given
to the new world
Eng. Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress
Ital. Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy
Eng. Victoria Alexandi-ina, queen of Great Britain
Eng. Vicars, Hedley H., capt.
Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet
Fr. Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective police
Fr. Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist . ,
Fr. Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critio
Fr. Villiirs, Louis Hector, duke of, able general
Ex. Villemain, Abel, Fr. politician and anitxor
BOEK.
DIED
1669
1722
1715
1785
f. 12th cent.
1770
1844
260?
88?
f. 30
1406
1457
1782
1864
1750
1798
1790
1776
1852
1593
1645
1823
1863
1612
1662
. 1781
1851
1764
1839
B.e. 116
B. 0. 27
1512
1574
1771
1826
1714
1767
1633
1707
1503
1536
1562
1635
1795
1654
1712
1725
1797
1814
1846
1789
1864
1684
1759
1774
1849
1798
1655
1735
1684
1756
79
. 1451
1516
1797
1858
1820
1819
1826
1855
1490
1566
1775
1850
1820
1799
16-)3
1734
. 1791
86
THE WOBU>'S PKOGEESS.
KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Eug. Vince, Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer
Fr. Vinet, Alex. E,., theologian
Eom. Virgi 1, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of Roman poets
Ital. Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary . .
Ital. Vitruvius PoUio, Marcus, architect , «
Ital. Vittoria Colonna, Bcholur . .
Ruse. Vladimir the G-reat, grand duke • •
Dutch. Voet, John, jurist at Leyden • •
Dutch. , Paul, jurist at Utrecht • .
Ger. Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist • ,
Fr. Volney, count, celebrated -writer . •
Ital. Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery)
Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet
and historian . , ,
Ger. Voss, J. G., historical painter • •
BOSN.
DIED
imer
1821
.
,
1797
1847
Oman poets
B. c. 70
B. c. 19
• •
1831
- ,
f.
B. c. 27
^ ,
1490
1547
•
,
lOlE
, ,
1647
1714
,
,
1619
1667
^
1829
1856
,
,
1757
1820
, .
1745
1826
philosopher
»
, ,
1694
1778
,
,
1577
1649
Ger. "Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic , ,
Amer. Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist ,
Amer. , James S. (son), patriotic general ,
Ger. "Wagner, Rudolph, physiologist . ,
Amer. "Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York •
Eng. Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, political economist
Eng. , Gilbert, scholar and critic . ,
Amer. Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian . .
Fr. Walewski, Florian, count, statesman . ,
Eng. Walker, John, lexicographer . ,
Amer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretary of treasury
Amer. , ■William, ' filibustering ' adventurer
Amer. Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist
Scot. , "William, patriot and hero
Irish. , "William Vincent, musical composer .
Ger. Walleustein, A. E. V., celebrated general .
Eng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet
Eng. , Sir William, parliamentary general •
Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author ,
Eng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman •
Amer. Walsh, Robert, author and journalist
Eng. Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman .
Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of New York
Eng. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist
jjng, J Izaak, angler and biographer
Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. Y.
Eng. Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer ,
Amer. Ward, Artemas, officer in the Revolution
Bcot. Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian
Amer. Ware, Henry, rev.. Unitarian theologian and author
_^mer. , Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author
Amer. , William, novelist, ' Zonobia,' &c.
Amer. Warren, John Collins, eminent surgeon
Amer. , Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill
1768
1844
1807
1864
1805
1792
1854
1796
1862
1756
1801
1762
1864
1810
1732
1807
1801
1824
1860
1817
1852
1276
1305
1815
1865
1583
1634
1603
16^7
1597
1688
1713
1797
1676
1745
1784
18£8
1586
1590
1815
1865
1600
1661
1593
1683
1789
1698
1779
1748
1800
1780
1853
1764
1845
1794
1843
1797
1852
1778
1856
1741
1776
BIOGEAPHICAI INDEX.
8^
KATION. KAME AND PROFESSION.
Amer. "Wat i en, Mrs. Mercy, Mstorian, ' American Beview* .
Eng. — , Samuel, jurist and novelist, * 10,000 a Yeax' • •
Eng. Sir John Borlase, naval oflBcer . . • *
Eng. "Wartoii, Joseph, poet and critic ....
Eng. ■ , Thomas, poet and critic
Eng. "Warwick, E.. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, ' king-maker'
Amer. "Washington, Bushrod, justice of supreme court of U. S.
Amer. , George, ihe father of his country
Amer, , "Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution . .
Eng. "Waterland, Rev. Dr., theological and polemical writer •
Amer. "Watson, Elkanah, merchant, agrictdturist, and historian .
Scot. Robert, historian ....
Eng. , Richard, eminent prelate and writer . . •
Scot. Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer .
Scot. , Robert, bibliographer ....
Eng. "Watts, Alaric Alex., poet and journalist . . ,
Eng. Dr. Isaac, di-sdne, poet, and miscellaneous writer .
Amer. "Wayland, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and x>olit. econ.
Avner. "Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution ,
Eng. Weale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &e. .
"Webber, Charles "W., naturalist and author . •
Weber, Carl Maria von, eminent composer , ,
Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critic • ,
Webster, John, dramatic poet . « • ,
— , Daniel, statesman . , , ,
— , Noah, author of English Dictionary , *
Amer.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Amer.
Scot.
Eng.
Amer,
Anaer.
Irish,
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Scot.
Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . ,
Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain , ,
Weems, Rev. Mason L., author of school biographies •
Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . . .
"Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut.
of Ireland ... . .
Wellington, Arthur "Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statesman
"Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author
, Edward, theologian and scholar . , , .
, Horace, dentist, discoverer of anaesthesia . ,
"Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review .
BORN.
1728
1807
1754
1720
1728
1759
1732
1752
1683
1758
1730
1737
1736
1774
1799
1674.
1796
1745
1792
1819
1786
1783
17tli
1782
1758
1733
1731
1821
1760
1769
1815
1794
Eng- Am. "Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Bamp., alec gov. of Nova Scotia 1736
Eng.
Gei-.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford
edu-
"Werner, Abraham Theophilus, mineralogist
, Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist , ,
"Wesley, Rev. Charles, 'Hymns' . .
, John, founder of Methodist society , ,
"Westall, Richard, historical painter
"WTiateley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, theological and
cational writer .....
Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess ...
■ , Rev. Charles, on ' Book of Common Prayer »
Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator
Wheatstone, Charles, electrician . . ,
"Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Dartmouth College
Whewell, Rev. William, theol., scientific and educational writer 1795
1593
1750
1768
1708
1703
1765
1787
1753
1686
1785
1802
1711
DIED.
1814
1822
1800
1790
1471
1829
1709
1810
1740
1842
1780
1816
1819
1819
1864
1748
1865
1796
1862
1856
1826
1813
cent.
1852
1843
1805
1795
1825
1852
1842
1852
1727
1848
1845
1820
1641
1817
1823
1788
1791
1837
1863
1794
1742
1848
1779
1866
88
THE WORLD'S PEOGKESS.
HATIOir. STAME AND PROFESSION.
Amer. Whipple, Edwin P., critic and essayist . *
Amer. Whistler, George Wm., engineer of Russian railways •
ilng. Whiston, "Wm., divine, mathematician and translator .
Eug. Whitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament
Eng. White, Henry Kirke, poet ....
, Bev. Joseph Blanco, priest and English author
Eng, > , William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church
in United States ....
Eng. Whitefleld, George, founder of the Calvanistic Methodists •
Amer. Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin . , ,
Amer. Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet and essayist , .
Amer. Whittingham, Wm. E., epie. bp.of Maryland and author
Whittington, Sir Richard, lord mayor of London . .
Wickliffe, or Wicklif, John, the morning star of the Reformation
Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer . ,
Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian , . »
Wilberforce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author , •
, William, statesman and philanthropist •
Eng.
Eng.
Ger.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng,
Scot.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Euff.
WUde, Richard Henry, poet and Zz^ieraiew?" , «
Wilkes, John, celebrated political character « •
Wilkie, Sir David, historical painter
Wilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologian
, Sir Charles, oriental philologist . •
Wilkinson, James, general in Revolution and author .
'■ , Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist . •
Williams of Wykeham, arch-ecclesiast and statesman
Amer. Williams, Eleazar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVIL
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
En. Am.
, Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer .
, John, missionary and author . ,
, Major-gen. Sir Fen wick, defender of Kara
, Otho H., general
— — , Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island
Amer. Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N. Carolina .
Amer. Willis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jour
nalist ...,,,
Wilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist . , ,
, Daniel, bishop of Calcutta • . ,
, Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit •
■■ , John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist
, Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author . . ,
Winekelman, John Joachim, ' History of Art '
Scot.
Eng.
Eng.
Scot.
Eng.
Ger.
Aust.
Eng.
Ger.
Swiss
Windischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo
Windham, William, statesnian . . .
Winer, George Bened., prot. theologian . •
Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot . . •
En.Am. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony .
Eng. , Forbes, phjsician and writer on insanity ,
Amer. , Hubbard, D.D., editor and author
Amer. , Miron, D. D., missionary and orientalist ,
Eng. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, * court p;unter' ,
En-Am. Winthrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . •
Bn.Aia. — j John (.son), governor of Connecticut .
BOSN.
1819
1800
1667
1638
1785
1775
1747
1714
1765
1808
1805
1324
1733
1792
1805
1759
1789
1717
1785
1614
1757
1797
1324
1787?
1762
1796
1800
1748
1606
1735
1807
1766
1778
1808
1785
1717
1787
1750
1789
1595
1810
1800
1789
]dS8
1606
SIOGEAPHICAL ESTDES:.
89
ITATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Wiiithrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot
Amer. Wirt, WiUiam, attorney-general U. S. and bii )graplaer
Eng. Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal, Roaiau catholic theol. and author
Amer. Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist
Eng. Withers, George, poet ....
Amer, "Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot • .
Dutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian . • • •
Scot. Wodrow, JElobert, ecclesiastical historian • •
Irish. Woffington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . • •
Eng. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, poet . .
Amer. , Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence
Amer. , Roger, colonial governor of Conn. •
Eng. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller , .
Ger. , Fred. Aug., classical author and critic . •
Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general . , ,
Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ' Sir John Moore ' . •
Ger. Wolff, John Christian, philosopher aud mathematician .
Eng. Wollaston, William Hyde, experimental philos. ,
Eng. Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman , .
Eng. "WoUstonecroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author • •
Eng. Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biographer . ,
Eng. , Robert, archseologist and secretary of state .
Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist . , ,
Eng. Woodfall, William, newspaper publisher (Junius) 4
Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician and astronomer •
Scot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Eraser Tytler (see Tytler) historian
Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian • . . ,
Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward lY. , ,
Amer. Woodworth, Samuel, poet, 'Oaken Bucket ' , ,
Amer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S. army • ,
Amer. Woolman, John (Quaker), philanthropist , ,
Amer Wooster, David, Revolutionary general . ,
Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, ' Century of Inventions *
, Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer •
Wordsworth, Rev. Christ., • Ancient Greece ' . ,
, William, poet laureate . , ,
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Aust.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Worth, William J., major-general TJ. S. army , ,
Wortley, Lady Emeline C. E., traveller and author ,
Wotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . • ,
Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian .
Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect , ,
Wright, Eanny (Madame Darusmont), * Social Reformer'
, Silas, governor of New York and senator U. S. ,
, Thomas, antiquarian author , ,
Wnrmser, D. S., field-marshal in Aastrian army , ,
Wyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author ,
, Sir Thomas, poet and statesman . , ,
"Wycherley, William, dramatic poet , , ,
"Wycliffe, see Wickliffe, reformer ...
Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanth.
Wyndham, Sir William, statesman . . ,
BOEN,
DIED.
1828
1861
1772
1835
r 1802
1865
. 1761
1818
1590
1667
. 1722
1794
1636
1708
1679
1734
1719
1760
1738
1818
1727
1797
16-79
1767
1795
, 1862
1759
1824
1726
1759
1791
1823
1679
1754
1766
1828
1471
1530
1759
1797
1632
1695
1716
1771
1789
1851
1745
1822
1773
1827
. 1747
1813
1770
1851
1486?
1785
1842
. 1789
1720
1773
1710
1777
1667
1784
1865
1770
1850
1770
1850
1794
1849
1806
1855
» 1568
J 689
1751
1831
1632
1723
1796
1853
1795
1847
1810
1717
1797
• 1820
1503
1540
1640
1715
. 1324
1404
1324
1404
1687
174«
90
TELE WORLD'S PEOGEESS.
KATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION.
Eng. Wyse, Sir Thomas, M. P., writer on education .
Amer. Wytte, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot
180a
Fr.
Gr.
Gr.
Gr.
Pers.
Pers.
Span.
Amer.
I^iig.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Gr.
Span.
Ital.
Heb.
Ital.
Gr.
Gr.
Heb.
Ger.
Swiss.
Ger.
Swiss.
Eng.
Gr.
Ger.
Swiss.
Qcr.
Xavier, St, Francis, ' Apostle to the Indies' .
Xenocrates, philosopher . . .
Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics
Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and general
Xerxes I., king of Persia
XL, king of Persia . . .
Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman
Yale, Elihu, early patron of Yale College •
Yarrcll, William, naturalist and author. •
Youatt, William, author of works on the horse
Young, Alex., D. D., historian of Pilgrims .
, Arthur, agricultural writer . ,
, Brigham, leader of the Mormons , •
— — , Charles, actor . . •
, Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer •
, Thomas, physician and philosopher
Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern :
Y riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet
Z
Zaccaria, Francis A, voluminous writer •
Zechariah, the prophet . . , • , f. B,
Zeno, Apostolo, eminent writer . • • .
Zeno of Elea, philosopher . .
, founder of the sect of Stoics . . . b.
Zenobia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and patroness of
the arts ....
Zephaniah, the prophet ....
Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist
, John George, miscellaneous writer .
Zinzendorf, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians
Zolikofer, G. J., theologian
Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher .
Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer
Zozimus, historian ....
Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, ' Tales*
Zuinglius, Ulric, enlightened reformer • •
Zumpt, Earl, author of Latin Grammar • •
1506 1552
B. c. 406 B. c. 314
t B. C. 540
B. c. 446 B. c. 360
B c. 465
B. c. 425
1457 1517
1648
1784
1777
1800
1741
1801
1777
1681
1774
1792
1750
1714
C. 520
1668
c. 463
c. 362
c. 520
1743
1728
1700
1730
1737
f . 400
1771
1484
1792
1721
1856
1847
1854
1820
1856
1765
1829
1828
1790
1795
1750
B. C. 264
300
1815
1795
1760
1788
1815
1848
1531
185S
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX.— ARTISTS. 91
ARTISTS.
PAINTERS— ENGEAVEES—SOULPTOES—AECHITEOTS.
NATION. NAME AND PEOFESSION. BOEN. DEED.
Gr. Agatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. B.C. 480
Gr. Ageldas ..... Sculptor, f. b. C. 5tli Cent,
Gr. Agesander, sculptor of 'Laocoon and his Children' Sculptor. B. c. 5th Cent.
Ital. Albano, Francis, ' the painter of the Graces ' . Painter. 1578 1660
Ital. Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa., Sc, and Archit. 1400 1490
Ital. Albertinelli, Mariotto .... Painter. 1520
Gr. Alcarmenes (pupil of Phidias) . • Sculptor. f. B. c. 450
Scot. Allan, Sir William .... Painter. 1781 1850
Amer. Allston, Washington . , Port, and Histor. Painter. 1779 1843
Ital. Andrea del Sarto .... Painter. 1488 1530
Ital. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., Sc, and Arch. 1474 1563
Ital. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . . . Painter. 1569 1609
Gr. Apeiles, the most celebrated of ancient painters • Painter. f. b. o. 330
Gr. ApoUodorus, an Athenian . . , Painter. f. b. o. 408
Ital. Appiani, of Milan .... Painter. 1754 1817
Gr. Aristides, of Thebes . , , . Painter. f. b. c. 240
Ft. Audran, Gerard, celebrated • • Histor. Engraver. 1640 1703
(Eight painters and engravers named Andran nearly conlemporaiy.)
Ital. Baccio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra Bartolo
meo) . • •
Eng. Bacon, John . • •
Amer. Baker, Geo. A. (K Y.) •
Flem. Balen, Henry van • •
[tal. Bandinelli, Baccio . • •
Eng. Banks, Thomas , ,
Dutch. Barents, Dietrich . . .
[rish. Barker, Robert, inventor of panoramas
[rish. Barry, James . . • ,
Eng. Barry, Sir Chas. . ,
[tal. Bartolini, Lorenzo , •
[taL Bartolozzi, Francesco . ,
[tal. Bartolomeo, Fra di San Marco .
[tal. Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leander
[taL Batoni, Pompey . . •
Jer. Bauer, Ferdinand . • «
B3ng. Beechy, Sir WiUiam • •
^mer. Beard, Wm. H. (N. Y.) •
BJng. Beaumont, Sir George H. •
[tal. Bella, Stefano Delia, Florentin* ,
Painter.
1469
1517
, Sculptor.
1740
1799
, Port. Painter.
Painter.
1560
1632
• Sculptor.
1489
1559
Sculptor.
1745
1805
Histor. Painter.
1534
1582
Painter.
1740
1806
Painter.
1741
1805
Architect.
1795
1860
. Sculptor.
1777
1850
• Engraver.
1730
1813
Painter.
1469
1517
sander Painters.
16th Century.
. Painter.
1708
1787
Botanical Painter.
1826
Landscape Painter.
1753
1839
• Painter.
Painter.
1753
1827
• Engraver.
1610
1684
92 THE WORLD'S PROGEESS.
NATION. NAME AND PBOFESSION. BOSS. DIED.
Ital. Bellini, Giov., founder of the Venetian school . Painter. 1462 1512
ItaL Bellini, Gentine . . . . Portrait Painter. 1421 1501
Ital, Benini, Giovanni L. . . Painter, Sculp'r, and Arch't. 1598 1680
JFlem. Berchem, Nicholas , . . Engraver. 1624 1689
Eng. Bewick, John, publisher of various works with, wood-
cuts . , . . Wood Engraver. 1760 1795
Amer. Bierstadt, Albert (N". Y.) • . Landscape Painter.
Eng. Bird, Edward ..... Painter. 1772 1819
Eng. Blake, WilUam . , . Painter and Engraver. 1757 1826
Flem. Bologna, John of (in Italy) . Sculptor and Architect. 1524 1608
Eng. Bone, Henry , , , Enamel Painter. 1755 18o4
Ital. Bordone, Paris . . • • . Painter. 1503 1588
Dutch. Both, John and Andrew • . . Painters. 1610 1650, '56
Fr. Bourdon, Sebastian . • Painter and Engraver. 1616 1671
Swiss. Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). • Painter. 1756 1811
Eng. Boydell, Jno, (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 1719 1804
Dutch. Brentel, Francis .... Painter, f. 1635
Ital. Bramanfe D'Urbino, Francis L., (1st of St, Peter's
Church) .... Architect. 1444 1514
Amer, Brevoort, J. R. (N. Y.) . • Landscape Painter.
Dutch. Brill, Matthew .... Painter. 1550 1584
Dutch. Brill, Paul . , , Landscape Painter. 1556 1626
Amer. Brown, Geo. L. . , . . Painter.
Amer. Brown, Henry Kirke • . • • Sculptor. 1814
Flem, Bruges, John of, or John Van Eyck • . Painter. 1370 1441
Ital. Brunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence . Architect. 1377 1444
Ital. Buonarotti, see Angelo
Eng. Burnett, James . . . Landscape Painter. 1788 1816
€
Ital. Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 1532 1588
Ital. Cagliari, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and
sons of Paul
Eng. Calcott, Sir Au W. • • Landscape Painter. 1779 1844
ItaL Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio ... Painter. 1495 1543
Gr. Calimachus ... Sculptor and Architect. f. b. o. 540
Ital. Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese . . . Painter. 1527 158?
Ital. Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lands. Painter. 1697 1768
Ital. Canova, Antonio .... Sculptor. 1757 1822
Ital. Caracci, Ludovico • • • . Painter. 1555 1619
Ital. Caracci, Agostino , . .' • Painter. 1558 1601
Ital. Caracci, Annibale .... Painter. 1560 1609
Ital. Caracci, Anthony .... Painter. 1583 1618
ItaL Caravaggio, see Angelo . . . •
Ital. Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oscuro
witb three plates to imitate drawings . . I486 1530
Fr. Casas, Louis Francis , , Painter and Architect. 1756 1827
Amer. Casilear, John W. (N. Y.) , . Lands. Painter.
Span. Castillo y Saavedra, Anthony . . Painter. 1603 1667
Ital. Cavendone, James . . , Fresco-Painter. 1577 1508
Ital. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, author of auto-
biography . . . . • Painter. 1500 1570
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. — AETISTS.
93
KATION
NAME AND
PROFESSION.
BORN.
PIED.
ISpan.
Cespedes.Paulde
Pamter, Sculptor, Architect.
1538
1608
Flem.
Champagne, Philip de •
Painter,
1604
1674
, John Baptist
, , Painter.
1643
1688
Eng.
Chantry, Sir Francis •
, , , Sculptor.
1781
1841
Amer.
Chapman, John G.
, . Hist. Painter.
Gr.
Chares . . .
« , . Painter.
f.r.
0. SOO
Fr.
Chaudet, Anthony Denis
, Painter and Sculptor.
1763
1810
Amer.
Church, Fred. E. ,
, , Lands. Painter.
Ital.
Cignani, Carlo
, , Painter.
1628
1719
Itiil.
C.muhue, Giov., Florentine
, , Painter.
1240
1300
Ital.
Claude Gelce— called Claude Lorraine . . Painter.
1600
1682
Gr.
Cltomenes, an Athenian, (the Medicean Yenus) . Sculptor.
f.B.
C. 180
Amer.
Cievcnger, Shobal Vail
,
Sculptor.
1812
1844
AiiiGr.
Cole, Thomas . .
Lands, and Hist. Painter.
1802
1848
Eng-.
Collins, William
,
Lands. andFam. life Painter.
1788
1847
Amer.
Colman, Sam!. {N. T.) .
, . T-ands. Painter.
Eng.
Constable, John
•
, . Painter.
1776
1837
Eng.
Cooper, Samuel . , ,
, Miniature Painter.
16S9
1776
Amer.
Copley, John Singleton (born in
Boston) . Painter.
1737
1815
Ger.
Cornelius, Peter von ,
Painter.
1787
Ital.
Correggio, Ant., founder of the Lombard school Painter.
1493
1534
Dutch.
Cort, Cornelius ,
• Engraver.
1536
1578
Ital.
Cortona, Pietro da, Tuscan
,
, Painter.
1596
1669
El!g.
Cosway, Richard
, • • Painter.
1740
1828
Fr.
Courtois, James, known as 11 Borgognone • Painter.
1621
1673
Fr.
, , , Painter.
1628
1679
Fr.
Couture
,
. Painter.
Fr.
Couston, Nicholas (also his brother William) . Sculptor.
1658
1731
Fr.
^ William
, Sculptor and Architect.
1716
1777
Fr.
Cousin, John ,
,
Paint., Sculp., etc.
1500
1690
Eng.
Cox, David
• , Lands. Painter,
1723
1859
Gar.
Cianach, Lucas
•
, . Engraver.
1470
1553
Amer.
Crunch, Christr, P. •
, • . Painter.
Amer.
Crawford, Thomas .
,
• . Sculptor.
1814
1857
Amer.
Cropsey, Jasper F. (N. Y.)
• , Lands. Painter.
Dutch. Cuyp, Jacob G.
,
Lands, and Cattle Painter.
1568
1649
Dutch.
, Albert (son of Jacob)
, Lands, and Cattle Painter.
1606
1667
Dutch.
, Benjamin ,
•
• • Hist. Painter.
1660
Eng.
Danby, Francis . • • , Painter.
1793
1S61
Eng.
Daniel, Tliomas . , • . Lands. Painter.
1749
1840
Eng.
, Wm, • • « . Lands. Painter.
1769
1837
Ger.
Danneckcr, John Henry, ' Adriadne,' &c. . Sculptor.
1758
1813
Amer.
Darky, F. 0. C. . . . Painter and Designer.
1822
Fr.
David, James Louis .... Painter.
1750
1825
Fr.
, Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French
school) . . . • . Sculptor.
1789
1856
Fr.
Delacroix, F. V. E. . , , , Painter.
1798
1S63
Fr.
Delaroche, Paul , , • Hist. Painter.
1797
1S56
94 THE world's PROGEESS.
NATIOK. NAME AND PBOFESSION. BOKN.
Ger. Denner, Balthasar .... Port. Painter. 1685
Dutch, De Witt, Janjcs .... Painter. 1695
Gr. Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &c.) Architect.
Ital. Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter.
Ital. Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter.
Itul. Donatello, or Donato . . . Florentine Sculptor.
Fr. Dor6, Gustave . . . Painter and Designer.
Amcr. Doughty, Thomas . • . I>ands. Painter. 1793
Dutch. Douw, or Dow, Gerard . • Familiar Life Painter. 1613
Fr. Dubuffe, .... Hist. Painter.
Fr. Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonse • . Painter. 1611
Amer. Dunlap, William . . Hist. Painter. 1766
Amer. Durand, Asher B. (N. Y.) . . Painter and Engraver.
Ger. Durer, Albert (aud author) . Paint,, Eng., Sc, and Arch. 1471
Eng. Eastlake, Chas. L. , . . , Painter. 1793
Ger. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. 1768
Eng. Eginton, Francis, restorer of the art of painting on
glass ..... Painter. 1737
Amer. Ehninger, John "W. (N. Y.) . . . Painter.
Amer. Elliott, Chas. L. (N. Y.) . . . Port. Painter.
Eng. Etty, Wm. . • . . . Painter. 1787
Gr. Eupompus (founder of school at Sicyon) . Painter.
Dutch. Eyck, John van (said to have invented painting in oil) Painter. 1370
F
Ital.Am.Fagnani, G. . . • . Port. Painter.
Eng. Fielding (Copley Vandyke) . . . Lands. Painter.
Eng. Flaxman, John . . . . Sculptor and Artist. 1755
Eng. Finden, Wm. .... Engraver. 1787
Amer. Forbes, Edwin ..... Painter.
Scot. Forrest, Robert .... Sculptor. 1790
Fr. Frere, Edouard . . . Genre Painter.
Swiss. Fuseli, Henry (resided in England . . Painter. 1741
Swiss. , John G. . . . . . Painter. 1706
Eng. Gainsborough, Thomas . . . Lands. Painter. 1727
Fr. Gerard, Fran. P. S., baron , . . Painter. 1770
Fr. , John I. (Granville) . . . Caricaturist. 1803
Ital. Ghiberti, Lawrence . . . Florentine Sculptor. 1378
Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak . Sculptor. 1648
Eng. Gibson, John ..... Sculptor. 1791
Amer. Gifford, Sanford R. . . . . Lands. Painter.
Fr.Am. Gignoux, Regis . . . Lands. Painter.
Ital. Giordani, Luke (the Proteus of Painting) . Painter. 1629
Ital, Giorgione, Barbarelli . . . . Painter. 1477
Ital. Giotto (one of the earliest modern) . Paint Sculp, and Arch. 1276
Fr. Girardon, Francis . . . Sculp, and Arch. 1630
Fr. Girodet, Trioson Aim6 Louia . ■ . Painter. 1767
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. — ^AETISTS.
95
NAME AND PROFESSION.
Giulio Komano (Pippi) .... Painter,
Goujon, John, the French Phidias . . Sculptor.
Amer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter.
Amer. Greenougb, Horatio . • . Sculptor.
Greene, E. D. E. . , . Port. Paiuter.
Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter.
Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter.
Guido, K,eni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) Painter.
KATION
Ital.
Fr.
Amer.
Fr.
Ital.
ItaL
lOKH.
DIKU
1492
1546
1515
1572
1805
1726
1590
1574
1852
1805
1606
1642
Eng. Harlow, Geo. Henry
Amer. Hart, "Wm., b, in Scotland
Amer. Hart, Jas. M. «*
Amer. Haseltine, W. Stanley
Eng. Haviland, John ,
Eng. Haydon, R. B.
Amer. Healy, Gr^o. P.
Eng. Heath, Charles
Amer. Hennessy, "W. L •
Amer. Hicks,"Thos. .
Eng. Hilton, "William .
Flem. Hobbema, Myuderhout
Eng. Hogarth, William
Swiss. Holbein, Hans
Ger. Hollar, Wenceslaus, executed 2,400 plates
Amer. Homer, Winslow
Flem. Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda del Notte)
Amer. Hosmer, Harriet , . ,
Dutch. Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) . .
Fr. Houdon (executed statue of Franklin)
Fr. Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver.
Amer. Hubbai'd, Rich. W". .... Painter.
Amer. Hughes, Ball (b. in England) ,
Amer, Huntington, Dan. ,
Eng. Himt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) .
Dutch. Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit)
Dutch. , Justus (The Old)
Dutch. (The Young)
• • . Painter.
• • Painter.
• • . Painter.
. Landscape Painter.
• . . Architect.
, Histoiical Painter.
. . , Painter.
Engraver.
... Painter.
Painter.
Historical Painter.
Landscape Painter.
Painter.
Portrait and Historical Painter.
Engraver.
Painter.
Painter.
Sculptor.
Engraver.
Sculptor.
Sculptor.
Painter.
Painter.
Painter.
Painter.
Painter.
178T
1823
1828
1792
1786
1808
1823
1786
1611
1697
1498
1607
1592
1831
169S
1746
1736
1816
1827
1682
1659
1684
1819
1846
1849
1764
1554
1677
1780
1828
1813
1749
1716
1706
Amer. Inman, Henry
Portrait and Landscape Painter. 1801
1846
Amer.
Amer.
Amer.
Fr.
Fr.
Amer.
Eng.
Amer.
Jarvis, J. "W. .
Johnson, Eastman (N. Y.>
, David (N. Y.) .
Johannot, Chas. H. A.
■
a
• •
•
Portrait Painter.
Painter.
Painter.
Painter and Designer.
Paiuter and Designer.
Engraver.
Architect.
Sculptor.
1800
1803
1572
1887
Jones, Alfred, N. Y.
, Inigo ,
, Thos. D.
1852
1653
9Q
THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS.
KATION
KAMB AND PROFESSION.
BORN.
DIED.
Flem.
Jordaens, JacoT)
Painter,
1595
167t
ItaU
Julio, Romano . . . Painter and Architect.
1492
1540
Swiss.
K
Kauffinan, M. A. Angelica C. (in England)
Poetical Painter.
1747
1807
Amer.
Kensett, John F. . . .
Painter.
1818
Ger.
Kiss, August ,
. Sculptor.
1802
1865
Ger.
Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England)
v
Painter.
1648
1723
Dutcli.
Ma
Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painter and Engraver.
1640
1711
Fr.
Landon, C, P. . . Writer on Art and Painter.
1826
Eng.
Landseer, Chas.
Painter of Genre.
Eng.
Engraver.
1769
1852
Eng.
Amer.
Painter.
Painter.
1803
1814
Lang, Louis (b. in Germany) ,
Eng.
Lawrence, Sir Thoa .
Painter.
1769
1830
Fr.
Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis Xi V .) .
Painter.
1619
1696
Eng,
Leech, John
Humorist Artist.
1816
Gr.
Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) Painter.
1618
1680
Fr.
Le Sieur, Eustace (the French. Raphael) .
Painter.
1617
1655
Amer.
Lesli e, Ch as. R. (resided in England) .
Painter.
1794
1859
Ger.
Lessing, Carl Fred. . ,
Painter.
1808
Amer.
Leutze, Emanuel (Jo. in Germany)
Painter.
1816
Fr.
Leyden, Lucas Dammesz . . Painter and Engraver.
1494
1533
Eng.
Liverseege, Henry . .
Painter.
1803
1832
Gr.
Lysippus (made 600 statues)
m;
Malbone, Edward G. .
Sculptor.
f.B.
0. 324
Amer.
Miniature Painter,
1777
1807
Scot.
Marshal], Wm. 0. .
. Sculptor.
1813
Amer.
, Wm. C. .
Engraver.
Eng.
Martin, John . • • •
Painter.
1789
1854
Ital.
Masaccio ....
Painter.
1402
1427
Flem.
Matsys, Quintin ....
Painter.
1460
1529
Ger.
Mayer ....
. Sculptor.
Ital.
Mazzuolo, Francis
Painter.
1503
1540
Amer.
McEntee, Jervis
Painter.
Fr.
Meissonier, Justus A. . Painter, Sculpl
tor, and Architect.
1695
176ft
Fr.
Ger.
T X
Painter.
Painter.
1815
1729
Mengs, Anthony R. (the Raphael of Germany)
1779
Dutch.
Metzu, Gabriel . , . Fan
liliar Life Painter.
1615
166&
Dutch.
Mieris, Francis . , . Familiar Life Painter.
1635
1681
Fr.
Mignard, Peter
Painter.
1610
1686
Amer.
Mla^not, Louis R. ...
. Painter.
Amer.
Mills, Clark ....
Sculptor.
1815
Swiss.
Mind, Gottfried .
. ■ Painter.
1768
1814
Ital.
Morghen, Raphael . . .
Engraver.
1758
1833
Amer.
Morse, Samuel F. B. .
Painter.
Amer.
Mount, William Sidney
Fainter.
1807
Eng.
Moreland, George , . ,
Painter.
1764
1804
Span.
Miu-illo, Bartholomew a • •
Painter.
1613
1683
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. — ^ABTISTS. 91
N
HATIOW. NAME AND PKOFESSIOW.
BOKN.
DIED
Dutch.
Neefs, Peter .
Architectural Painter.
1570
1651
Eng.
Newton, Gilbert (Stuart) , •
Historical Painter.
1785
1835
Eng.
NoUekins, Joseph • •
• • Sculptor.
1737
1823
Eag.
Northcote, James • • •
, Paiiiter,
1746
1831
Eng.
O
Opie, John • • •
, Painter.
1761
180Y
Dutch
Ostade, Adi-ian van (interiors) .
Familiar Life Painter.
1610
1685
Dutch.
Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) •
, Painter.
1617
1671
Eng.
Owen, William • , ,
, Painter.
1769
1825
Amer.
P
Page, Wm. . - , ,
, , Painter.
1811
Fr.
Pajou, Augustin • • •
, Sculptor.
1730
1809
Ital.
Palladio, Andrew • ,
, • Architect.
1518
1580
Span.
Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. A.
Painter.
1653
1726
Ital.
Pannini, Giov, Taolo , ,
Architectural Painter.
1691
1764
Gr.
Parrliasius, of E-phesus • .
Painter.
1 B.
C. 420
Amu.
Peale, Charles W. , Historical and Portrait Painter.
1741
1827
Amer.
, Rembrandt ,
Painter.
1778
1860
Fr.
Perrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvre) Architect.
1613
1688
Ital.
Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael)
Painter.
1446
1524
Swiss.
Petitot, John (excelled in enamel)
, , Painter.
1607
1691
BeL
Peters, Bonaventura . , .
Marine Painter.
1614
1652
Bel.
« . Painter.
1606
1654
Bel.
, John . . •
Marine Painter.
1635
1677
Gr.
Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) . Sculptor, b
C.498 B.
C.431
Eng.
Phillips, Thomas, R, A. , .
Port. Painter.
1770
1845
Fr.
Picart, Bernard . ,
, Engraver.
1663
1733
Fr.
Pigalle, John Baptist
, Sculptor.
1714
1785
Ital.
Pietro, da Pietre . ,
Hist. Painter of Rome.
1671
1716
Fr.
Piles, Roger de , , ,
Author and Painter.
1635
1709
Ital.
Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio)
, Engraver.
1707
1778
ItaL
Polidors, da Caravaggio . •
, Painter.
1495
1543
Gr.
Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos)
• Sculptor. B,
C.430
Ital.
Pordenone, Regillo da , ,
, Painter.
1484
1540
Dutch
Potter, Paul (unequalled in animai ■pa.mtmg) • Painter.
1625
1654
Fr.
Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landscape
painting) Painter.
1594
1665
Ital.
Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) •
Landscape Painter.
1613
1675
Ital.
Piombo, Sebastian© del , .
Painter.
1485
1547
Amer.
Powers, Hiram • *
, , Sculptor.
1805
Fr.
Pradier, Jacques • • •
^, 'Sculptor.
1798
1852
Amer.
Pratt, Mathew • ,
, • Painter.
1734
1805
Gr.
Praxiteles , ^', ,
^ Sculptor, f
B. 0. 3f 0
Eng.
Prout, Samuel , , ,
"Water-colorist.
1783
1S52
Fr.
Prudhon, of Cluny , ,
, . Painter.
1760
1823
Fr.
Puget . . Sculptor,
Fainter and Architect.
1622
1694
Vnff.
Pu^a, Augustus AW.. i
. Arohiteot.
im
ISftl
98
THE WOELD'S PROGEESS,
KATIOH.
Ital.
Ital.
Ger.
Dutch.
G-er.
Evig.
Eng.
Ger.
Fr.
ycot.
jFr.
Eng.
Flem.
Ital.
Amer.
Pr.
Fr.
Eng.
Fiem.
Scot.
Dutch.
Dutch.
Dutch.
Dutch.
Dutch.
Eng.
KAME AND PROFESSIOIT.
Raphael, d' ITrbino (veul name Sanzio) A prominent Painter.
Raphael da Rhegio (Raffaelino) Hibt. and Port. Painter.
Raucb, Christian David . • , Sculptor.
Rembrandt van Eyu, Paul Geritz •
Retsch, Moritz . • • • Art Designer.
Reynolds, Sir Joshua • • . . Painter.
Richardson, Jonathan , "Writer on Art and Painter.
R'edinger, John Eiiaa • . Animal Painter.
Rober, Fleury , ,
Roberts, David . . .
Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre)
Romney, George , ,
Ruos, Philip Peters • •
Rosa, Salvator • •
Rossiter, Thomas P. . .
Roubilliac, L. P. . .
Rousseau, James
Painter.
Painter.
Sculptor.
Painter.
Painter.
Paint »»'.
Painter.
Sculptor.
Painter.
Rowlandson, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &c.) Paint, and Eng.
Rubens, Peter P.iul
Runciman, Alexander
Ruysdael, Jacob
Ruysdaei, Solomon
Eyckaert, David ,
Ryckaert, Martin
Rysbraeck, leter
Painter.
Painter.
Landscape Painter.
Painter.
Painter.
Landscape Painter.
Landscape Painter.
Eysbrach, John M. (works in Westminster Abbey) Sculptor.
BORN-.
14S3
1552
1781
1606
1779
1723
1635
1695
1797
1796
1746
1734
1655
1614
1695
1630
1756
1577
1736
1636
1616
1615
1591
1657
1694
DIED.
1520
1580
1S59
1669
1859
1792
1745
17G7
1864
1816
1802
1705
1673
1762
1693
1827
1646
1785
1684
1670
1677
1636
1716
1770
Ital. Salvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato)
Ital. Salvi, Nicholas ...
Ital. Sanmicheli, Michael , , .
ItaL Sarto, Andrea del, see Vanucchi
Eng. Savage, James ...
ItaL Seamozzi, "Vincent . .
Prusa. Schadow, J. G. . , ,
Ger. Schadovf, GodenhausF. "V^T. ,
Ger. Schadow, Rudolf
Dutch. Schalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes)
Ger. Scheffer, Ary ....
Ital. Bchidone, Bartolomeo • •
Gr. Scopas . • . .
Eng. Shai-p, William • . •
Amer. Shattuck, Aaron D. . . .
Eng. Shee, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy
Eng. Sherwin, John Keyse ...
Amer. Smillie, Janics . • .
Amer. , George H. • » •
^nier. ■ , James D. , , ,
Painter. 1605 1685
Architect. 1699 1752
Architect. 1484 1559
Architect.
1778
1852
Architect.
1550
1616
Sculptor.
1764
1850
Painter.
1789
Sculptor.
1786
1822
Painter.
1643
1706
Painter.
1795
1858
Painter.
1560
1616
Sculptor. B.
,0.460 B.
0. 353
Engraver.
1740
1824
Painter.
Painter.
1795
1850
Engraver.
1761
1790
Engraver,
Painter.
Painter.
1684
1753
]579
1657
1714
1781
1746
1822
1589
1656
1635
1689
1721
1792?
1854
1749
1802
1713
1788
1756
1828
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. AETISTS. 99
ffATIOlC. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED
Amer. Smj^bert, John (b. in Scotland) . . . Painter.
Flem. Snyders, Fruncis . Landscape and Animal Painter.
Fr. SoLifflot, J. G. (churcli ofSt. Genevieve at Paris) Architect.
Datch. Spaeiidonck, Gerradvan . , Flower Painter.
{?paii. Spagnoletto, Giuseppe Rlbera la , , . Painter,
Dutch. Steen, Jan , • • , Painter.
Amer. Stone, WillinmO. • t • Portrait Painter.
Scot. Strange, Robert • • • . Engraver.
Amer. Slricklaiid, William, • , . Architect.
Eiig. Otrutt, Joseph, .... Author and Painter.
Eng. Stuart, Jnmes, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect.
Amer. Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin West , Port. Painter.
Ger. Sunder, Lucas (see Granach) . , , Engraver.
ItaL Tenerani, Pietro . . •
Flem. Teiiitrs, David, the elder (pupil of Euhens)
Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens'
Scot. Thom, Jiis. (Tarn O'Shanter, &c.)
Eng. Thoruhiil, Sir Jas. .
Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert . . .
Ger. Tieck, Christ Fried .
Gr. Tinianthes (contemporary with Parrhasius)
Ital. Tintoretto (Venetian— pupil of Titian) .
Ital. , II (James Robusti)
Ital. Titian, the greatest of the Venetian school
Fr. Troyon, Coastantine • • •
Amer. Trumbull, John • • •
Eng. Turner, J. W. M. . . • .
U
Eng. Fwins, Thomas, R. A. • . • Painter. 1783 1857
Amer. Van Beest (b. in Holland ?) . . Marine Painter.
Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir Jolin (Blenheim and Castle Howard) Arch't. 1672 1726
Amer. Vanderlyn, John . , . Historical Painter. 1776 1852
Dutch. Vander ISTeer, Arnold • • Landscape Painter. 1619 1683
Dutch. Vandervelde, Adrian . • . Landscape Painter. 1639 1672
Dutch. , the younger .... Painter. 1633 1707
Dutch. , "Wm., marine and battle . . Painter. 1610 1693
Dutch. Vanderwerf, Adrian . . Historical Painter. 1654 1718
Flem . Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait Painter. 1598 164fl
Dutch. Vaneyck, Hubert . . . . Painter. 1366 1425
Dutch. Vaneycl<, John, brothers (John of Bruges) • Painter. 1370 1441
Ital. Van nucchi, or Andrea del Sarto . . . Painter. 1488 15-30
Ital. Van Vitelli. Louis, a Neapolitan . . Architect. 1700 1773
Ital. Vasari, George, biographer of artists Architect and Painter. 1512 1574
8ic. Vasi, Joseph . . Designer and Engraver. 1710 1782
•
Sculptor.
1789
,
. Painter.'
1582
1649
) .
Painter.
1610
1594
Sculptor.
1790
1850
Historical Painter.
1676
1732
.
Sculptor.
1772
1844
,
Sculptor.
1776
1851
,
Painter.
f. B.
c. 240
,
Painter.
1480
1579
,
Painter.
1512
1594
•
Painter.
1480
1579
Painter.
1813
1865
Historical Painter.
1756
1843
. Painter.
1775
1851
100
THE WOKLD'S PEOGEESS.
STATION. NAME AND PEOFESSION. BOEIT.
Span. Velasquez, Jas. R. de Sylvia y . . . Painter. 1599
Flem. Verboeckhoveii, Eugene . . Painter of animals. 1799
Amer. Ver Bryck, C. . . . Lnndscap-e Painter. 1813
Fr. Vemet, Horace . . . Historical Painter. 1789
Fr. Vernet, Joseph ..... Painter. 1714
Ital. Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari)
Ital. Verrochio, Aiidre-w, inventor of the method of taking
features in a plaster mould • . Sculptor. 1422
Eng. . Vertue, George (500 plates) . . . Engraver. 1684
Ital. Vignola, Jas., Caprarola palace and St. Peter's Ai'chitect. 1507
Ital. Vinci, Leonardo da . . . . Painter. 1452
Gr. Vitruvius, contemporary of Augustus . . Architect. f
Ital. Volpato, John ..... Engraver. 1733
Fr.
Vouet, Simon, founder of French school, contempora-
ry of Charles I. . . •
Painter. 1582
Fr. "Wailly, Charles de
Amer. Ward, J. Quincy A.
Eng. Warren, Charles, perfector of engraving on steel
Fr. "Watteau, Antoine •
Amer. "Weir, Robt. W. .
Amer. , James F. . .
Dan. "Wertmuller, (?) (painted in America)
Amer. West, Benjamin . ,
Eng. Westall, llichard .
Eng. , WiiUamR. A.br.
Amer. White, Edwin . .
Amer. Whittredge, Worthington . .
Scot. Wilkie, David
Eng. Wilson, Richard
Eng. WooUett, William
Dutch. "Wouverman, Philip
Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &o.)
Eng. Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, &c.)
Eng. Wyatt, R. J. .
Span. Ximenes, Fran,
Flem. Tples, Charles de
Architect.
1729
Sculptor.
on steel Engraver.
Painter.
1684
, Painter.
1803
Painter.
Port. Painter.
Painter.
1738
Historical Painter.
1781
Designer.
1781
Painter,
Landscape Painter.
Familiar Life Painter.
17S5
Landscape Painter.
1713
, . Engraver.
1735
Painter.
1620
. Architect.
1632
.) . Architect.
1743
Sculptor.
1795
Painter.
1598
Painter.
1510
Ital. Zahlia, Nicholas
Gr. Zenxis, celebrated ancient . .-■
Ger. Zincke
Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo
Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo ,
Ital. Zuooarelli .
Architect. 1674 1650
. . Painter, b. c. 490 B. 0. 400
Enamel Portrait Painter. 1684 1769
. Painter. 1539 1638
Painter. 1529 1669
Painter. mo 1781
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS.
1867-1872.
A.
ABYSSINIA. Magdala stormed ; King Theodore kills liimself ; British
captives Hberated, AprU 13, 1868. The war costs England £8,300,000.
ADMINISTRATIONS, U. S. A. (p. 152).
Ulysses S. Grant,
SCHUYLEK Colfax,
Hamilton Fish,
Illinois,
Indiana,
New York,
March 4, 1869
do. 1869
Ap2}oi7ited.
March, 1869
President.
Vice President.
Secretary of State.
George S. Boutwell,
Massachusetts,
do.
1869
Secretary of Treasury. ■
A. E. Borie,
George M. Robeson,
Pennsylvania,
New Jersey,
do.
June 25
1869
,1869
■ Secretaries of the Navy.
Gen. Schofleld,
Gen. John A. Rawlings,
Gen. W. W. Belknap,
Illinois,
Iowa,
March,
do.
Sept.
1869
1869
1869
> Secretaries of War,
James Harlan,
Gen. J. D. Cox,
Columbus Delano,
Iowa,
Ohio,
Ohio,
March,
June,
1869
1870
1870
V Secretaries of Interior.
John A. J. CresweU,
Maryland,
March,
1869
Post-Master General.
E. R. Hoar,
Amos T. Akerman,
George H. Williams,
Massachusetts,
Georgia,
Oregon,
1S69
1871
1871
> Attorney-General.
James G. Blaine,
Maine.
1869
Speaker of the House of
Representatives.
John Lothrop Motley,
Robert C. Schenck,
E. B. WashbTirne,
George Bancroft,
John Jay,
George P. Marsh,
Massachusetts,
Ohio,
Illinois,
Massachusetts,
New York,
Vermont,
1869
1871
1869
1869
1869
1869
• Ministers to England.
Minister to Prance,
do. Prussia.
do. Austria.
do. Italy.
ADMINISTRATIONS, England (p. 3). Disraeli resigns and Gladstone
becomes Premier, Dec. 2, 1868.
AFRICA (p. 4). Despatch from Dr Livingstone, dated May 13, 1869.
"Ji ADDENDA TO THE WOELD'S PliOGEESS.
AGRICULTURE, U. S. A. Farm products of the United States, exclusive
of live stock, for year ending June 1, 1870, $2,445,000,000.
ALSACE. Nearly all conquered by the Germans, Aug.-Sept,, 1870.
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (p. 11). Sarmiento elected Preriden^- for six
years, Oct. 12, 1808.
ASTRONOMY (p. 13). Nos. 98 to 111 of the smaU planed '3 discovered be-
tween AprH, 1868, and Aug., 1870.
AUSTRIA (p. 14). The empire named the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, bv
decree, Nov. 14, 1868.
BALLOONS (p. 15). Used for postal purposes, and for escapes of individu
als, by the people besieged in Paris, Sept.-Oct., 1870.
BALLOT employed in electiag London School Board, Nov. 29, 1870.
BANKRUPTCY Court (p. 16). A new one in England first opened Jan. 1,
1870.
BATTLES (p. 17). In Franco-Prussian War.
Saarbruck, French vict Aug. 2, 1870
Wissembourg, Pruss. vict.. Aug. 4, 1870
Woerth, " Aug. 6, 1870
Saarbmck, " Aug. 6, 1870
Courcelles, " Aug. 14, 1870
Strasburg, " Aug. 16, 1870
Vionville, " Aug. 16, 1870
Gravelotte, " Aug. 18, 1870
Carignan, " Aug. 31, 1870
Metz, Prussians victorious. Aug. 31, 1870
SEDAN, " Aug. 31 and
Sept. 1, 1870
Thorny, " Oct. 5, 1870
Chateaudun, " Oct. 18, 1870
Near Orleans, French vict. Nov. 9-iO,
1870
Near Orleans, Pruss. vict... Dec. 4, 1870
St. Quentin, " Jan. 19, 1871
BIBLE Translation. First meeting of Convocation for Revision of the
English Bible, at Westminster, June 22, 1870.
BRAZIL (p. 21). Lopez defeated and killed, March 1, 1870.
C.
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT abolished in Saxony, AprH 1, 1868. Abolition
negatived in Enghsh House of Commons, 118 to 58, July 27, 1869.
CHICAGO. The " greatest fire of modern times " destroys 18,000 buildings
(half the city), valued at about $200,000,000. Lives lost estimated
from 100 to 500, Oct. 8-9, 1871.
CHINA (p. 28). Chinese Embassy, headed by Anson Burlingame, received
by President Johnson, at Washington, June 5, 1868 ; by the Emperor,
. at Paris, Jan. 24, 1869. Burlingame's death at St. Petersburgh, Feb.
22, 1870. Cruel massacre of French priests and about fifty persons by
the mob, at Tientsin, June 21, 1870. Execution of the leaders of the
outrage, Oct. 26, 1870.
CHURCH OF IRELAND. Act of Parliament for " dis-establishing " it
passed in Commons, May 31, 1869. Royal assent to it, July 26, 1869.
ADDENDA TO THE WOELD S PROGRESS. 3
CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, U. S. A., was introduced in Congress, by T.
A. Jenckes, of Rhode Island, Jan. 29, 1867; Act passed Marcli 3, 1871,
authorizing- the President to prescribe rules for examinations for civil
service ; commissioners appointed bj the President for this purpose,
June 4, 1871. First meeting of the Commission ; Geo. Wm. Curtis
elected Chairman, June 28, 1871.
CIVIL SERVICE, England. Competitive examination was made general
after Oct. 1, 1870.
COFFEE. Imported into the United States, in 1869, 230,814,376 lbs. ; in
1870, 253,571,664 lbs. ; in 1871, 294,930,948 lbs.
In England, 1869, 173,416,332 lbs.
COINAGE. In England, 1869, £7,469,464.
COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, U. S. A. Gen. Sherman appointed, 1869.
COMMERCE of the United States.
1869 Exports $394,644,335 Imports $414,256,243
1870 Exports Imports 452,875,665
1871 Exports 460,331,614 Imports 572,509,314
COPYRIGHT. Decision of House of Lords, England, in favor of a foreign
author's copyright, May 29, 1868. The Library Committee of Congress
considers Mr. Cox's bill for International Copyright, and receives delega-
tions for and against its object, Feb., 1872.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, N. Y., founded by Ezra ComeU in 1868.
COTTON, U. S. A. Amount produced in 1869-70, 3,154,946 bales; in
1870-71, 4,352,317 bales ; of which was exported, 3,166,742 bales.
COTTON imported into England, 1869, 1,220 miUions of lbs.
COUNCILS (p. 279). The twenty-first CEcumenical or General Council
meets at Rome, Dec. 8, 1869. Present : 6 archbishop-princes, 49 car-
dinals, 11 patriarchs, 680 archbishops and bishops. Infallibility of the
Pope affirmed by 547 against 2, and promulgated July 18, 1870.
CUBA (p. 38). Insurrection began soon after the Spanish revolution, Sept.,
1868 ; essentially checked, June, 1870 ; but still not wholly suppressed,
Jan,, 1872.
DARIEN CANAL. Commander Selfridge having surveyed the Isthmus for
the proposed canal, returns to New York, July 19, 1871.
DIAMONDS discovered in Cape Colony, South Africa, March, 1867.
E.
EARTHQUAKE. Several towns in Peru and Ecuador destroyed, and 25,000
lives lost by earthquake, Aug. 13-15, 1868.
ECLIPSE, Solar, generally observed in North America, Aug. 7, 1869.
4 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD S PROGRESS.
EDUCATION, TJ. S. A. (p. 45). A " Department of Education" created by
Act of Congress, approved Marcli 2, 1867; afterwards made a " Bureau"
of tlie Department of the Interior. First Commissioner, Henry Barnard,
of Connecticut. Succeeded by Major John Eaton, in 1870. The Bureau
publishes an Annual Report, with Statistics, in volumes of about 500
pages.
EDUCATION, England. National Education League (advocating compul-
sory education) first met Oct. 12-13, 1869. Metropolitan School Board
elected Nov. 29, 1870; Miss Garrett, M.D., being chosen a member
by a large majority.
EGYPT (p. 45). The Suez Canal opened Nov. 17, 1869. Adjustment of
conflict with the Sultan, Dec. 18, 1869.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS (p. 46) in England placed in charge of Post
Master General, July, 1 868. French Atlantic Telegraph, from Brest to
Duxbury, Mass., completed and opened July 31, 1869. A telegram from
Hong Kong, China, received at New York, over 15,000 miles of wire,
and published next morning, June 18, 1871. Statue of Morse, inventor,
unveiled in Central Park, New York, June 10, 1871.
ENGLAND. See Great Britain ; Church of Ireland^ etc.
Farraday died Aug. 21, 1867
Brougham died May 7, 1868
Earl Derby died Oct. 23, 1869
Diclvens died June 9, 1871
Earl of Clarendon died. . . . June 27, 1870
Bishop of Exeter died Sept. 18, 1869
Henry Alford, Dean of Canterbury,
died.. Jan. 12, 1871
Charles Babbage, died Oct. 20, 1871
George Grote, historian, d. June 18, 1871
Sir J. W. P. Herschel, d...May 22, 1871
Dean Mansel], d July 31, 1871
Sir Roderick Murchison, Geologist,
died.. Oct. 22, 1871
Disestablishment of Irish Church
voted by Commons April 30, 1868
Disyaeli Ministry resigned, Dec. 2,
1868 ; succeeded by liberal ministry
under Gladstone, Premier.
Purchase of Commissions in the
Army stopped by "royal war-
rant" July 20, 1871
Serious illness of Prince of Wales
begins, Nov. 24, 1871 ; thanksgiv-
ing at St. Paul's for his recovery.
Feb. 27, 1872
EQUATOR or ECUADOR. Carrion succeeded by Espinoza as President,
Sept. 13, 1867.
EXPORTS from Great Britain in 1866, £188,917,536 ; in 1868, £179,677,812 ;
in 1869, £190,045,230.
EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, U. S. A. See Commerce.
F.
FAMINE. Desolating famine in Persia, May-Sept., 1871.
FRANCE. See Battles.
Deaths: Berryer (advocate), Nov. 29,
1868 ; Lamartme, Feb. 28, 1869 : Mar-
shal Neil, Aug. 13, 1869; Sainte-
Benve, Oct. 13, 1869 ; Count de Mont-
alembei-t, author, March 13, 1870 ;
Alexander Dumas, Dec. 10, 1870 ; Dar-
boy, Archbishop of Paris, murdered
May 24, 1871 ; Count Gasparin. May,
1871 ; Paul de Keck, Aug. 29, 1871.
New Ministry ; La Tour d'Auvergne,
Foreign Affairs July 17, 1869
Rouher, President of Senate. . . July 20, 1869
Centennary of birth of Napoleon I. ; am-
nesty, etc Aug. 15, 1869
P6re Hyacinthe protests against papal
infallibility Sept. 20, 1869
The Empress's journey to the East
Oct., 1869
ADDEKDA TO THE WOKLD S PBOGEESS.
FRANCE continued.
Kochef ort elected deputy for Paris
Nov. 22, 1869
Ollivier's Ministry (liberal ?) Jan. 3, 1870
Hausman, Prefect of the Seine, resigns..
Jan. 0, 1870
Victor Noir, journalist, killed by Pierre
Bonaparte Jan. 10, 1870
Rochefort imprisoned for libel. Jan. 22, 1870
Pierre Bonaparte acquitted of murder of
Victor Noir March 27, 1870
Plebiscite to test the people's approval of
changes of the Constitution, May 8, 1870
—yes, 7,527,879; no, 1,530,909.
Declaration of "War against Prussia for
alleged grievance (Prince Hohenzol-
lern's candidature for the throne of
Spa:n) signed July 17, 1870
Empress appointed Regent July 23, 1870
The Empei-or joins the army. . . July 28, 1870
State of siege at Paris after the defeat at
Worth Aug. 7, 1870
Ollivier Ministry resigns (succeeded by
Palikao) Aug. 9, 1870
Gen. Trochu (Orleanist) appointed Gov-
ernor of Paris Aug. 17, 1870
Defeat of MacMahon and SURRENDER
OF THE EMPEROR at Sedan an-
nounced to the Legislature by Palikao
Sept. 4, 1870 .
REVOLUTION '.—Becheance of the Em-
peror ; a Republic proclaimed by
Gambetta and others Sept. 4, 1870
" Government of Defence " proclaimed ;
Trochu, President : Gambetta, Inte-
rior ; Jules Simon, Public Instruction ;
Jules Favre, Foreign ; Cremieux, Jus-
tice ; Jules Picard, Finance ; Gen. Le
Flo, War ; Fourichan, Marine ; Ma-
gnan, Agriculture ; Dorian, Public
Works ; Etienne Ara.go, Mayor of Par-
is : Keratry, Police Sept. 4, 1870
Legislative Assembly meets; Thiers,
President Sept. 4, 1870
The Empress, with Palikao and other
ministers, escapes from Paris. Sept. 4, 1870
The Senate abolished ; Regulars and
National Guards fraternize . . . Sept. 5, 1870
Favre appeals to United States for moral
support Sept. 5, 1870
Rochefort added to the Government . . .
Sept. 5, 1871
The Republic recognized by the United
States and by Spain (by Switzerland,
9Lh) Sept. 8, 187(!
Protest of the Institute against bombard-
ment Sept. 16, 1870
Gambetta' s escape from Paris by balloon
Oct. 7, 1870
Riots in Paris — Red Republicans and
Communists Oct. 31, 1870
The delegate Government removed from
Tours to Bordeaux Dec. 12, 1870
Treaty for capitulation of Paris signed
at Versailles by Bismarck and Jules
Favre Jan. 28, 1871
Provisions for the suffering received
from the United States by Govern-
ment and private vessels Feb., 1871
Bourbaki's " Army of the East " dis-
banded and dispersed Feb. 8, 1871
PRELIMINARIES OF PEACE signed
at Versailles Feb. 26, 1871
Alsace and part of Lorraine ceded to
Germany.
Entry and occupation of Paris by Ger-
man Army . March 1, 1871
The COMMUNE established in Paris;
public buildings seized. The Govern-
ment (Thiers') leaves Paris, March
10th, and the Assembly removed from
Bordeaux to Versailles March 20, 1871
Siege of Paris by the Versailles troops
begun March 17, 1871
Column of Place Vendome destroyed by
Communists May 16, 1871
Versailles army enters Paris. . .May 21, 1871
The TuUeries, Hotel de Ville, and other
public buildings burnt by the Com-
munists May 24, 1871
The Communists finally suppressed, and
Thiers' Government established
May 27, 1871
Thiers elected President for three years,
by the Assembly. Sept. 1, 1871
Execution of Rossel and other Commune
leaders Nov. 28, 1871
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. See Battles,
French nr'iny about 300,000, under Mar-
shals MacMahon, Bazaine, Canrobert,
etc.
Prussian army about 640,000, under
Falkenstein, Prince Frederick Charles,
Stehimetz, and Crown Prince of Prus-
sia ; King William, General-in-chief ;
Von Moltlce, second in command.
French declaration of war, delivered at
Berlin July 19, 1870
Wiirternburg, Bavaria, Baden, and
Hesse Darmstadt declare war against
France, and send troops to the army
of Prussia July 20, 1870
Battle of Woerth ; defeat of MacMahon.,
Aug. 6, 1870
Bombardment of Strasburg begun
'Aug. 14, 187C
Three battles before Metz ; Courcelles,
Aug. 14 ; VionviUe, Aug. 16 : Grave-
lotte, Aug. 18. French, under Bazaine,
defeated in each by the Germans.
Chalons occupied by Germans. Aug. 25, 187C
Capitulation op French Akmy at
Sedan Sept. 2, 187C
Bevolution at Paris; Republic pro-
claimed Sept. 4, 187C
Siege of Paris begun, Sept. 15 : Paris
invested Sept. 19, 187C
Capitulation of Strasburg to Germans. .
Sejit. 2», 1S7C
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS.
Chanzy defeated before Paris.. .Dec 3, 187(1
Seven battles on the Loire in nine daj^s.
Dec. 9, 1875
Phalsburg surrenders to Germans
Dec. 12, ISTO
French army of North, under Faidhei-be,
retreats, Dec. 28, 1870, and is defeated
by Germans under Goeben, with loss
of 15,000 men, at St. Quentin. Jan. 19, 1871
Entry and occupation of Paris by Ger-
man army March 1. 1871
Final treaty of peace ratified .. March 2, 1871
Triumphal entry of German army into
Berlin June 16, 1871
FRAl^CO-PRUSSIAN WAR continued.
Intervention of England for armistice to
elect Assembly ..'. Oct. 21, 1870
Metz surrendered by Bazaine to Ger-
mans Oct. 27, 1870
Armistice of 25 days for elections offered
by Bismarck (refused because he re-
fuses victualling Paris) Nov. 6, 1870
Success of French under Paladin es, near
Orleans Nov. 10, 1870
Germans have captured 11 towns, 3,tJ53
guns, 155 mitrailleuses, 500.000 chasse-
pots, etc Nov. 14, 1870
Sortie of Trochu and Ducrot from Paris
across the Marne Nov. 30, 1870
Eetreat of the French into Paris.Dec. 2, 1870
FRANC-TIREURS (free-shooters) active in Franco-Prussian War, Aug. 14,
after Sedan.
GERMANY. King WUliam of Prussia accepts tlie title of Emperor of Ger-
many, Jan. 18, 1871. J. G. Kohl, traveUer, died June 6, 1871.
H.
HATTI. Insurrection against Salnave, May 10, 1868 ; defeated, June 3 ;
Salnave defeated and shot, Jan., 1870. Geiu Nissage Saget elected
President for four years, March 19, 1870.
HOLLAND. Fortifications of Luxemburg raised, May, 1870.
fiUNGARY and Croatia united, May 27, 1868.
INDIA. Railway from Calcutta to Bombay completed, April, 1870.
INDIANS, U. S. A. Gen. Sheridan defeats hostile Indians, Dec,
1^8.
Major Baker kills 173 Indians, in " chastisement for murders and othei
outrages," Jan., 1870.
INDIANS. Deputation of Chiefs to Washington, June, 1870.
ITALY (p. 65). OEcumenical Council
The troops of Victor Emanuel enter
Home Sept. 20, 1870
Plebiscite in Papal territories ; for union
with the Kingdom of Italy (out of
167,548 votes), 133,681 ; against, 1,507
Oct. 2, 1870
Eome incorporated with Italy by decree ;
opened at Rome, Dec. 8, 1869.
Marmora, Governor, Oct. 9 ; pro-
claimed as the Capital of Italy. Oct. 18, 1870
Amadeus, the king's second son, elected
King of Spain Nov. 16, 1870
Mt. Cenis tunnel completed .... Dec. 25, 1870
Great meeting at New York to com-
memorate Italian Unity Jan. 12, 1871
J.
JAPAN (p. 66). Conflict between the Mikado and Tycoon begins, Dec,
1867 ; ended by the success of the Mikado, and his confirmation as
supreme ruler, July, 1868 ; the Tycoon submits, Dec, 1869 ; the power
of the Damios abolished by the Mikado, Oct., 1871 ; grand embassy tc
the United States and the European powers arrives in San Fraxicisco,
Jan. , 1872 ; presented to the President at Washington, March 4, 1872.
JEWS (p. 66). Jewish Eefoma Convention at Philadelphia ; rituals altered,
etc., Oct. 1869. Grand Synagogue (of " Progressive" Jews), 5th avenue,
New York, opened 1869.
K.
KHEDIVE. A title inferior to "sovereign," but superior to "viceroy,"
given to the ruler of Egypt, 1869.
L.
LEONINE CITY. That part of Rome comprising St. Peter's, the Vatican,
Castle of St. Angelo, etc. — aU this assigned to Pope Pius IX., when the
Italian, troops entered Rome, Sept. 20, 1870.
M.
MAGDALA, capital of Abyssinia, taken by the British and destroyed, April
17, 1868.
METROPOLITAN Museum of Art, New York, chartered by the Legis-
lature, April 13, 1870. A site for it in the public parks and $500,000 for
the building granted by the L'egislature, April, 1871. Initial collection
of paintings opened in temporary gallery, Feb. 20, 1872.
METZ, fortified city in Lorraine, taken by the Germans in the Franco-
Prussian war, Oct. 27 ; city entered by the Germans, Oct. 29, 1870.
MEXICO (p. 74). Juarez re-elected President by the Congress, June 27.
Insurrections follow, Sept. 30, 1871.
MITRAILLEUSE, a machine-gun, in which 37 large-bored rifles are com-
bined with breech action invented in Belgium ; first used by the French
in the Franco-Prussian war, 1870.
MORMONS (p. 429). Brigham Young arrested by United States authori-
ties on a charge of [polygamous] adultery, Oct. 2, 1871.
NATIONAL DEBT, U. S. A. (p. 79).
July 1, 1869, amount of debt $2,489,002,000
Dec. 1,1871, " 2,248,251,000
Decrease $240,741,000
NATIONAL DEBT, British. In 1867, £769,541,000; in 1870, £740,789,548;
decrease, £28,751,452.
NAVY, U. S. A. In 1871, the navy consisted of 192 vessels, with 1,559
guns ; all steamers except 35.
NAVY, British. Cost in 1867, £10,676,101 ; in 1870, £9,757,690. " Th,-
Captain" ironclad, founders in Bay of Biscay, 472 lives lost, Sept. 7
1870.
NEWSPAPEES, England. Postal stamp duty abolished, Sept., 1870, and
newspapers are now sent with stamp of ^d. on cover.
O.
ORLEANS, city of, taken by the Germans under Von der Tann, Oct. 11,
1870 ; re-taken by Paladines and Pallieres, Nov. 9-10, and again by Ger-
mans, Dec. 5, 1870.
PACIFIC RAILWAY from Omaha, Mo., to Sacramento, Cal, 1,700 miles,
opened for traffic. May 12, 1869.
PAPAL INFALLIBILITY affirmed by the GEcumenical Council, July 18,
1870. Dr. Dollinger, of Bavaria, rejecting the ''Infallibility " dogma, is
excommunicated by the Pope, April 29, 1871.
PARAGUAY. Lopez defeated and kiUed, March 1, 1870.
PEABODY fund, in England (p. 88). The total amount given by
George Peabody, American merchant in London, for the benefit of the
London poor, is £500,000; used for model dwellings for the poor in
Spitaltields, Islington, Shadwell, Chelsea, and Bermondsey. Peabody
statue, in London, inaugurated July 23, 1869. His funeral service in
Westminster Abbey, Nov. 12, 1869 ; in Portland, Me., Feb. 8, 1870.
PERU. Col. J. Balta elected President, Aug. 1, 1868.
PLEBISCITES. See France and Italp.
PRUSSIA. See Franco-Prussian War.
R.
Rx^ILWAYS. Formal opening of the Mt. Cenis Tunnel Railway, Sept. 17,
1871. European North American Railway opened, Oct. 18, 1871.
RAILWAYS AND TELEGRAPH WIRES, Miles of, in 1871.
Railways. Telegraph Wires.
In United States 53,399 miles 175,000 miles.
In British Empire 21,128 " 125,530 "
In France and Colonies 15,000 " 72,684 "
In German Empire 10.118 " 62,469 "
In Russian Empire 8,700 " 48,672 "
REVENUE, U. S. A.
Customs. Internal Rev. Lands.
In 1867 $176,417,810 $266,027,537 $1,163,575
In 1868 164,464,599 191,097,589 1,348,715
In 1869 180,048,426 158,356.460 4,020,344
In 1870 194,538,374 184,899,756 3,350,481
In 1871... 200,270,408 143,098,153 2,388,646
REVENUE, British. In 1868, £69,600,218 ; in 1870, £75,434,253.
ROIME. See Italy ; Councils ; Leonine City.
ROUEN surrendered to tlie Germans under VonGoben, and fined 17,000,000
francs, Dec. 6, 1870.
S.
SAARBRUCK taken by the French, Aug". 2 ; retaken by Germans, Aug. 6,
1870.
SAVINGS BANKS, British, held in 1869, £37,554,557.
SEDAN, fortified city in the Valley of the Meuse, surrendered to the Ger-
man army, after four days' desperate conflict, Sept. 2, 1870; 25,000
French prisoners taken ia the battle and 83,000 surrendered next day,
with 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns.
SHIPPING, U. S. A. Tonnage, July 1, 1870, 4,240,507 tons; decrease
since 1865, 443,032 tons; since 1861, 850,204 tons.
SHIPPING, British, in 1869, sailing vessels, 4,765,304 tons ; steamers
(2,972 vessels), 948,367 tons.
SOCIAL SCIENCE Association, American. First session at New York,
Oct. 26, 1869.
SOCIAL SCIENCE (British) National Association met at Birmingham, 1868 ;
Bristol, 1869 ; Newcastle, 1870.
SPAIN (p. 116). Insurrection and Revolution, Sept. 19-30, 1868.
The Queen escapes to Pau, Sept. 29, 30 ;
deposed Sept. 29.
Provisional Government formed by Gen.
Prim (Concha, President of Council),
Sept. 19. Recognized by TJ. S. A.,
Oct. 13 ; by England, France, etc
Oct. 25, 1868
Insurrection in Cuba Jan. 1869
Marshal Serrano elected Regent
June 15, 1869
The crown offered to Espartero and re-
fused May, 187C
Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern, nomin-
ated as king, July 7 ; declines . July 12, 187C
[Nominal cause of Franco-Prussian War.]
Amadeus, Duke of Aosta, second son of
the King of Italy, elected king by the
Cortes Nov. 16, 1870
Prim fired at and wounded, Dec. 28 ;
dies Dec. 30, 1870
King Amadeua enters Madrid. . .Jan. 2, 1871
STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. The "Westfield," at New York; 200
lives lost, July 30, 1871.
STRASBURG invested by Germans, Aug. 10, 1870; defended by Gen.
Uhrich until Sept. 28, when it surrendered with 17,150 men. The valu-
able library was destroyed during the siege, and the noble cathedral
much injured ; 400 houses were destroyed.
10
ADDENDA TO THE WOKLD 3 PEOGEESS.
SUEZ CANAL (p. 118) actually commenced, 1858. Vessels entered the
Canal, Nov., 1868. Grand opening of the Canal, in the presence of the
Emperor of Austria, Empress of the French, Viceroy of Egypt, ano
others, Nov. 17, 1869.
TEA imported into the United States. In 1869, 39,141,755 lbs. ; in 1870,
40,812,188 lbs; in 1871, 46,972,787 lbs.
TURKEY (p. 570). See Suez Canal The Khedive submits to the Sultan,
Dec, 1869. Great fire at Pera; 7,900 houses burnt, June 5, 1870.
U.
UNITED STATES (see p. 122-194 of
Death of ex-President Buchanan
June 1, 1868
Horatio Seymour nominated for Presi-
dent, and Francis P. Blair for Vice
President, by the Democratic Conven-
tion July 7, 1868
Gen. Grant elected President by vote of
25 States against 8, viz., New York,
New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Ore-
gon, Kentucky, Georgia, and Louisi-
ana ; Virginia, Mississippi, Texas, and
Florida, not voting Nov. 3, 1868
Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitu-
tion, abolishing all distinctions of race,
property, or color in suffrage ; passed
Feb. 21, 1869
Gen. Schenck's bill, guaranteeing pay-
ment in gold of all national obliga-
tions, passed by Senate March 15, 1869
Eeverdy Johnson's treaty about the Ala-
bama case rejected by tbe Senate '
April 13, 1869
John Lothrop Motley appointed Minis-
ter at London AprU, 1869
Gilmore's '• Great Peace Jubilee," at
Boston, with 10,000 voices and 1,000
instruments, began June 15, 1869
U. S. Corvette Oneida sunk by British
steamer Bombay, at Yokohama
Jan. 24, 1870
Darien Canal scheme approved by Con-
gress Jan, 1870
Texas (15th March) and Georgia re-ad-
mitted April 20, 1870
Lincoln, a State (out of New Mexico) . . .
June, 1870
I New tariflE passed (takes effect Jan.,
I 1871) July, 1870
I President's Message ; announcement of
Scheme for annexing St. Domingo . . .
Dec. 5, 1870
Great Italian ITnity Meeting in New
York Jan. 12, 1871
Joint High Commission for adjusting
national claims arrives from England
at New York Feb. 23, 1871
Beport of Commissioners to St. Domin-
go received in U. S. Senate . . . April 6, 1871
Tables, and Supplement, p. 125).
Treaty with England signed by the Joint
High Commission May 7, 1871
The 17. S. army reduced to a peace foot-
ing of 35,284 men June 4, 1871
Statue of S. F. B. Morse, the telegraph-
ist, inaugurated in Central Park, New
York June 10, 1871
Census of 1870 makes the vahie of the
United States to be 31 billions of dol-
lars ; census of New York city real
estate, §769,30:^,254 June, 1871
Chastisement of the Coreans (for their
treatment of United States sailors) by
Admiral Kogers Jane 11, 1871
Capt. C. F. Hall sails in the Polaris for
the " Open Polar Sea " June 29, 1871
Great Eiot of the Irish in New York city
("Orange" vs. CathoUc) ; 62 persons
killed and 117 wounaed July 12, 1871
Exposure of ' ' Tammany Ring " begun
in New York Times July 16, 1871
"Committee of Seventy" organized in
New York city to expose and punish
frauds Sept. 5, 1871
International money-order system with
Great Britain goes into operation ....
Oct. 1, 1871
Great forest fires in Minnesota, Wiscon-
sin, and Michigan Oct., 1871
Greatest fiie of modem times, at Chi-
cago, 18,000 buildings destroyed, val-
ued at $200,000,000 Oct. 8-9, 1871
Fund for reUef of Chicago amounts to
^4,600,000 Oct. 16, 1871
Suit for recovery of $6,000,000 from
Tweed and other New York city offi-
cials Oct. 25, 1871
Insurance stock lost by Chicago fire
about $88,000,000.
Grand Duke Alexis received in New York
city Nov. 21, 1871
Andrew H. Green appointed Comptrol-
ler of New York city Nov. 20, 1871
Arrest of Wm. M. Tweed on charges of
fraud Dec. 16, 1871
Deaths in the United States : —
Edward Bates, of Mo March 25, 1869
Dr. James Rush, of Pa May 16, 1669
ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS.
11
UNITED STATES continued.
Deaths in the United States : —
W. Pitt Fessenden, of Me Sept. 5, 1869
Franklin Pierce, ex-President of the
United States Oct. 8, 1869
George Peabody, at London. .Nov. 4, 1869
Admiral Charles Stewart, TJ. S. N.,
set. 91 Nov. 7, 1869
Gen. John E. Wool, U. S. A., get. 86.
Nov. 10, 1869
Eobert J. Walker Nov. 11, 1869
Edwin M. Stanton, ex- Secretary of
War Dec. 24, 1869
Admiral Dahlgren July l'\ 1870
Admiral Farragnt Aug. 14, 1870
Robert E. Lee Oct. 12, 1870
George Ticknor Jan. 25. 1871
AUceCary Feb. 12, 1871
Phebe Gary July SI, 1871
Gen. Eobert Anderson Oct. 26, 1871
V.
VELOCIPEDES. Bicycles and tricycles invented or revived, 1867.
VENEZUELA (p. 578). Revolution ; flight of President Falcon, June 22,
1868. Death of Monagas ; Pulgar made President, Dec, 1868.
VERSAILLES surrendered to the Germans, Sept. 19, 1870. The French
Assembly first met here, March 20, 1871.
W.
WOERTH sur Saner, France. Great battle here, Aug. 6, 1870: French
(47,000) under MacMahon defeated by Prussians (120,000) under the
Crovni Prince. French loss said to be 20,000.
WOMEN. First annual meeting of the National Society for Woman Suf-
frage, at Manchester, England, Oct. 30, 1868. Female suffrage declared
by Court of Common Pleas, England, to be illegal, Nov. 9, 1868. Wo-
men's Club and Institute opened in London, Jan., 1869. Miss Garrett
and Miss Davies elected members of London School Board, Nov. 29,
1870.
WRECKS. Hibemia, British steamer, off Ireland, Oct. 24, 1868 ; City of
Boston, British-American steamer, lost, no trace of her, Jan-Feb. , 1870 ;
"The Captain," British ironclad, lost in the Bay of Biscay, 400 lives
lost, Sept. 7, 1870. Total British wrecks in 1869, 606.
Y.
YACHTS. Race of the American yachts across the Atlantic, Dec. 11-25,
1866. International Yacht Race at New York, Oct. 16-20, 1871.
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